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CCKRIGHT DEPOSm 






Source Book for Bible 
Students 



Containing Valuable Quotations Relat- 
ing to the History, Doctrines, and 
Prophecies of the Scriptures 



1922 



REVISED EDITION 



Review and Herald Publishing Association 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 

South Bend, Ind. Peekskill, N. Y. 



Printed in U. S. A. 



A A ° 



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Copyright, 1922 

Review and Hekald Publishing Association 

Washington, D. C. 






©CU674291 
m 26 192? 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 



In preparing the subject matter for this book, the publishers have 
had in mind the long-felt need of ministers, writers, editors, and other 
Bible students for such a collection of valuable quotations. 

While calling it a Source Book, we are conscious that much of what 
it contains is not technically source matter. However, the nature of its 
contents, the care exercised in verification, the full and accurate refer- 
ences given, and the way in which the matter will be used, all seem to 
justify, at least in a nontechnical sense, the title of the book. 

The contents of this book may be said to belong in four classes: 
(1) Matter bearing directly upon the Scriptures as a divine revelation, 
including their source, authenticity, authority, sufficiency, etc.; (2) 
Scripture prophecy, the evidences of its fulfilment, including many his- 
torical statements showing such fulfilment; (3) Matter bearing on 
various Christian doctrines, whether true or false, especially such as 
have been most discussed; and (4) The history of the church and of 
apostasy, special reference being had to the great papal apostasy and 
to the final conflict between the forces of truth and the adherents of 
error. 

As a general rule, no attempt has been made to construct an argu- 
ment, or even to indicate the conclusions that the editors might have 
felt should be reached from the facts given and the opinions expressed 
by the authorities cited. Each user of the book is thus left free to be 
his own architect and mechanic, to plan and construct as he sees fit 
his own building from the materials he may be able to gather from this 
and other sources. 

An alphabetical rather than a logical arrangement of the topics 
was adopted, not only in the interests of freedom of thought and of 
use, but also as essential to brevity. A strictly logical arrangement for 
the purpose of proving certain doctrines or of sustaining given views 
or interpretations, would have made necessary many notes or connect- 
ing paragraphs, which would have increased the size of the book, mak- 
ing it less convenient for easy carriage and ready reference. 

Editorial notes (signed "Eds.") have been introduced only where 
they seemed absolutely essential to a better understanding of a subject 
necessarily very briefly treated. 

The editors have been compelled by lack of space to discriminate in 
the choice of matter, selecting quotations according to their judgment, 
and adhering also to the rule early adopted, — that all excerpts be care- 
fully verified and have definite references. 

That this book is perfect we do not claim, but that it represents an 
immense amount of painstaking research and careful work will be read- 
ily granted by every one who examines it. It is not simply a reference 
book to be consulted when some particular need arises; it is a book for 
study. There will be found in it much valuable information and many 
stimulating suggestions for the real student of the Scriptures, and 
oftentimes helpful matter upon a variety of topics is hidden under the 
discussion of some other leading subject. Both the general and the 
Scriptural index will be of service in discovering such miscellaneous 
subjects. This Source Book is a condensed library of books bearing 
directly and indirectly upon the work of ministers, Bible workers, stu- 

3 



4 Introductory Note. 

dents, and others interested in this Advent Movement, and extracts 
from a goodly number of books now quite rare or entirely inaccessible 
to the average reader, are here made available. The results of many 
years of study and research, some of which has been done in the largest 
libraries of the world, are here presented within the compass of a 
single volume. The utmost vigilance has been exercised in verifying 
all the quotations, so that those who use them may do so with the same 
sense of certainty as if they had the original books in their own libraries. 
Such quotations as could not be satisfactorily verified have been omitted 
from this revised edition. 

Publishers. 



EXPLANATORY 

a, after the number of a verse, indicates the first part of the verse; 

o, used in the same way, indicates the second part. 

i. e., that is. 

e. g., for example. 

c. or cir. or circa should be read " about." 

sqq. or et seq. should be read " and the following." 

u. s., ut supra, as above. 

Ibid., at the end of a quotation, indicates that it is found in the 
same place as the last preceding quotation. 

Id., at the end of a quotation, indicates that it is found in the same 
book as the last preceding one, and the page or pages will then follow. 

Three periods found in a quotation show that a part of the quota- 
tion has been omitted. 

R. C. found in parentheses thus (R. C), means that the author 
quoted is a Roman Catholic. 

S. J., Society of Jesus, a Jesuit. 

Variations in spelling the same proper names arise from the fact 
that the editors have followed the spelling of the author of the quota- 
tion used. 

Transliterations of Hebrew and Greek have been supplied in brack- 
ets where necessary, and translations have been inserted in brackets 
where they were needed to make the meaning clear to those unac- 
quainted with the language used. 

Notes not signed " Eds." are by the author quoted. 

Matter inserted in brackets has in most cases been supplied by the 
editors, but in some cases the authors quoted have inserted such mat- 
ter, and this has been indicated by an editorial note. Words or sen- 
tences inclosed in parentheses are a part of the quotation. 

The subjects handled are arranged alphabetically, and quotations 
dealing with any particular topic will be found grouped together ac- 
cording to this plan. The cross references which follow many of the 
leading subjects will indicate where other matter bearing more or less 
directly upon the same topic may be found. The General Index is 
designed to supplement the alphabetical arrangement of the subjects, 
and includes many titles not found in the body of the book. 



Source Book for Bible 
Students 



Advent, First, World Preparation for. — The general acquaint- 
ance with the Greek language that then existed throughout the East, 
in consequence of the conquests of Alexander the Great; and the pre- 
vious translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into that language by the 
direction of Ptolemy Philadelphus, were no doubt designed, in the prov- 
idence of God, to prepare the way of the Lord, and to facilitate the 
spread of the gospel. That state of general peace which existed through- 
out the Roman Empire under the prosperous reign of Augustus Caesar, 
was peculiarly fitted for the advent of the Prince of Peace. — " Sketches 
of Church History," Rev. James Wharey, pp. 16, 17. Philadelphia: 
Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, copy- 
right 1840. 

Advent, First, World's Longing for. — The best men in Rome were 
demanding reformation, and were longing for and predicting a new era. 
Cicero prophesied: "There shall no longer be one law at Rome, and 
another at Athens; nor shall it decree one thing today, and another 
tomorrow; but one and the same law, eternal and immutable, shall be 
prescribed for all nations and all times, and the God who shall pre- 
scribe, introduce, and promulgate this law shall be the one common 
Lord and Supreme Ruler of all." — " The Rise of the Mediwval Church" 
Alexander Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., pp. 42, 43. New York: G. P. 
Putnam's Sons, 1909. 

Advent, First, Hopelessness of Times. — The noblest spirits of the 
time felt that the state of things was utterly hopeless. Society could 
not reform itself; philosophy and religion had nothing to offer: they 
had been tried and found wanting. Seneca longed for some hand from 
without to lift up from the mire of despair; Cicero pictured the en- 
thusiasm which would greet the embodiment of true virtue, should it 
ever appear on earth; Tacitus declared human life one great farce, and 
expressed his conviction that the Roman world lay under some terrible 
curse. All around, despair, conscious need, and unconscious longing. 
Can greater contrast be imagined than the proclamation of a coming 
kingdom of God amid such a world; or clearer evidence be afforded of 
the reality of this divine message, than that it came to seek and to save 
that which was thus lost? — " The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah," 
Rev. Alfred Edersheim, M. A. Oxon., D. D., Ph. D., book 2, chap. 11 (Vol. 
I. pp. 259, 260), 8th edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Advent, First, General Expectancy of the Times. — A general ex- 
pectation existed, not only among the Jews, but throughout the East, 

5 



6 ADVENT, FIRST 

founded upon the predictions of the Jewish prophets, that a very ex- 
traordinary personage should arise in Judea, about this time, who 
should establish a kingdom over the whole world. Hence the alarm of 
Herod, when it was said that Christ was "born king of the Jews; " and 
the consequent murder of the children of Bethlehem. — " Sketches of 
Church History," Rev. James Wharey, p. 16. Philadelphia: Presbyterian 
Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, copyright 1840. 

Advent, First, Roman Historians on Expectancy of. — The majority 
[of the Jews] were deeply impressed with a persuasion that it was 
contained in the ancient writings of the priests, that it would come to 
pass at that very time, that the East would renew its strength, and 
they that should go forth from Judea should be rulers of the world. 
— " The Works of Tacitus;' book 5, chap. 13 (Vol. II, p. 276), Oxford 
translation. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

A firm persuasion had long prevailed through all the East, that it 
was fated for the empire of the world, at that time, to devolve on some 
who should go forth from Judea. This prediction referred to a Roman 
emperor, as the event showed; but the Jews, applying it to themselves, 
broke out into rebellion. — " The Lives of the Twelve Cwsars" G. Sueto- 
nius Tranquillus, translated by Alexander Thomson, M. D., chap. 4, 
"Vespasian," p. 445. London: George Bell & Sons, 1887. 

Advent, First, Jewish Historian on Expectancy of. — What did 
the most elevate them [the Jews] in undertaking this war, was an 
ambiguous oracle that was also found in their Sacred "Writings, how, 
" about that time, one from their country should become governor of 
the habitable earth." The Jews took this prediction to belong to them- 
selves in particular, and many of the wise men were thereby deceived 
in their determination. Now this oracle certainly denoted the govern- 
ment of Vespasian, who was appointed emperor in Judea. — Josephus, 
"Wars of the Jews" Whistorfs translation, book 6, chap. 5, par. 4. 
Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Company . 

Advent, First. — Pages 554-556. 

Advent, Second, Christ's Purpose to Return. — To this end will 
Christ come again to receive his people unto himself, that where he 
is, there they may be also. The Bridegroom's departure was not upon 
divorce. He did not leave us with a purpose to return no more. He 
hath left pledges enough to assure us of the contrary. We have his 
word, his many promises, his sacraments, which show forth his death 
till he come; and his Spirit to direct, sanctify, and comfort, till he 
return. We have frequent tokens of love from him, to show us he for- 
gets not his promise, nor us. — " The SainVs Everlasting Rest," Richard 
Baxter, p. 45. Philadelphia: H. Gowperthwait, 1828. 

Advent, Second, Our Lord Eagerly Awaits It. — Our Lord Jesus 
is now sitting at the Father's right hand, looking forward with eager 
expectancy to the day of his return to earth; yet he waits patiently, 
that men may have the fullest opportunity at this present time. 
His eye, and the eye of his follower who is in close, intelligent touch 
with him and his plans, look forward together expectantly to the same 
day and event. And the expectant heart on earth prays, " Come, Lord 
Jesus." — " Quiet Talks About Our Lord's Return," S. D. Gordon, p. IBS- 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 



ADVENT, SECOND 7 

Advent, Second, Crowning Event of Redemption. — The second 
coming of Christ is the crowning event of redemption; and the belief 
of it constitutes the crowning article of an evangelical creed. For we 
hold that the excellence of faith is according to the proportion of the 
Lord's redemptive work which that faith embraces. Some accept merely 
the earthly life of Christ, knowing him only after the flesh; and the 
religion of such is rarely more than a cold, external morality. Others 
receive his vicarious death and resurrection, but seem not to have 
strength as yet to follow him into the heavens; such may be able to 
rejoice in their justification without knowing much of walking in the 
glorified life of Christ. Blessed are they who, believing all that has 
gone before, — life, death, and resurrection, — can joyfully add this con- 
fession also : " We have a great High Priest who is passed through the 
heavens; " and thrice blessed they who can join to this confession still 
another: "From whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus 
Christ." For it is the essential part of our Redeemer's priesthood that, 
having entered in to make intercession for his people, he shall again 
come forth to bless them. — " Ecce Venit" A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 2, 8. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 1889. 

Advent, Second, The Overshadowing Event. — To faith the advent 
remains the great fixed event of the future, the event which overshadows 
all others — in that sense is ever near — the polestar of the church's 
confidence that righteousness shall triumph, the dead shall be raised, 
sin shall be judged, and the kingdom of God shall come. — The Inter- 
national Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. 
D., Vol. Ill, art. " Jesus Christ, Hope of the Advent," p. 1668. 

The exaltation of Christ is to be completed by his coming again at 
the close of the dispensation, to complete his redemptive work and judge 
the world, and so to establish the final kingdom of God. This belief has 
found a place in all the ecumenical symbols. — Id., Vol. I, art. (i Christ, 
the Exaltation of, the Second Advent," p. 616. 

Advent, Second, Prominence of, in the Scriptures. — Moses crosses 
the Red Sea dry shod, and on the deliverance side sings of the second 
coming of the Lord as a man of war. 

David strikes his harp, and in the quivering notes of his psalms 
pours forth his testimony to the wonder and glory of the second coming. 

In the Song of Solomon the bridegroom like the Lord descends. 
The bride like the church goes up to meet him, and leaning on his arm, 
ascends into the pavilion of his love. 

Isaiah sees the Lord coming with chariots of glory. 

Jeremiah announces the Lord is coming to make Jerusalem his 
throne and gather all Israel unto him. 

Ezekiel beholds him coming from the way of the east, and so liter- 
ally dwelling in Jerusalem that henceforth the name of the city will be 
" The Lord is there." 

Daniel has a vision of him coming in the clouds of heaven. 

Zechariah says when the Lord comes a second time, his feet in that 
day shall stand upon the Mount of Olives. 

Malachi compares the second coming to the rising of the sun. 

From the Old Testament we pass to the New. 

In the Gospel according to Matthew the Lord speaks continually of 
his second coming. 

In Mark he bids us watch for it. 

In Luke, like the nobleman, he has gone away into a far country 
to receive the title deeds of his kingdom and return. 



8 ADVENT, SECOND 

In John he goes to heaven to prepare a place for the church, and 
when it is prepared will come again to receive her to himself. 

In the book of Acts the angels tell the sorrowing disciples that this 
same Jesus who is taken up into heaven shall so come again in like 
manner as they have seen him go into heaven. 

Romans gives us the promise of the bruising and overthrow of 
Satan at the second coming. 

In First Corinthians the Lord comes to raise the dead who have 
fallen asleep in him. In the Second he is coming to transfigure the 
living who are his. 

Philippians bids us look for a Saviour from heaven who shall change 
our bodies and make them like his own. 

Colossians assures us our life is hid with Christ in God; and when 
he shall appear, we shall appear in glory with him. 

Both epistles to the Thessalonians are devoted to the second coming. 
Every chapter closes with a testimony to it. 

In First Timothy the Lord comes as King; in Second, as Judge. 

In Hebrews the coming of the Lord is distinctively spoken of as a 
" second " coming. 

James insists " the coming of the Lord draweth nigh." 

In First Peter the Lord comes to justify the faith of his elect. In 
Second, he comes to bring in the new heaven and the new earth. 

In First John the Lord is coming to make manifest the divine son- 
ship of all believers. In Second, he warns that all those who deny the 
Lord is coming again in the flesh are antichrists. 

Jude gives a description of the coming of the Lord with ten thou- 
sands of his saints, and says this is the testimony of Enoch, the seventh 
from Adam. 

The book of the Revelation closes the Bible, and is given up entirely 
to the second coming. The second coming is the one theme of the book. 
It ends with the assurance of the Lord that he will come quickly, and 
records the last prayer of the apostolic church: "Amen. Even so, come, 
Lord Jesus." 

In the New Testament alone there are more than three hundred 
references to the second coming. — From an Address by I. M. Haldeman, 
printed in "God Hath Spoken," pp. 331-334. Philadelphia: Bible Con- 
ference Committee, copyright 1919. 

Advent, Second, Chkistian Attitude Towaed. — The apostles never 
affirmed that Jesus was coming in their day, but they did state, over 
and over again, that they were looking, expecting, watching for his re- 
appearance, as every true Christian from that day to this has been look- 
ing for him, expecting Jesus to come back. This is the true Christian 
attitude toward Jesus Christ. It is: 

1. An attitude of faith; 

2. An attitude of obedience; 

3. An attitude of hope (the blessed hope) ; 

4. An attitude of expectant love; 

5. An attitude of tranquil peace; 

6. An attitude of holiness; 

7. An attitude of joy; 

8. An attitude that is the great incentive to service; 

9. An attitude that transforms the commonplace and turns life 
into a gladsome song. — " The Modern Conflict over the Bible," G. W. 
McPherson, Vol. II, pp. 122, 123. Yonkers, N. Y.: 34 St. Andrew's Place, 
copyright 1919. 

Advent, Second, A Joyful Hope. — Would it not rejoice your hearts 
if you were sure to live to see the coming of the Lord, and to see 



ADVENT, SECOND 9 

his glorious appearing and retinue? If you were not to die, but to be 
caught up thus to meet the Lord, and to be changed immediately into an 
immortal, incorruptible, glorious state, would you be averse to this? 
Would it not be the greatest joy that you could desire? For my own 
part, I must confess to you that death, as death, appeareth to me as an 
enemy, and my nature doth abhor and fear it. But the thoughts of the 
coming of the Lord are most sweet and joyful to me; so that if I were 
but sure that I would live to see it, and that the trumpet should sound, 
and the dead should rise, and the Lord appear before the period of my 
age, it would be the joyfulest tidings to me in the world. O that I 
might see his kingdom come! It is the character of his saints to love 
his appearing (2 Tim. 4: 8), and to look for "that blessed hope, and 
the glorious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ " 
(Titus 2: 13). "The Spirit and the bride say, Come; " "even so, come, 
Lord Jesus" (Rev. 22: 17, 20), come quickly, is the voice of faith, and 
hope, and love. — " Practical Works," Richard Baxter, (23 vols.) Vol. 
XVII, "A Treatise of Death," pp. 555 x 556, edition 1830. 

Advent, Second, An Incentive to Godly Living. — Is holy living 
urged? This is the inspiring motive thereto: "That, denying un- 
godliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and 
godly, in this present world; looking for that blessed hope, and the glo- 
rious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ." Titus 
2:12, 13. Is endurance under persecution and loss of goods enjoined? 
This is the language of the exhortation: "Cast not away therefore your 
confidence, which hath great recompense of reward. . . . For yet a little 
while, and he that shall come will come, and will not tarry." Heb. 10: 
35-37. Is patience under trial encouraged in the Christian? The admo- 
nition is: "Be ye also patient; stablish your hearts: for the coming of 
the Lord draweth nigh." James 5:8. Is sanctification set before us for 
our diligent seeking? The duties leading up to it culminate in this: 
"And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly; and I pray God your 
whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming 
of our Lord Jesus Christ." 1 Thess. 5 : 23. Is diligence in caring for the 
flock of God enjoined upon pastors? This is the reward: " Feed the flock 
of God which is among you, taking the oversight thereof, not by con- 
straint, but willingly. . . . And when the Chief Shepherd shall appear, ye 
shall receive a crown of glory that f adeth not away." 1 Peter 5 : 2-4. Is 
fidelity to the gospel trust charged upon the ministry? This is the end 
thereof: " That thou keep this commandment without spot, unrebukable, 
until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ." 1 Tim. 6: 14. And 
again: " I charge thee in the sight of God, and of Christ Jesus, who shall 
judge the quick and the dead, and by his appearing and his kingdom: 
Preach the word." 2 Tim. 4:1, 2. Space would fail us, indeed, to cite 
passages of this purport; they so abound that we may say that the key 
to which the chief exhortations to service and consecration are pitched 
in the New Testament is: "To the end he may stablish your hearts 
unblamable in holiness before God, even our Father, at the coming of 
our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints." 1 Thess. 3:13. — " Ecce 
Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 8, 9. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company, copyright 1889. 

Advent, Second, The Hope of the Chuech. — The hope of the early 
Christians is not the hope of the average Christian now. It has become 
our habit to think of the change which comes at death, or our entrance 
Into heaven, as the crowning point in the believer's life, and the proper 
object of our hope. Yet the apostles never speak of death as something 
which the Christian should look forward to or prepare for. [p. 114] . . . 



10 ADVENT, SECOND 



The hope of the church, then, is the personal return of her Lord. 
As Dr. David Brown stated it in his book on the second advent, sixty 
years ago, " the Redeemer's second appearing is the very polestar of the 
church." . . . 

It is evident that the early Christians not only looked back to a 
Saviour who had died for them, but forward to a Saviour who was to 
come. There were two poles in their conversion. Their faith was 
anchored in the past in the facts of the death and resurrection of the 
Lord, and also in the future in the assured hope of his return. It is 
manifest, therefore, that the second coming of the Saviour occupied a 
most important place in the gospel which the apostles preached, and 
which these Christians received, [pp. 118, 119] — Rev. John McNicol, 
B. A., B. D., in " The Fundamentals" Vol. VI, pp. 114, 118, 119. Chicago: 
Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, Doctrine Emphasized by Religious Leaders of 
the Past. — The great leaders who have left their impress on the his- 
tory of the church did not discard this doctrine, but made it a real 
hope in their own lives. Martin Luther, in the midst of the throes of 
the Reformation, wrote, " I ardently hope that, amidst these internal 
dissensions on the earth, Jesus Christ will hasten the day of his com- 
ing." The acute and learned Calvin saw that this was the church's true 
hope. " We must hunger after Christ," he said, " till the dawning of 
that great day when our Lord will fully manifest the glory of his king- 
dom. The whole family of the faithful will keep in view that day." 
The intrepid soul of John Knox was nerved by this hope. In a letter 
to his friends in England he wrote: " Has not the Lord Jesus, in despite 
of Satan's malice, carried up our flesh into heaven? And shall he not 
return? We know that he shall return, and that with expedition." 
John Wesley believed this same truth, as is shown by his comment on 
the closing verses of Revelation: "The spirit of adoption in the bride 
in the heart of every true believer says, with earnest desire and expec- 
tation, ' Come and accomplish all the words of this prophecy.' " It 
formed the burden of Milton's sublime supplication: "Come forth out 
of thy royal chambers, Prince of all the kings of the earth; put on 
the visible robes of thy imperial majesty; take up that unlimited scepter 
which thy Almighty Father hath bequeathed thee. For now the voice 
of thy bride calls thee, and all creatures sigh to be renewed." It was 
the ardent longing of the seraphic Rutherford: "0 that Christ would 
remove the covering, draw aside the curtains of time, and come down! 
O that the shadows and the night were gone! " It was the prayer of 
Richard Baxter in the "Saint's Everlasting Rest:" "Hasten, O my 
Saviour, the time of thy return. Send forth thine angels and let that 
dreadful, joyful trumpet sound. Thy desolate Bride saith, Come. The 
whole creation saith, Come. Even so, come, Lord Jesus." And if we 
would follow in the steps of these men, we will return to the simple, 
unmistakable New Testament type of experience, and, with faces up- 
lifted toward the veil, within which the Lord of glory waits, and with 
hearts all aglow with a personal love for him, we will carry on through 
all our life and service the same apostolic prayer. — Id., pp. 126, 127. 

Advent, Second, Doctrine of, Taught in the Creeds. — The Apos- 
tles' Creed (shorter and older form): "He ascended into heaven; and 
sitteth on the right hand of the Father; from thence he shall come to 
judge the quick and the dead." — "A History of the Creeds of Christen- 
dom," Philip Schaff, D. D., p. 21. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1877. 

The Nicene Creed: "From thence he shall come to judge the quick 
and the dead," — 14:, p. 29. 



ADVENT, SECOND 11 

Athanasian Creed: "Who [Christ] . . . sitteth at the right hand 
of the Father, from whence he shall come to judge the living and the 
dead." — " History of the Greeds and Confessions of Faith," William A. 
Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., p. 89. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Advent, Second, Its Character. — More marvelous than the scenes 
at Pentecost, more startling than the fall of Jerusalem, more blessed 
than the indwelling of the Spirit or the departure to be with the 
Lord, will be the literal, visible, bodily return of Christ. No event 
may seem less probable to unaided human reason; no event is more cer- 
tain in the light of the inspired Scripture. " This same Jesus, which is 
taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have 
seen him go into heaven." " Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every 
eye shall see him." Acts 1: 11; Rev. 1: 7. 

This coming of Christ is to be glorious, not only in its attendant cir- 
cumstances, but also in its effects upon the church and the world. Our 
Lord predicted that he would return " in his own glory, and the glory 
of his Father, and of the holy angels." Luke 9: 26. He will then be 
revealed in his divine majesty. Once during his earthly ministry, on the 
mount of transfiguration, there was given to his followers a glimpse of 
the royal splendor he had for a time laid aside, and in which he will 
again appear. — Prof. Charles R. Erdman, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," 
Vol. XI, p. 89. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, Premillennial. — If any one should say, What 
great difference does it make whether the coming of Christ be before 
or after the millennium, I answer, Many vast and most important dif- 
ferences! If his second coming is to be before the millennium, it brings 
the great hope of the church nearer by a thousand years. It places it 
at the close of this very age in which we live, and which has run 
already eighteen hundred years of its course, instead of at the close 
of a future age which has not yet commenced! It brings the awful 
judgment of the living wicked nearer by a thousand years, as well as 
the resurrection of those who sleep in Jesus. 

It defines the proper object of evangelistic and missionary labor; 
not to convert the whole world, as is too often taken for granted, but 
to bear witness to the truth, and to gather out of all nations a people 
for his name. It places before the church the glorious personal appear- 
ing of Christ as the grand and proper object of her hope, her desire, 
and her expectation. — "A Key to Open the Main Lock of Prophecy" 
H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 11, 12. 

Advent, Second, Fundamental, Literal, Visible, Glorious.-^- The 
return of Christ is a fundamental doctrine of the Christian faith. It 
is embodied in hymns of hope; it forms the climax of the creeds; it 
is the sublime motive for evangelistic and missionary activity; and 
daily it is voiced in the inspired prayer: "Even so, come, Lord Jesus." 

It is peculiarly a Scriptural doctrine. It is not, on the one hand, 
a dream of ignorant fanatics, nor, on the other, a creation of speculative 
theologians; but it is a truth divinely revealed, and recorded in the 
Bible with marked clearness, emphasis, and prominence, [p. 87] . . . 

The resurrection of the dead will take place when he returns: "For 
as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive. But each 
in his own order: Christ the first fruits; then they that are Christ's at 
his coming." . . . The time of the return of the Lord will be, further- 
more, the time of the reward of his servants. . . . The real coronation 



12 ADVENT, SECOND 

day of the Christian is not at death, but at " the appearing of Christ: " 
..." when the Chief Shepherd shall be manifested, ye shall receive 
the crown of glory that fadeth not away." 1 Peter 5: 1-4. [pp. 91-93] — 
Prof. Charles R. Erdman, D. D., in " The Fundamentals" Vol. XI, pp. 
87, 91-93. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Advent, Second, A Literal Coming in Gloey. — Jesus himself cer- 
tainly lays claim to an actual reign. He will come as the Son of man 
in the clouds, and will establish the kingdom which shall absolve all 
earthly kingdoms. Mark 13: 26; 14: 62. . . . 

The resurrection of Jesus was not that coming again; for he ap- 
peared personally only to the disciples. . . . 

A complete termination of earthly history is expected. The Son of 
man unrecognized on earth shall appear again unmistakably in a glory 
that shall bring terror to his enemies and perfect redemption to hi? 
faithful. Matt. 24: 27, 30. The offenses shall be removed from his king- 
dom, and the chosen shall be gathered and reunited into an eternal 
community of glory. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. X, art. " Second Advent," pp. 322, 323. 

Advent, Second, The Center of All Hopes. — The second coming of 
Christ is the axis of a true eschatology; that in which all its doctrines 
and all its hopes stand together. Rightly are some insisting on what 
they name a Christo-centric theology; only let them consistently apply 
their principle to the doctrine of last things, making all our ultimate 
hopes and attainments to concenter in the coming Christ. Then shall 
we cease to hear in orthodox dogmatics that " sanctification ends at 
death," when the New Testament everywhere binds its consummation 
to the second advent of Christ; then, also, except in liberal theology, 
may we no longer listen to the affirmation that resurrection is attained 
for each one separately in an instant, in the shutting of an eye, at the 
last breath of the body, when Scripture declares that "we shall all be 
changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump." — 
" Ecce Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., p. 210. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company, copyright 1889. 

Advent, Second, Calvin on Rewards at. — Scripture uniformly com- 
mends us to look forward with eager expectation to the coming of 
Christ, and defers the crown of glory which awaits us till that period. — 
" Institutes of the Christian Religion" John Calvin, translated by John 
Allen, Vol. II, book 3, chap. 25, sec. 6, p. 180. London: Thomas Tegg, 
1844. 

Advent, Second, Reformers on Approach of. — Commencing im- 
mediately from the time of Luther and Zwingle's first heaven-made 
discovery of the Antichrist of prophecy being none other than the 
Roman popes, there was also impressed on them, with all the force 
and vividness of a heavenly communication, the conviction of the fated 
time being near at hand, though not indeed yet come, of Antichrist's 
final foredoomed destruction, and therewith also of Christ's kingdom 
coming, and God's great prophetic mystery ending. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. II, p. 143, 3d edition. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Latimer: "St. Paul saith, 'The Lord will not come till the swerv- 
ing from faith cometh ' (2 Thess. 2: 3), which thing is already done 
and past: Antichrist is already known throughout all the world. 
Wherefore the day is not far off." — " Third Sermon on the Lord's 
Prayer; " cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, p. 
144. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 



ADVENT, SECOND 13 

John Knox: "Has not the Lord Jesus, in despite of Satan's malice, 
carried up our flesh into heaven? And shall he not return? We know 
that he shall return, and that with expedition." — Letter to the Faithful 
in London, 1554;. cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth" Daniel T. 
Taylor, p. 151. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

Luther : " I hope the last day will not be long delayed. The dark- 
ness grows thicker around us, and godly servants of the Most High be- 
come rarer and more rare. Impiety and licentiousness are rampant 
throughout the world. . . . But a voice will soon be heard thundering 
forth: Behold, the bridegroom cometh. God will not be able to bear 
this wicked world much longer, but will come, with the dreadful day, 
and chastise the scorners of his word." — V The Table Talk or Familiar 
Discourse of Martin Luther," translated by William Hazlitt, pp. 7, 8. 
London: David Rogue, 1848. 

" Ah! loving God, defer not thy coming. . . . The Lord be praised, 
who has taught us to sigh and yearn after that day. ... I hope that 
day is not far off. . . . The world cannot stand long, perhaps a hun- 
dred years at the outside." — Id., pp. 324, 325. 

Advent, Second, Cotton Mather on Message of. — The Ruler of 
the world, returning to us, will send forerunners, who shall show his 
approach and the speediness of his coming. And before the very great, 
and very greatly to be dreaded, day of the Lord come, he will send 
Elias, or men endued with his spirit and power, who with a loud voice 
shall show themselves sons of thunder concerning the Lord's hastening 
to us. It behooveth any servant of God, who would be named a vigilant, 
and not a drowsy servant, to perform this office of Elias. . . . 

But it is not to be wondered at, if there be very few who would 
believe such a preacher. . . . For when the Lord shall come, he will 
find the world almost void of true and lively faith (especially of faith 
in his coming) ; and when he shall descend with his heavenly banners 
and angels, what else will he find, almost, but the whole church like a 
dead carcass, as it were, miserably putrefied with the spirit and man- 
ners and endearments of this world? — Dr. Cotton Mather's Fa- 
mous Latin Preface to His " Manuductio ad Ministerium" (Directions 
for a Candidate for the Ministry), Reduced into Ordo Verborum, pp. 5-7 ; 
with a literal translation on the opposite page, by Mr. Hugh Walford. 
London: R. Hindmarsh, 1789. 

Advent, Second, Rapidly Approaching. — The blessedness of 
Christ's coming consists, not only in its relieving the believer living 
on earth, from all the sins and sorrows, the weaknesses and tempta- 
tions, of his present state, but also in the complete gathering together 
and reunion of the whole family of God, in the glories of their risen 
bodies, to dwell together with their Saviour in the heavenly Jerusalem. 
... At the coming of Christ, the bodies of all the saints are raised, and 
the whole church of Christ is gathered together. And this glory is 
rapidly approaching. Believer! lift up your head, and rejoice with a 
hope full of immortality. — E. Bicker steth; cited in " Commentary upon 
the Holy Bible," Henry anl Scott, notes on Dan. 7:15-28. London: The 
Religious Tract Society. 

Advent, Second, Not Preceded by a Temporal Millennium. — In 
Matthew 24 he describes his second personal advent and the great events 
which shall precede it. He reveals the course of this dispensation 
and its close. He foretells wars, famines, pestilences, earthquakes, 



14 Advent, second 

persecutions, false prophets, iniquities, apostasies, the preaching of the 
gospel " as a witness " to all nations, false signs and wonders, desola- 
tions, woes, and lastly, the great tribulation, and he closes with the 
words, "Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun 
be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall 
fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken; 
and then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and then 
shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of 
man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory." 

That these verses describe his personal advent in glory, is certain, 
and equally certain is it that this comprehensive prophecy contains no 
allusion whatever to a previous millennium of blessedness and peace. — 
"A Key to Open the Main Lock of Prophecy" H. Grattan Guinness, 
pp. 7, 8. 

The doctrine of a post-millennial advent is so novel and modern that 
no Christian church has ever woven it into her creed. — " The Reign of 
Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, p. 423. Boston: Scriptural Tract 
Repository, 1882. 

Advent, Second, Natuee Awaits. — 

Sure there is need of social intercourse, 

Benevolence, and peace, and mutual aid, 

Between the nations in a world that seems 

To toll the death-bell of its own decease, 

And by the voice of all its elements 

To preach the gen'ral doom. When were the winds 

Let slip with such a warrant to destroy? 

When did the waves so haughtily o'erleap 

Their ancient barriers, deluging the dry? 

Fires from beneath, and meteors from above, 

Portentous, unexampled, unexplain'd, 

Have kindled beacons in the skies; and th' old 

And crazy earth has had her shaking fits 

More frequent, and foregone her usual rest. 

Is it a time to wrangle, when the props 

And pillars of our planet seem to fail, 

And nature with a dim and sickly eye 

To wait the close of all? 

— " The Poetical Works of William Cowper." 
" The Task " (1785), book 2, lines 49-66. 

Advent, Second, The Response of the Church. — If any say, Where 
is the promise of his coming, when so many ages are past since this 
was written? let them know he is not slack to his people, but long- 
suffering to his enemies. His coming will be sooner than they are 
aware, sooner than they are prepared, sooner than they desire; but 
to his people it will be seasonable. The vision is for an appointed 
time, and will not tarry; he will come quickly. The church joyfully 
receives Christ's promise, declaring her firm belief in it, Amen, so 
it is, so it shall be. And expresses her earnest desire, Even so, come, 
Lord Jesus. — " Commentary upon the Holy Bible," Henry and Scott, 
notes on Rev. 22:20, 21. London: The Religious Tract Society. 

Advent, Second, Alexander Campbell on Nearness of. — Now the 
cry is heard in our land, " Come out of her, my people, that you 
partake not of her sins, and that you may not receive of her plagues." 



ADVENT, SECOND 15 

The Lord Jesus will soon rebuild Jerusalem and raise up the taber- 
nacle of David which have so long been in ruins. Let the church pre- 
pare herself for the return of her Lord, and see that she make herself 
ready for his appearance. — " The Christian System," Alexander Camp- 
bell, p. 302. Pittsburgh: Forrester and Campbell, 1839. 

Advent, Second, Signs of, Are to Be Interpreted Literally. — Fol- 
lowing in the traces of the old prophets who were led by his Spirit, the 
Lord predicts terrible signs in the sun, the moon, and the stars, while 
the powers of heaven are shaken. He speaks of a peculiar roaring of the 
sea and the waves, accompanied with great anxiety and despondency of 
heart in the nations: and who has ever read the prophetic book of the 
New Testament without there also, with shuddering, seeing described 
the judgments of God, which may reveal themselves in the visible 
creation? 

For the mere natural understanding, these things are an offense 
and a folly. He who regards all nature as a vast organic living body, 
developed of and by itself, and governed by no other power than that 
inherent in it, cannot possibly suppose that any phenomena or changes 
present themselves in its domain, which stand connected with the mani- 
festation of the kingdom of God. But reason, where it refuses to 
recognize the possibility of this last, has just as little right on its side 
as where it denies the direct intervention of God in the creation of the 
world, an incarnation of God in Christ, or the possibility of the gospel 
miracles. We shall afterward return to this point. For the present only 
the observation that we thus find not the slightest reason — ay, that 
we deem it arbitrariness itself — to interpret all these utterances in an 
allegorical manner; so that the darkened stars denote fallen princes, 
or the sea the world of Gentile nations, etc. Where in the world is the 
slightest proof that the Lord and his apostles wished to be thus under- 
stood? — " The Person and Work of the Redeemer," J. J. Van Oosterzee, 
D. D., pp. 459, 460. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1886. 

Advent, Second, Signs of Its Near Approach. — Never did the 
church witness such a constellation of signs of the near coming of 
Christ as now. " The branches of the fig tree are full of sap, and the 
summer is at hand." Assuredly I am not ignorant that a portion of 
the church has become gradually weary of the long tarrying, and has 
fallen into doubt. You also shake your head, and are of the opinion 
that we have long talked of " the last time." Well, use this language, 
and increase the number of the existing signs by this new one. Add 
that of the foolish virgins, who, shortly before the midnight hour, 
maintained " the Lord would not come for a long time." — F. W. Krum* 
macher; cited by A. J. Gordon, D. D., in " Ecce Venit," p. 200. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 1889. 

Advent, Second, A Truth for This Age. — Never did a Christian 
age so greatly need to have its attitude readjusted to the primitive 
standard as our own, — commerce, so debased with greed of gold; 
science, preaching its doctrine of " dust thou art; " and Christian dog- 
matics, often darkening hope with its eschatology of death! The face 
of present-day religion is to such degree prone downward that, if some 
Joseph appears, with his visions of the sun, moon, and stars, men ex- 
claim: "Behold, this dreamer cometh." But they that say such things 
plainly declare that they do not " seek a country." 

There is a tradition that Michael Angelo, by his prolonged and un- 
remitting toil upon the frescoed domes which he wrought, acquired 
such a habitual upturn of the countenance that, as he walked the 



16 ADVENT, SECOND 

v 

streets, strangers would observe his bearing, and set him down as some 
visionary or eccentric. It were well if we who profess to be Chris- 
tians of the apostolic school had our conversation so truly in heaven, 
and our faces so steadfastly set thitherward, that sometimes the " man 
with the muck-rake " should be led to wonder at us, and to look up 
with questioning surprise from his delving for earthly gold and glory. 
Massillon declares that, " in the days of primitive Christianity, it 
would have been deemed a kind of apostasy not to sigh for the return 
of the Lord." Then, certainly, it ought not now to be counted an ec- 
centricity to " love his appearing," and to take up with new intensity 
of longing the prayer which he has taught us: "Even so, come, Lord 
Jesus." Amid all the disheartenment induced by the abounding in- 
iquity of our times; amid the loss of faith and the waxing cold of love 
within the church; and amid the outbreaking of lawlessness without, 
causing men's hearts to fail them for fear, and for looking after those 
things that are coming on the earth, — this is our Lord's inspiring 
exhortation: "Look up and lift up your heads, for your redemption 
draweth nigh." — " Ecce Venit," A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 10-12. New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 1889. 

Advent, Second, Moody on Watching for. — We have the same 
authority for the second coming of Christ that we have for his birth, 
his death, and his resurrection. . . . 

When his coming will be, we don't know. The true attitude of 
every child of God is just to be waiting and watching. We can get 
an idea of what the glory of those mansions will be which he is pre- 
paring for us from the length of time he is taking to get them ready. 
Maybe he is massing his forces for the final victory. " The time of 
our redemption draweth nigh." — "Moody at Home," pp'. 176-178. 

Advent, Second, Position of Modernism. — The position of Modern- 
ism, as opposed to the Bible, is, that our Lord will never return to this 
planet in personal or bodily appearance; that the coming of Christ is 
unseen, moral, and continuous; that he is coming as fast as he can get 
into this world, in the unceasing operation of natural phenomena, and 
by the gradual unfolding operation of evolution in the natural, mental, 
and moral world. They also say that he has ever been coming in his- 
tory; that he came and manifested his life and power on the day of 
Pentecost in the presence and work of the Holy Spirit there; that he 
came at the destruction of Jerusalem, in judgment upon that city, as 
he has repeatedly done in the life of nations; and that he always comes 
at death. At death, they affirm, there occurs the culmination of the 
coming of Christ. 

The New Theology claims that both the Master and his apostles ex- 
pected that he would return to this earth in their own day, in personal 
appearance, but in this, they say, they were mistaken. They admit 
that the New Testament undoubtedly teaches a personal return of Jesus, 
but that this must be brushed aside as too literal, and a deeper meaning 
found in the language of Holy Scripture. — "The Modern Conflict over 
the Bible," G. W. McPherson, Vol. II, pp. 118, 119. Yonkers, N. Y.: 
34 St. Andrew's Place, copyright 1919. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Prophetic Study in England 
in Decades Preceding. — The study of prophecy was of a more vague 
and general character during the early years of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. Such books as Faber's " Dissertation on the Prophecies," pub- 
lished in 1806, were mainly taken up with principles apart from any 
supposed application of them to contemporaneous events, or to such as 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 17 

were coming immediately. But about the year 1812 this study of proph- 
ecy took a more definite shape. In that year a book, which was after- 
ward translated by Mr. Irving, was published by a Spanish Jesuit 
named Lacunza, under the assumed title of Juan Josafat Ben Ezra, on 
" The Second Coming of the Messiah in Glory and Majesty." In this 
work he argues that the church had never condemned the true doctrine, 
as he deemed it, of the millennium, but only the errors by which it had 
been perverted. In the next year appeared Cuninghame's " Dissertation 
on the Seals and Trumpets," in which the period of 1260 years men- 
tioned in the Apocalypse was fixed as extending from the edict of Jus- 
tinian, in 533 a. d., to the French Revolution, being the period during 
which the celebrated code of Justinian was in force. For the French 
Revolution became the means of the introduction of the code of Napo- 
leon, by which the previous code was abrogated. Till that epoch the 
code of Justinian remained the basis of ecclesiastical law. In the ensu- 
ing year, Mr. Hatley Frere published his " Combined View of the Chris- 
tian Prophecies." This was a book which acquired a great reputation 
among those who afterward made up the School of Prophecy, which 
was now in infancy. — " The History and Doctrines of Irvingism," 
Edward Miller, M. A., Vol. I, pp. 10, 11. London: G. Eegan Paul & Co., 
1878. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Church of England Clergy- 
man on the Year 1844. — There appears to be no presumption in the 
attempt to direct the anxious mind to the chronological periods which 
God has given, and to inquire how far they support these anticipa- 
tions. 

I have done so, as have likewise almost all that have gone before 
me in these studies; and the results of my inquiries, as they run through- 
out the whole of this work, and as they appear in the chronological 
chart in my former work, must, by this time, be familiar to the reader. 
It will be perceived they all point to a very early period, the year 1844; 
and although it is fashionable to object to the fixing of dates, yet so 
long as it is said, " Things that are revealed belong to us and to our 
children forever," I see not on what sufficient ground. — "An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," Matthew 
Haoershon, pp. 285, 286. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Origin of, in America. — 
What is known as the "Advent Movement" originated with William 
Miller, who was born at Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 15, 1782, and died in Low 
Hampton, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849. He bore a good reputation as a farmer 
and citizen, serving under a captain's commission in the War of 1812, 
and was a diligent student and a great reader, although he had but a 
common school education. For some years he was an avowed deist, 
but, as he said, " found no spiritual rest," until in 1816 he was con- 
verted and united with the Baptists. . . . 

At that time very little was heard from pulpit or press respecting 
the second coming of Christ, the general impression being that it must 
be preceded by the conversion of the world and the millennium, a long 
period of universal holiness and peace. As Mr. Miller studied the pro- 
phetic portions of the Bible, however, he became convinced that the 
doctrine of the world's conversion was unscriptural. . . . His conclu- 
sion was that the coming of Christ in person, power, and glory must be 
premillennial. . . . 

Moreover, as a result of his study of prophetic chronology, he be- 
lieved not only that the advent was at hand, but that its date might 
be fixed with some definiteness. Taking the more or less generally ac- 
2 



18 ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 

cepted view that the " days " of prophecy symbolize years, he was led 
to the conclusion that the 2300 days referred to in Daniel 8: 13, 14, the 
beginning of which he dated from the commandment to restore Jeru- 
salem, given in 457 b. c. (Dan. 9: 25), and the 1335 days of the same 
prophet (12: 12), which he took to constitute the latter part of the 
2300 days, would end coincidently in or about the year 1843. The cleans- 
ing of the sanctuary, which was to take place at the close of the 2300 
days (Dan. 8: 14), he understood to mean the cleansing of the earth 
at the second coming of Christ, which, as a result of his computations, he 
confidently expected would occur some time between March 21, 1843, 
and March 21, 1844, the period corresponding to the Jewish year. — 
"Special Reports: Religious Bodies, 1906" part 2, p. 11; Bureau of the 
Census. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Reached Many Lands. — One 
or two on every quarter of the globe have proclaimed the news, and 
agree in the time — Wolff, of Asia; Irwin, late of England; Mason, 
of Scotland; Davis, of South Carolina; and quite a number in this re- 
gion are, or have been, giving the cry. And will not you all, my breth- 
ren, examine and see if these things are so, and trim your lamps, and be 
found ready? — "Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second 
Coming of Christ About the Year 1843," William Miller, Lecture 16, p. 
238. Boston: Joshua V. Himes, 1842. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Publications Sent World- 
wide. — As early as 1842, second advent publications had been sent to 
every missionary station in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, both 
sides of the Rocky Mountains. . . . The commanders of our vessels and 
the sailors tell us that they touch at no port where they find this proc- 
lamation has not preceded them, and frequent inquiries respecting it 
are made of them. — " Exposition of Matthew 24," E. R. Pinney, pp. 8, 
9; cited in " The Great Second Advent Movement" J. N. Loughborough, 
p. 105. Washington, D. C: Review and Herald Publishing Associa* 
tion, 1905. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844, in Oeient. — In 1831 Joseph 
Wolff, D. D., was sent as a missionary from Great Britain to labor 
among the Jews of Palestine. He, according to his journals, down 
to the year 1845, proclaimed the Lord's speedy advent in Palestine, 
Egypt, on the shores of the Red Sea, Mesopotamia, the Crimea, Per- 
sia, Georgia, throughout the Ottoman Empire, in Greece, Arabia, Tur- 
key, Bokhara, Afghanistan, Cashmere, Hindostan, Tibet, in Holland, 
Scotland, Ireland, at Constantinople, Jerusalem, St. Helena, also od 
shipboard in the Mediterranean, and in New York City to all de- 
nominations. He declares that he has preached among Jews, Turks, 
Mohammedans, Parsees, Hindoos, Chaldeans, Yesedes, Syrians, Sabeans, 
to pashas, sheiks, shahs, the kings of Organtsh and Bokhara, the queen 
of Greece, etc. — " Voice of the Church" p. 343 ; cited in " The Great 
Second Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough, p. 101. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 18 44; A World-wide Proclamation. 
— An English writer, Mourant Brock, thus remarks: "It is not 
merely in Great Britain that the expectation of the near return of 
the Redeemer is entertained, and the voice of warning raised, but also 
in America, India, and on the Continent of Europe. I was lately told by 
one of our German missionaries that in Wirtemberg there is a Christian 
colony of several hundreds, one of the chief features of which is the 
looking for the second advent. And a Christian minister from near the 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 19 

shores of the Caspian Sea has told me that there is the same daily 
expectation among his nation. They constantly speak of it as ' the day 
of consolation.' In a little publication, entitled ' The Millennium,' the 
writer says that he understands in America about 300 ministers of the 
Word are thus preaching 'this gospel of the kingdom; ' while in this 
country, he adds, about 700 of the Church of England are raising the 
same cry." — " Advent Tracts,'" Vol. II, p. 135; cited in " Bible Tracts," 
Vol. II, " The Three Angels," J. N. Andrews, pp. 23, 24. Rochester, N. Y.: 
Advent Review Office, 1855. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Numbers of All Denomina- 
tions in America. — We have no means of ascertaining the number of 
ministers, and others, who have embraced the advent faith. We only 
know that there are several hundred congregations, and a still larger 
number of ministers, who have publicly professed the faith, besides 
many who still remain in the churches of the land. Those who have 
espoused this cause have honestly believed in the coming of the Lord 
" about a. d. 1843." And, as honest men, they have kept to their work of 
sounding the alarm. All peculiarities of creed or policy have been lost 
sight of, in the absorbing inquiry concerning the coming of the heavenly 
Bridegroom. Those who have engaged in this enterprise are from all 
the various sects in the land. Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episco- 
pal, Methodist Protestant, Primitive Methodist, Wesleyan Methodist, 
Close Communion Baptist and Open Communion Baptist, Calvinistic 
and Arminian Baptists, Presbyterians, Old and New School Congrega- 
tionalists, Old and New School Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, etc. — The 
Advent Shield and Review, May, 1844 (Vol. I, p. 90). Boston: Joshua V. 
Himes. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Children Proclaimed Mes- 
sage. — In this connection we will notice how the Lord wrought to 
introduce the proclamation in those countries where the law forbade 
the preaching of anything contrary to the " established church." Swe- 
den was one of those countries. There the Lord used little children to 
introduce the work. The first of this manifestation was in the summer 
of 1843, in Eksjo, southern Sweden. A little girl, only five years of 
age, who had never learned to read or sing, one day, in a most solemn 
manner, sang correctly a long Lutheran hymn, and then with great 
power proclaimed the hour of his judgment is come," and exhorted 
the family to get ready to meet the Lord; for he was soon coming. The 
unconverted in the family called upon God for mercy, and found par- 
don. This movement spread from town to town, other children proclaim- 
ing the message. The same movement among children was manifest to 
some extent in Norway and Germany. 

In 1896, while holding meetings in seventeen different parts of 
Sweden, I passed through several places where the children had 
preached in 1843, and had opportunity to converse with those who had 
heard the preaching, and with men who had preached when they were 
children. I said to one of them, "You preached the advent message 
when you were a boy?" He replied, "Preached! Yes, I had to preach. 
I had no devising in the matter. A power came upon me, and I uttered 
what I was compelled by that power to utter." — " The Great Second 
Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough, p. 140. Washington, D. C: 
Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1905. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Experience in Sweden. — In 
the year 1843, a religious movement occurred among the people in 
Karlskoga Parish, in orebro Lsen. The leaders in this movement were 



20 ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 

children and young men, who were called " rapare." These preached 
with divine power, and proclaimed before the people, with great de- 
cision, that the hour of God's judgment had come. 

In the fall of the same year, I, O. Boqvist, then fifteen years 
of age, with another young man, Erik Walbom, eighteen years of a e, 
became so influenced by this unseen power that we could in no wise 
resist it. As soon as we were seized by this heavenly power, we com- 
menced to speak to the people, and to proclaim with loud voice that the 
judgment hour had come, referring them to Joel 2: 28-32 and Revela- 
tion 14: 6, 7. 

The people congregated in large numbers to listen to us, and our 
meetings continued both day and night, and a great religious awakening 
was the result. Young and old were touched by the Spirit of God, and 
cried to the Lord for mercy, confessing their sins before God and man. 

But when the priest in the church was apprised of all this, many 
efforts were put forth to silence us. . . . We were arrested, and on the 
following day were placed in custody in Orebro prison. Here we were 
associated with thieves in cell 14, as though we had committed some 
great crime. . . . 

Through the sympathy and pleadings of the warden, we were re- 
leased and permitted to return to our homes. The cruel treatment we 
had received threw us into a long siege of fever. After a few weeks 
we were able to resume our preaching, which brought on a fresh out- 
burst of persecution against us. But this time a prominent parishioner 
presented our case to King Oscar I, and secured freedom for us. — 0. 
Boqvist, in the Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, Battle Creek, Mich., 
Oct. 7, 1890 (Vol. 67, No. 39, p. 



Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; The Cry as the Seventh 
Month Came. — Reader, have you heard this astounding " cry," this last 
" midnight cry," which has so suddenly awakened the virgins, who were 
slumbering and sleeping during the tarrying of the vision? Have you 
heard it while it has been borne on the wings of the wind to every ad- 
vent band in the land, and aroused them simultaneously from their 
slumbers, electrifying them with its startling appeal? If you have 
not, then it is high time to awake out of sleep, and listen to its solemn 
notes. The cry has gone forth, that the Lord, " whose goings forth are 
from everlasting," is to come in judgment this present month! — The 
Midnight Cry (New York), Friday, Oct. 11, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 15, p. 
113), 

Note. — When the spring of 1844 did not bring the coming of the Lord, the 
disappointment was keen. Believers found comfort, however, in the idea of the 
" tarrying time " in the parable of the ten virgins waiting for the bridegroom. 
Some taught that the true ending of the prophetic period marking the cleansing 
of the sanctuary must be on the " tenth day of the seventh month," as in the 
typical cleansing of the sanctuary. This day fell upon October 22 that year. 
About July this idea seized upon hearts with a compelling force, revived the be- 
lievers, and what was called " the midnight cry " began. — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; " The Midnight Cry." — 
At first the definite time was generally opposed; but there seemed to 
be an irresistible power attending its proclamation, which prostrated 
all before it. It swept over the land with the velocity of a tornado, 
and it reached hearts in different and distant places almost simulta- 
neously, and in a manner which can be accounted for only on the sup- 
position that God was in it. It produced everywhere the most deep 
searching of heart and humiliation of soul before the God of high 
heaven. It caused a weaning of affections from the things of this world 
— a healing of controversies and animosities, a confession of wrongs, 
a breaking down before God, and penitent, broken-hearted supplica- 



ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 21 

tions to him for pardon and acceptance. It caused self-abasement and 
prostration of soul, such as we never before witnessed. — The Midnight 
Cry (New York), Thursday, Oct. 31, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 18, p. 140). 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Putting Away Sin. — We feel 
sensible of our many imperfections. "While we have contended for 
what we believe to be truth, we can see that pride of opinion and 
self have arisen. When new truths have been presented, we have been 
slow to receive them; we have been asleep during the tarrying of the 
vision, and we have not labored with that ardor we should have done, 
had we so fully realized the nearness of the judgment. We have been 
slow of heart to believe all that Moses and the prophets have spoken, 
and all our labors and toils appear to us as nothing; and that at best 
we have been but unprofitable servants. We can therefore only offer 
the prayer of the publican, — God be merciful to us sinners. 

We feel that we are now making our last appeal, that we are ad- 
dressing you through these columns for the last time, in this crisis we 
must stand alone. If any are hanging upon our skirts, we shake them 
off. Your blood be upon your own heads. We ask forgiveness of God 
and all men, for everything which may have been inconsistent with his 
honor and glory; and we desire to lay ourselves upon his altar. Here 
we lay our friends and worldly interests, and trust alone in the merits 
of Christ's atoning blood, through the efficacious and sanctifying in- 
fluence of God's Holy Spirit, for pardon and forgiveness and accept- 
ance at the Father's mercy-seat. May the blessing of God rest upon all 
of us; and that we may all meet in God's everlasting kingdom, is the 
prayer of your unworthy servant, J. V. Himes. 

The above was written in Boston, with the expectation that this 
would be the last paper. I heartily join in the prayer and confession 
expressed by Brother H. — N. Southard, editor of the Midnight Cry, 
Saturday, Oct. 12, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 16, p. 128). 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; When the Time Passed. — 
My own conviction still is, the Lord is at the door. For the event of 
his coming I, through grace, shall quietly and patiently wait. But I 
must add, that I have now no confidence in any definite point of time 
in the future. I shall, through grace, endeavor to " watch and keep my 
garments," believing that the Lord will now " come as a thief." — George 
Storrs, in the Midnight Cry, Oct. 31, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 18, p. 138). 

We have been mistaken in a belief to which we thought ourselves 
conducted by the word and Spirit and providence of God. But the word 
stands sure, however we may err: and the promise is true: "If any 
man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of 
God." The Lord will lead his obedient children. We have an unwaver- 
ing trust that he will cause our disappointment and trial to work to- 
gether for our good. We shall humbly watch the providences of God, 
and we know he will vindicate his truth and faithfulness. Let him be 
honored, though we may be humbled. — Id., Editorial, p. 140. 

As many of our brethren and sisters have disposed of their sub- 
stance, and given alms, agreeable to Luke 12: 33, in the confident ex- 
pectation of the speedy coming of the Lord, I wish to have immediate 
provision made for the comfort and wants of all such persons; and 
families, by the advent brethren. — J. V. Himes, in the Midnight Cry 
Oct. 31, 1844. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; On Wm. Miller's Prophetic 
Date. — Professor Bush, in writing to Mr. Miller, said: "In taking 



22 ADVENT MOVEMENT, 1844 

a day as the prophetical time for a year, I believe you are sustained by 
the soundest exegesis, as well as fortified by the high names of Mede, Sir 
Isaac Newton, Bishop Newton, Faber, Scott, Keith, and a host of others, 
who have long since come to substantially your conclusions on this 
head. They all agree that the leading periods mentioned by Daniel and 
John do actually expire about this age of the world; and it would be 
strange logic that would convict you of heresy for holding in effect the 
same views which stand forth so prominently in the notices of these 
eminent divines." " Your results in this field of inquiry do not strike 
me as so far out of the way as to affect any of the great interests of 
truth or duty." — "A Brief History of William Miller," p. WO, 4th edition. 
Boston: Advent Christian Publication Society, ltfl5. 

Note. — William Miller's correspondent was Prof. George Bush, the Presby- 
terian commentator, then professor of Hebrew at the University of New York. 
— Eds. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; Prophetic Date Correct, 
Some See Mistake as to Event. — Since the tenth day of the seventh 
month has passed, and we are disappointed in not seeing our Lord, it 
seems necessary to define our position again. This we most cheerfully 
do. But first please indulge us a few moments, in expressing our great 
disappointment in not seeing our Lord at the time expected. We did 
believe that he would come at that time; and now, though we sorrow on 
account of our disappointment, yet we rejoice that we have acted ac- 
cording to our faith. We have had, and still have, a conscience void of 
offense in this matter, toward God and man. God has blessed us abun- 
dantly, and we have not a doubt but that all will soon be made to work 
together for the good of his dear people, and his glory. 

We cheerfully admit that we have been mistaken in the nature of 
the event we expected would occur on the tenth day of the seventh 
month; but we cannot yet admit that our great High Priest did not on 
that very day, accomplish all that the type would justify us to expect. 
We now believe he did. — The Voice of Truth, Nov. 7, 1844, Joseph Marsh, 
editor; cited in the Advent Review, Auburn, N. Y., August, 1850. 

Note. — Some thus began to see that, while the position that the 2300 years 
ended in 1844 was absolutely sound, they had misapprehended the event that was 
then to take place. Others began to get hold of the fact that the sanctuary to 
be cleansed was not this earth, as they had supposed, but the antitypical sanc- 
tuary, or temple, in heaven above. In his " Great Second Advent Movement," 
page 193, J. N. Loughborough says : 

V Hiram Bdson, of Port Gibson, N. Y., told me that the day after the pass- 
ing of the time in 1844, as he was praying behind the shocks of corn in a field, 
the Spirit of God came upon him in such a powerful manner that he was almost 
smitten to the earth, and with it came an impression, ' The sanctuary to be 
cleansed is in heaven.' He communicated this thought to O. R. L. Crosier, and 
they together carefully investigated the subject. In the early part of 1846 an 
elaborate exposition of the sanctuary question from a Bible standpoint, written 
by Mr. Crosier, was printed in the Day Star, a paper then published in Canan- 
daigua, N. Y. In that lengthy essay it was made to appear that the work of 
cleansing the sanctuary was the concluding work of Christ as our high priest, 
beginning in 1844 and closing just before he actually comes again in the clouds 
of heaven as King of kings and Lord of lords." — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Movement of 1844; O. R. L. Crosier on the 
Sanctuary in Heaven. — The sanctuary to be cleansed at the end of 
2300 days is also the sanctuary of the new covenant, for the vision of 
the treading down and cleansing, is after the crucifixion. We see that 
the sanctuary of the new covenant is not on earth, but in heaven. . . . 

But as we have been so long and industriously taught to look to the 
earth for the sanctuary, it may be proper to inquire, by what Scriptural 
authority have we been thus taught? I can find none. If others can, 
let them produce it. Let it be remembered that the definition of sane- 



ADVENT MESSAGE 23 

tuary is " a holy or sacred place." Is the earth, is Palestine, such a 
place? Their entire contents answer, No! Was Daniel so taught? 
Look at his vision. " And the place of his sanctuary was cast down." 
Dan. 8: 11. This casting down was in the days and by the means of 
the Roman power; therefore, the sanctuary of this text was not the 
earth, nor Palestine. — From an article on " The Sanctuary," by 0. R. L. 
Crosier, in the Day Star Extra, 1846; reprinted in the Advent Review, 
Auburn, N. Y., September, 1850 (Vol I, No. 3). 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Rise of Seventh-day 
Adventists. — After the passing of this period [18 44], many believ- 
ers in the doctrine gave up the hope of Christ's early advent, and others 
set new times. Some, however, reviewing the facts of history and proph- 
ecy, were confirmed in the belief that no mistake had been made in the 
fixing of the date of the fulfilment of the 2300 days, and were convinced 
also that the advent movement, rising spontaneously in many lands, 
was of God. As they further investigated the subject, it seemed to some 
that, while there had been no mistake in regard to the time, there had 
been error in interpreting the character of the event; that the sanctuary 
to be cleansed was not this earth, but the sanctuary in heaven, where 
Christ ministered as high priest; and that this work of cleansing, ac- 
cording to the Levitical type, was the final work of atonement, the begin- 
ning of the preliminary judgment in heaven which is to precede the 
coming of Christ, as described in the judgment scene of Daniel 7: 9, 
10, which shows an " investigative judgment " in progress in heaven, 
while events are still taking place on earth. 

Further study of the subject of the " sanctuary " convinced them 
that the standard of this investigative judgment was to be the law of 
God as expressed in the ten commandments which formed the code 
that was placed in the ark of the covenant in the earthly sanctuary, a 
type of the heavenly sanctuary. The fourth precept of this law com- 
manded the observance of the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath, 
and they found nothing in Scripture commanding or authorizing the 
change of the Sabbath from the seventh to the first day. 

The passage in Revelation 14: 6-14, particularly that portion begin- 
ning with the phrase " the hour of his judgment is come," they inter- 
preted as a representation of the final work of the gospel; and un- 
derstood that, with the coming of this "judgment" (in 1844, as they 
believed), a movement was imperative to carry to every nation and 
tongue a warning against following tradition, and a call to men to follow 
the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus. They further believed 
that when this final message had been carried to all the world, Christ 
would come to reap the harvest of the earth. 

As the result of these convictions, a few persons in New England, 
formerly First-day Adventists, began in 1845 and 1846 to observe the 
seventh day of the week, and to preach the doctrines which now con- 
stitute the distinctive tenets of the Seventh-day Adventists. ... In 1849 
they began the publication of a paper at Middletown, Conn. Later they 
established their headquarters at Rochester, N. Y., but in 1855 trans- 
ferred them to Battle Creek, Mich., and in 1903 to Washington, D. C. At 
a conference held in Battle Creek in October, 1860, the name " Seventh- 
day Adventist Denomination " was for the first time formally adopted 
as the official designation of the denomination, and three years later a 
general conference was organized at that place, under that name. — 
" Special Reports: Religious Bodies, 1906," part 2, pp. 21, 22; Bureau 
of the Census. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. 

The Sabbath was first introduced to the attention of the Adventist 
people at Washington, N. H. A faithful Seventh. Day Baptist sister, Mrs. 



24 ADVENT MESSAGE 

Rachel D. Preston, from the State of New York, having removed to this 
place, brought with her the Sabbath of the Lord. Here she became in- 
terested in the doctrine of the glorious advent of the Saviour at hand. 
Being instructed in this subject by the Adventist people, she in turn in- 
structed them in the commandments of God, and as early as 1844 nearly 
the entire church in that place, consisting of about forty persons, be- 
came observers of the Sabbath of the Lord. The oldest body of Sab- 
bath keepers among Seventh- day Adventists is therefore at Washing- 
ton, N. H. . . . 

From this place several Adventist ministers received the Sabbath 
truth during the year 1844. One of these was Elder T. M. Preble, who 
has the honor of first bringing this great truth before the Adventists 
through the medium of the press. — " History of the Sabbath" J. N. 
Andrews, pp. 505, 506, 3d edition. Battle Creek, Mich.: Review & 
Herald, 1887. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Sabbath Agitation 
in 1844. — Many persons have their minds deeply exercised respect- 
ing a supposed obligation to observe the seventh day. — Editorial in 

the Midnight Cry, New York, Sept. 5, 1844. 

We last week found ourselves brought to this conclusion: There is 
no particular portion of time which Christians are required by law to 
set apart as holy time. If this conclusion is incorrect, then we think 
the seventh day is the only day for the observance of which there is 
any law. — Id., Sept. 12, 1844 (Vol. VII, No. 10, p. 76). 

Note. — In his " Great Second Advent Movement," J. N. Loughborough says 
of the agitation of the Sabbath question in the times following 1844 : 

" The attention of the Adventists as a body was called to the Sabbath ques- 
tion by an essay on the subject from T. M. Preble, dated Feb. 13, 1845, and pub- 
lished in the Hope of Israel, Portland, Maine, Feb. 28, 1845. After showing the 
claims of the Bible Sabbath, and the fact that it was changed to Sunday by the 
great apostasy, he remarks : ' Thus we see Daniel 7 : 25 fulfilled, the little horn 
changing " times and laws." Therefore it appears to me that all who keep the 
first day for the Sabbath are the pope's Sunday-keepers and God's Sabbath- 
breakers.' 

" Soon after this there appeared in print an article from J. B. Cook, in 
which he showed that there is no Scriptural evidence for keeping Sunday as the 
Sabbath, and he used this terse expression : ' Thus easily is all the wind taken 
from the sails of those who sail, perhaps unwittingly, under the pope's Sab- 
batic flag.' 

" Although Sabbath keeping by these two men was of short duration, they 
had set a ball rolling that could not easily be stopped. The catch phrases, ' pope's 
Sunday keepers,' ' God's commandment breakers,' and ' sailing under the pope's 
Sabbatic flag,' were on the lips of hundreds who were eager to know the truth 
of this matter. Elder Joseph Bates, of Fairhaven, Mass., had his attention thus 
arrested, and he accepted the Sabbath in 1845. 

" His experience was on this wise : Hearing of the company in Washington, 
N. H., that were keeping the Sabbath, he concluded to visit that church, and see 
what it meant. He accordingly did so, and on studying the subject with them 
he saw they were correct, and at once accepted the light on the Sabbath ques- 
tion. On returning to New Bedford, Mass., he met, on the bridge between New 
Bedford and Fair Haven, a prominent brother, who accosted him thus, ' Captain 
Bates, what is the news ? ' Elder Bates replied, ' The news is that the seventh 
day is the Sabbath of the Lord our God.' 'well,' said the man. ' I will go home 
and read my Bible, and see about that.' So he did, and when next they met, 
this brother had accepted the Sabbath truth and was obeying it." — Pages 250, 251. 

In the Review and Herald, Vol. XXIII, March 29, 1864, the following state- 
ment by T. M. Preble is quoted : " I have once been an observer of the seventh- 
day Sabbath. This was from about the middle of the year 1844 to the middle of 
1847." — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; J. B. Cook's Sab- 
bath Essay. — Every enactment relative to the religious observance of 
the first day originated with the Pope, or Potentates of Rome, and 
those who in this matter sympathize with them; but every enactment 



ADVENT MESSAGE 25 

that ever originated in heaven, relative to the keeping of the Sabbath, 
confines us to the seventh day. The seventh day is " the Sabbath of the 
Lord our God." ... 

Paul met his disciples on the first part of the first day, — answering 
to our Saturday night, — preaching all night " till break of day," and 
then " departed," or set off on his journey. If he had met them on our 
Sunday night, it would have been the Jewish second day. Then he did 
not keep the first day as a Sabbath. Those who dream that he did, 
only give evidence that they are so far " drunk with the wine " of 
papal Rome. My feelings were inexpressible when I saw this. The 
truth I must confess. 

This is the true testimony. Thus easily is all the wind taken from 
the sails of those who sail, perhaps unwittingly, under the Pope's Sab- 
batic flag. — Article on " The Sabbath," by J. B. Cook, in " Advent Testi- 
mony " (1845); reprinted in the Advent Review, Auburn, N. Y., August, 
1850. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Sir Isaac Newton 
on Last Refoem Movement. — The many and clear prophecies concern- 
ing the things to be done at Christ's second coming, are not only for 
predicting but also for effecting a recovery and re-establishment of the 
long-lost truth, and setting up a kingdom wherein dwells righteousness. 
— " Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of 
St. John," Sir Isaac Newton, part 2, chap. 1, p. 252. London: J. Darby 
and T. Browne, 1733. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; John Wesley on. 
— These three denote great messengers of God with their assistants; 
three men who bring messages from God to men. . . . Happy are they 
who make the right use of these divine messages. — " Explanatory Notes 
on the New Testament" John Wesley, on Rev. 14:6-9. Philadelphia: 
John Dickens, 1791. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Former Russian Gov- 
ernment on Seventh-day Adventists. — The Seventh-day Adventists 
in Russia show a splendid, live, and active work. The movement con- 
tinues to take in new districts in the European and Asiatic Russias. 
They reveal a determined zeal in their missionary efforts to win souls. 
The whole organization is primarily a missionary one. . . . Every 
church member must help forward the third angel's message. . . . 

The Seventh-day Adventists' doctrine is very rational. Adventists 
do not believe in traditions, nor the sacraments of the church, nor the 
church hierarchy. . . . According to the doctrine of the Seventh-day 
Adventists, the Old and New Testaments are the only fountain of 
knowledge. It is the doctrine for the rule of life. — Official Publication 
by the Russian Government, 1911, on the Teaching and Work of Seventh- 
day Adventists ; translation by J. T. Boettcher, missionary in Russia; 
quoted in the Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, Nov. 13, 1911, p. 1, 
and the General Conference Bulletin, 1913, p. 87. 

Note. — This book, issued by the Russian government and containing 101 
pages, was based on most thorough inquiry and observation by special agents of 
the government, who attended conferences while in session and studied methods. 
As a result, new regulations were formed, aimed to prevent local and union con- 
ference organization, all as part of the plan of discouraging religious propaganda, 
save that of the state church. In consequence a new campaign of banishment 
and imprisonment of evangelistic workers began, which ended only when the 
state church itself was overthrown in the political revolution of 1916. — Eds. 

Advent, Second, Message of Revelation 14; Seventh-day Advent- 
rsT Teaching, and the Work of Mrs. E. G. White. — Of course, these 



26 ADVENT, BELIEF IN 

teachings [of the founders of the denomination] were based on the 
strictest doctrine of inspiration of the Scriptures. Seventh-day Ad- 
ventism could be got in no other way. And the gift of prophecy was to 
be expected, as promised to the " remnant church," who had held fast 
to the truth. This faith gave great purity of life and incessant zeal. 
No body of Christians excels them in moral character and religious 
earnestness. Their work began in 1853, in Battle Creek, and it has 
grown until now they have thirty-seven publishing houses throughout 
the world, with literature in eighty different languages, and an annual 
output of $2,000,000. They have now seventy colleges and academies, 
and about forty sanitariums; and in all this Ellen G. White has been 
the inspiration and guide. Here is a noble record, and she deserves 
great honor. 

Did she really receive divine visions, and was she really chosen 
by the Holy Spirit to be endued with the charism of prophecy? or was 
she the victim of an excited imagination? Why should we answer? 
One's doctrine of the Bible may affect the conclusion. At any rate, she 
was absolutely honest in her belief in her revelations. Her life was 
worthy of them. She showed no spiritual pride and she sought no 
filthy lucre. She lived the life and did the work of a worthy prophetess, 
the most admirable of the American succession. — The Independent, 
New York, Aug. 23, 1915, in notice of the death of Mrs. White. 

Advent, Second, Statement or Belief in, by Bible Conference, 
1918. — 1. We believe that the Bible is the inerrant, one and final word 
of God; and, therefore, is our only authority. 

2. We believe in the Deity of our Lord Jesus Christ; that he is 
very God; and in his substitutionary death, as an atonement for sin; 
in his bodily resurrection and ascension, and the certainty of his second 
appearance " without sin unto salvation." 

3. We believe that our Lord's prophetic word is at this moment 
finding remarkable fulfilment; and that it does indicate the nearness of 
the close of this age, and of the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

4. We believe that the completed church will be translated to be for- 
ever with the Lord. . . . 

6. We believe that all human schemes of reconstruction must be 
subsidiary to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, because all nations 
will be subject to his rule. . . . 

8. We believe that the truths embodied in this statement are of the 
utmost importance in determining Christian character and action in 
reference to the pressing problems of the hour. — From the "Statement 
of Belief" adopted by the Bible Conference on the Return of Our Lord, 
held in Philadelphia, May 28-30, 1918 ; cited in " Light on Prophecy,'" 
authorized report of the Philadelphia Conference, pp. 12, 13. 

Advent, Second.— Pages 128-136, 175-179, 529, 564-566. 

Adventists, First-day. — Pages 23, 24. 

Adventists, Seventh-day.— Pages 23-25, 513, 521, 600. 

Ahasuerus. — Pages 40, 330. 

Alani — Page 473. 



ANTICHRIST, MEANING OF 27 

Alaric— Pages 70, 471, 478, 537, 538. 

Alboin — Pages 486, 488. 

Alcasar, Jesuit, Author of Preterist Method of Interpretation. 
— Page 31. 

Alcohol.— Pages 216-234. 

Alemanni. — Pages 472, 474, 594. 

Alexander the Great.— Pages 5, 48, 49, 86, 203-207, 208, 212, 427, 
434, 435, 466. 

Alexander, of Russia. — Page 154. 

Anabaptists. — Page 447. 

Anglo-Saxons. — Pages 474, 475. 

Antichrist, Meaning of. — The term is a composite one, being made 
up of two words, " anti " and " Christ." The name is one of new 
formation, being compounded, it would seem, for this very enemy, and 
by its etymology expressing more exactly and perfectly his character 
than any older word could. The precise question now before us is this, 
What is the precise sense of " anti " in this connection? . . . 

To determine this, let us look at the force given to this prefix 
by writers in both classic literature and Holy Scripture. First, the 
old classic writers. By these the preposition , avrl [anti] is often em- 
ployed to designate a substitute. That is, in fact, a very common use 
of it in the classic writers. For instance, dvTi-j3a<n\eiJs [anti-basileus], 
he who is the locum tenens of a king, or as we now should say, viceroy, 
&vtL [anti] having in this case the force of the English term " vice." 
He who filled the place of consul was avdinraros [anthupatos], proconsul. 
He who took the place of an absent guest at a feast was styled dvrlSecirvos 
[antideipnos]. The preposition is used in this sense of the great Sub- 
stitute himself. Christ is said to have given himself as an AvTiXvrpov 
[antilutron] , a ransom in the stead of all. 

Classic usage does not require us to give only one sense to this 
word, and restrict it to one who seeks openly, and by force, to seat 
himself in the place of another, and by violent usurpation bring that 
other's authority to an end. We are at liberty to apply it to one who 
steals into the office of another under the mask of friendship; and 
while professing to uphold his interests, labors to destroy them [pp. 
12, 13] . . . 

It is clear that Antichrist, as depicted by our Lord and by his 
apostle John, is to wear a mask, and to profess one thing and act 
another. He is to enter the church as Judas entered the garden — pro- 
fessedly to kiss his Master, but in reality to betray him. He is to come 
with words of peace in his mouth, but war in his heart. He is to be a 
counterfeit Christ — Christ's likeness stamped on base metal. He is to 
be an imitation of Christ, — a close, clever, and astute imitation, which 
will deceive the world for ages, those only excepted who, taught by the 
Holy Spirit, shall be able to see through the disguise and detect the 
enemy under the mask of the friend. — " The Papacy Is the Antichrist," 
Rev. J. A. Wylie, pp. 12, 13, 17, 18. Edinburgh: George M'Gibbon. 

" The vicegerent of Jesus Christ," which, by a singular concurrence, 
meant the same as the obnoxious term ' AvtLxphttos lantichristos] "Anti- 



28 ANTICHRIST, VICAR OF CHRIST 

christ," originally signifying a " pro-Christ," or " deputy Christ," . . . 
or " a false Christ," who assumed his authority and acted in his 
stead. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 505. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

The meaning of St. John's description of the Antichrist is ably set 
forth by Bishop Westcott in the Speaker's Commentary on St. John's 
Epistles. He there says, in words that contain the key of the question: 
" It seems most consonant to the context to hold that 'Antichrist' here 
describes one who, assuming the guise of Christ, opposes Christ." That 
this is the true meaning of St. John's description of the Antichrist has 
been pointed out by Elliott, Liicke, Professor Rothe, and other able com- 
mentators, and, indeed, should be obvious to any one who studies the 
context of the passages. Wrong teaching about the person and work of 
Christ has ever been Satan's great weapon against him. A comparison 
of all the passages where the word "Antichrist" occurs (1 John 2: 18. 
22; 4: 3; and 2 John 7) shows that the anti-Christian spirit, which in 
St. John's day animated the false but professedly Christian teachers of 
whom he speaks, took the form of corrupting the truth of the gospel 
with regard to the person and office of Christ. . . . 

It is clear therefore that the term " deny " in these passages is not 
used in the infidel sense of denying the existence of God and Christ, 
but is applied to those who, while professing Christianity, corrupt the 
doctrine " as the truth is in Jesus," and so prove false to Christ. Such 
teachers of apostasy are said by St. John to " deny " the Lord, and, 
by implication, to deny the Father also. . . . 

In the above quoted passage, therefore (chap. 4: 3), St. John, as 
Bishop Westcott shows, speaks of these false Christian teachers and 
corrupters of the truth of Christ as constituting the personification of 
" the spirit of the Antichrist " which was working in mystery in his 
day. Just so the successive heads of the papal apostasy constitute the 
personification of the spirit of the Antichrist in its open development 
and manifestation in that gigantic system of corruption of the truth of 
Christ which is represented by the Pope of Rome. — "Daniel and the 
Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., pp. 223-225. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1898. 

Antichrist, Vicar of Christ. — The apostle John, . . . speaking of 
the apostasy, the coming of which he predicts, styles it the " Anti- 
christ." And we have also said that the Papacy, speaking through its 
representative and head, calls itself the " Vicar of Christ." The first. 
" antichrist," is a Greek word; the second, " vicar," is an English word; 
but the two are in reality one, for both words have the same meaning. 
Antichrist translated into English is vice-Christ, or vicar of Christ; and 
vicar of Christ, rendered into Greek, is Antichrist — Antichristos. If 
we can establish this — and the ordinary use of the word by those to 
whom the Greek was a vernacular, is decisive on the point — we shall 
have no difficulty in showing that this is the meaning of the word 
" Antichrist," even a vice-Christ. And if so, then every time the Pope 
claims to be the vicar of Christ, he pleads at the bar of the world that 
he is the Antichrist. — " The Papacy Is the Antichrist, ," Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
p. 2. Edinburgh: George M 'Gibbon. 

Antichrist, Early Teaching Concerning. — In the " Treatise of 
Antichrist" we advance to an admirable and direct identification of 
the anti-Christian system and the Papacy, which, though written after 



ANTICHRIST, THE PAPACY 29 

the period we are passing under review, — perhaps in the last quarter 
of the fourteenth century, — may yet be fairly presumed to exhibit the 
opinions of the Vaudois of the thirteenth century on the subject, they 
having embraced, as we know, at the least as early as that period, the 
view of the Papacy and Roman Church being the very Babylon and 
harlot of the Apocalypse. Extracts from this too are subjoined below. 
And from them the following will appear to have been the Waldensian 
views: That the papal or Romish system was that of Antichrist, which 
from infancy in apostolic times had grown gradually, by the increase 
of its constituent parts, to the stature of a full-grown man: that its 
prominent characteristics were, to defraud God of the worship due to 
him, rendering it to creatures, whether departed saints, relics, images, 
or Antichrist, i. e., the anti-Christian body itself; to defraud Christ, 
by attributing justification and forgiveness to Antichrist's authority 
and words, to saints' intercessions, to the merit of men's own per- 
formances, and to the fire of purgatory; to defraud the Holy Spirit by 
attributing regeneration and sanctification to the opus operatum (I 
borrow the Tridentine term used afterward) of the two sacraments: 
that the origin of this anti-Christian religion was the covetousness of 
the priesthood, its tendency to lead men away from Christ, its essence 
a vain ceremonial, its foundation the false notions of grace and for- 
giveness. — " I-Iorw Apocalypticce," E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. II, pp. 354, 
355, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — The " Treatise of Antichrist " is a book in which the views of the 
Waldenses, or the Vaudois, concerning Antichrist are presented. — Ens. 

Antichrist, The Papacy. — ' The word " antichrist " signifies one who 
puts himself in the place of Christ, and in opposition to him; and be- 
cause the authority of Christ is resisted in this world in many different 
ways, it is said in the Word of God that "there are many antichrists;" 
and the Christian church has been taught by Holy Scripture that, before 
the course of this world is brought to a close, some apostate power 
would arise, which, from its proud and impious deeds, would bear that 
awful name, "The Antichrist." 

It is not fitting for private persons to speak confidently of what 
will be: and I confine myself to what has been, and to what is. 

In one of my letters it is shown that the Pope of Rome, at his first 
inauguration, sits " in the temple of God," and upon the altar of God ; 
and is there worshiped as God. 

It is also shown that at his coronation he requires himself to 
be styled " Ruler of the World." Thus, on those solemn occasions, 
he sets himself in the place of Christ; and this is one attribute of 
Antichrist. . . . 

Again: it is very observable that almost all the ancient Latin poets, 
speaking, as it were, with one voice, and ranging over a period of five 
hundred years, have described Rome as the seven-hilled city, and thus 
seem to have identified it with the city on the seven mountains, the 
queen of the earth in the age of the Apocalypse, in which city, if Chris- 
tian prophecy be true, the anti-Christian power will appear. 

Judging therefore from the past and from the present, I do not 
shrink from affirming that the Roman Papacy has rendered it impos- 
sible to doubt that in divers ways it has placed and does place itself 
in the room of Christ, and in opposition to him; and must therefore, as 
far as these acts of usurpation are concerned, in Scripture language, be 
called anti-Christian. — " Sequel to Letters to M. Gondon, On the Destruc- 
tive Character of the Church of Rome,'" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 
251-254. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 



30 ANTICHRIST, BISHOP OF ROME 

Antichrist, Bishop of Rome. — Since the Bishop of Rome has erected 
a monarchy in Christendom, claiming for himself dominion over all 
churches and pastors, exalting himself to be called God, wishing to be 
adored, boasting to have all power in heaven and upon earth, to dispose 
of all ecclesiastical matters, to decide upon articles of faith, to author- 
ize and interpret at his pleasure the Scriptures, to make a traffic of 
souls, to disregard vows and oaths, to appoint new divine services; and 
in respect to the civil government, to trample underfoot the lawful au- 
thority of magistrates, by taking away, giving, and exchanging king- 
doms, we believe and maintain that it is the very Antichrist and the 
son of perdition, predicted in the Word of God under the emblem of a 
harlot clothed in scarlet, seated upon the seven hills of the great city, 
which has dominion over the kings of the earth; and we expect that the 
Lord will consume it with the spirit of his mouth, and finally destroy it 
with the brightness of his coming, as he has promised and already 
begun to do. — Article 31 of the Confession of Faith adopted in 1603 in 
the Synod held at Gap, under Henry IV, of France. 

Antichrist, The Popes Constitute a Composite Picture of. — An 
experiment was recently tried in America of taking a photograph of a 
number of faces in succession, belonging to the same class of persons, 
say, of musicians, for example. The faces were taken in the same posi- 
tion, one likeness being superimposed, as it were, upon the other; and 
thus a composite photograph or general portrait was produced, com- 
pounded out of the principal features of them all. Just so, if we look 
down the long list of popes, and read of their personal lives, their pub- 
lic actions, their official words, their persistent persecutions, their arro- 
gant pretensions, their sanction of false miracles, their instigation of 
wholesale massacres, their approval of the horrors of the Inquisition, 
together with that topstone of blasphemous pride, the claim to infal- 
libility, we plainly recognize in the general portraiture thus obtained 
the very features of the representative person foretold by the prophets. 
His mouth has spoken "very great things; " he has been the invader of 
God's prerogatives; he has appeared in the character of the lawless one, 
claiming to be above all law; he has been the persecutor of those who 
are faithful to "the testimony of Jesus; " and his manifestation has 
been accompanied by " lying wonders." Thus, by fulfilling these proph- 
ecies, and by putting himself, and the Virgin, and the saints, and the 
priesthood in the place of Christ, and so acting against Christ, he has 
shown himself to be, what the name implies, The Antichrist. — " Daniel 
and the Revelation,"" Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 265. London: Hod* 
der and Stoughton, 1898. 

Antichrist, Historical Interpretation of. — Historical interpreters 
hold that the great fourfold prophecy of the " little horn " of the fourth 
beast in Daniel 7, the " man of sin " spoken of by St. Paul in 2 Thessa- 
lonians 2, the " Antichrist " referred to by St. John in his epistles, and 
the "beast" of the Revelation under its seventh head revived, relates 
to a power terrible for mischief to the church of Christ, which was to 
begin to be manifested on the scene of the world at the remarkable 
crisis of the break-up of the old Roman Empire under the invasions of 
the Goths, and which was to continue in existence until annihilated by 
the coming of Christ, — in other words, that the true fulfilment of the 
Antichrist is to be found in the papal power, as represented by its 
dynastic head, the Pope for the time being — a power which began to 
rise into prominence at the very crisis predicted for the appearance of 
the Antichrist, and has exhibited all its foretold characteristics, — /#.. 
pp. 1%, 13, 



ANTICHRIST, JESUITS ON 31 

Antichrist, The Little Horn. — After studying the picture of Anti- 
christ in St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians, one easily recognizes 
the " man of sin " in Daniel 7: 8, 11, 20, 21, where the prophet describes 
the " little horn." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. I, art. " Antichrist," 
p. 560. 

Antichrist, Rome's Effort to Avoid the Application of. — So great 
a hold did the conviction that the Papacy was the Antichrist gain upon 
the minds of men, that Rome at last saw she must bestir herself, and 
try, by putting forth other systems of interpretation, to counteract the 
identification of the Papacy with the Antichrist. 

Accordingly, toward the close of the century of the Reformation, 
two of the most learned doctors set themselves to the task, each endeav- 
oring by different means to accomplish the same end, namely, that of 
diverting men's minds from perceiving the fulfilment of the prophecies 
of the Antichrist in the papal system. The Jesuit Alcasar devoted him- 
self to bring into prominence the preterist method of interpretation, 
. . . and thus endeavored to show that the prophecies of Antichrist were 
fulfilled before the popes ever ruled at Rome, and therefore could not 
apply to the Papacy. On the other hand, the Jesuit Ribera tried to set 
aside the application of these prophecies to the papal power by bringing 
out the futurist system, which asserts that these prophecies refer prop- 
erly, not to the career of the Papacy, but to that of some future super- 
natural individual, who is yet to appear, and to continue in power for 
three and a half years. Thus, as Alford says, the Jesuit Ribera, about 
a. d. 1580, may be regarded as the founder of the futurist system in 
modern times. 

It is a matter for deep regret that those who hold and advocate the 
futurist system at the present day, Protestants as they are for the most 
part, are thus really playing into the hands of Rome, and helping to 
screen the Papacy from detection as the Antichrist. It has been well 
said that " futurism tends to obliterate the brand put by the Holy Spirit 
upon popery." More especially is this to be deplored at a time when 
the papal Antichrist seems to be making an expiring effort to regain 
his former hold on men's minds. — " Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. 
Joseph Tanner, B. A., pp. 16, 17. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Antichrist, Failure of Some to Recognize. — The great Joseph Mede 
long ago remarked that " the Jews expected Christ to come when he 
did come, and yet knew him not when he was come, because they fancied 
the manner and quality of his coming like some temporal monarch with 
armed power to subdue the earth before him. So the Christians, God's 
second Israel, looked [expected that] the coming of Antichrist should be 
at that time when he came indeed, and yet they knew him not when he 
was come; because they had fancied his coming as of some barbarous 
tyrant who should with armed power not only persecute and destroy 
the church of Christ, but almost the world; that is, they looked for such 
an Antichrist as the Jews looked for a Christ." (Mede's Works, p. 647.) 
— "Daniel and His Prophecies," Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., Intro- 
duction, p. xvi. London: Williams and Isf or gate, 1906. 

Antichrist, Teaching of the Waldenses Concerning. — Two hun- 
dred and fifty years before Wycliffe stood forth as the champion of 
Protestant truth; three hundred years before Huss and Jerome con- 
fronted the Council of Constance; four hundred years before Luther 
published his ninety-five theses in Wittenberg, the Waldenses wrote 
their " Treatise on Antichrist," a copy of which is contained in Leger's 
folio volume, dated a. d. 1120. That treatise, whose doctrine is the same 



32 ANTICHRIST, VIEWS OF 

as their catechism dated a. d. 1100, and was the doctrine they faithfully 
maintained century after century, thus begins, "Antichrist es falseta 
de damnation wterna, cuberta de specie de la Verita, . . . appella Anti- 
christ, Babylonia, quarta Bestia, Meretrix, home de pecca, filli 
de perdition [Antichrist is falsehood, eternally condemned, covered with 
an appearance of truth, . . . called Antichrist, O Babylon, fourth 
beast, O harlot, O man of sin, son of perdition]." — "History Un- 
veiling Prophecy," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 90, 91. New York: 
Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 1905. 

Antichrist, Lord Cobham on. — The year following that of the mar- 
tyrdom of Huss and Jerome [1416], witnessed the burning of Lord 
Cobham, at Smithfield. When brought before King Henry V and ad- 
monished to submit himself to the Pope as an obedient child, this was 
his answer: "As touching the Pope, and his spirituality, I owe them 
neither suit nor service, forasmuch as I know him by the Scriptures to 
be the great Antichrist, the son of perdition, the adversary of God, 
and an abomination standing in the holy place." — Id., pp. 102, 103. 

Antichrist, Views Concerning, in the Sixteenth Century. — At the 
time the Fathers of Trent assembled, there was a bitter and obstinate 
war declared against the authority, the institutions, the sacraments, the 
dogmas, the moral teaching, the discipline of the church, in the name 
of Scripture. The innovators found in our sacred books [the Scrip- 
tures] that the Pope was Antichrist, and the Church of Rome the harlot 
of Babylon, and her traditions " old wives' fables," and the priesthood 
the common property of all Christians, and faith alone sufficient for 
salvation, etc. — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," 
Rev. A. Nampon, S. J. (R. C.J, pp. 103, 104. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cun- 
ningham, 1869. 

Antichrist, Luther's Interpretation of. — The truth was that Lu- 
ther formed acquaintance with the character of Christ some years 
before he formed it with that of Antichrist. The cry of the Pope being 
Antichrist, raised long previously by the followers of Waldo, Wycliffe, 
and Huss, had almost died away in Christendom; and, if heard of by 
Luther at Erfurt or at Wittenberg, had been heard of only as a blas- 
phemous heresy. With a conscience very tender, and tremblingly afraid 
of offending God, the supposed sacredness and authority of the Pope, 
as head of the church and Christ's vicar (for such in accordance with 
the long-received superstition he as yet regarded him), induced in his 
mind a predisposition to bow with implicit deference to the papal de- 
cision, both in other things, and in the controversy about indulgences 
that he had engaged in. [p. 115] . . . 

But soon after, when the publication of the Pope's bull in direct 
sanction of indulgences had forced him to identify the Pope himself 
with those anti-Christian abuses, — 'and yet more when in the year 
next following, on occasion of the approaching disputation with Eck, 
he was brought into the necessity of examining the origin, foundation, 
and character of the papal supremacy, then the real anti-Christian 
character of the Papacy began more and more to open to his view. 
About the end of 1518 we find him writing to his friend Link, on send- 
ing him a copy of the acts just published of the conference at Augs- 
burg: " My pen is ready to give birth to things much greater. I know 
not myself whence these thoughts come to me. I will send you what 
I write, that you may see if I have well conjectured in believing that 
the Antichrist, of whom St. Paul speaks, now reigns in the court of 
Rome." For a while, however, he combated the thought, to him so fear- 



ANTICHRIST, VIEWS OF 33 

ful. Some three or four months after, — for it was no very long time 
before the dispute with Eck, — in answer to a request from the Elector 
of Saxony to be in all things reverential to the Pope, he wrote to 
Spalatinus, " To separate myself from the apostolic see of Rome, has 
not entered my mind." 

But now the views that he had hinted to Link pressed upon him 
with greater and greater force. The elector was startled with hearing, 
" I have been turning over the decretals of the popes, with a view to 
the ensuing debate at Leipsic; and would whisper it into thine ears that 
I begin to entertain doubt (so is Christ dishonored and crucified in 
them) whether the Pope be not the very Antichrist of Scripture." Fur- 
ther study of Scripture, and further teaching of the Holy Spirit, con- 
curred with the Pope's reckless support of all the anti-Christian er- 
rors and abominations against which he had protested (and well did 
the reminiscences, too, of his visit to Rome help on the conviction), to 
make what was for a while a suspicion only, an awful and certain 
reality to him. And when at length, in the summer of 1520, the Pope's 
bull of anathema and excommunication came out against him, . . . 
he did an action by which all Europe was electrified. He summoned 
a vast concourse of all ranks outside the walls of Wittenberg; himself 
kindled a fire in a vast pile of wood previously prepared for the purpose; 
and by the hands of the common hangman, committed the bull, together 
with the papal decretals, canons, etc., accompanying, to the flames. 
Moreover in his published answer to the bull he rejected and poured 
contempt on its thunders, as the infernal voices of Antichrist. — " Horce 
Apocalypticw," E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. II, pp. 115, 118-120, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Antichrist, Doctrine of the Reformers Concerning. — That the Pope 
was Antichrist was indeed the general doctrine of the first Reformers 
everywhere. Here in England it was advanced by Wycliffe, and was 
learnedly established by that great and able champion of the Reforma- 
tion, Bishop Jewell, in his " Apology and Defence," and more largely 
in his " Exposition upon the two Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessaloni- 
ans." This doctrine contributed not a little to promote the Reformation; 
and wheresoever the one prevailed, the other prevailed also. — " Dis- 
sertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., p. 466. London: 
B. Blake, 1840. 

Antichrist, Militz on. — Important in this regard is particularly his 
tract, Be Antichristo [of Antichrist], which has been preserved by Mat- 
thias of Janow in his own larger work. . . . Under the " abomination 
of desolation" (Matthew 24) he [Militz] finds signified corruption in 
all the parts of the church. The apostasy of the Jewish nation from 
divine truth appears to him an antitype of the fall of the secularized 
church from evangelical truth. Antichrist, he supposes, is not still to 
come, but has come already. — " General History of the Christian Re- 
ligion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, translated by Joseph Torrey, 
sec. 2, div. 2, par. 4 (Vol. V, p. 178), 7th edition. Boston: Crocker and 
Brewster, 1854. 

Antichrist, Wycliffe on. — He [Wycliffe] spoke and wrote against 
the worldly spirit of the Papacy, and its hurtful influence. He was 
wont to call the Pope Antichrist, " the proud, worldly priest of Rome." — 
Id., sec. 2, div. 1, par. 2 (Vol. V, p. 137). 

Antichrist, Pope of Rome, According to the Westminster Confes- 
sion. — There is no other head of the church but the Lord Jesus Christ; 
3 



34 ANTICHRIST, VIEWS OF 

nor can the Pope of Rome in any sense be head thereof, but is that Anti- 
christ, that man of sin, and son of perdition, that exalteth himself in 
the church against Christ and all that is called God. — Westminster Con- 
fession, chap. 25; cited in "A History of Greeds and Confessions of 
Faith;' William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., p. 272. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Antichrist, Newman on. — All the offices, names, honors, powers 
which it [the church] claims depend upon the determination of the 
simple question, " Has Christ, or has he not, left a representative 
behind him? " Now, if he has, all is easy and intelligible. This is what 
churchmen maintain; they welcome the news; and they recognize in 
the church's acts but the fulfilment of the high trust committed to 
her. But let us suppose for a moment the other side of the alternative 
to be true; supposing Christ has left no representative behind him. 
Well then, here is an association which professes to take his place with- 
out warrant. It comes forward instead of Christ and for him; it speaks 
for him, it develops his words, it suspends his appointments, it grants 
dispensations in matters of positive duty; it professes to minister grace; 
it absolves from sin; and all this of its own authority. Is it not forth- 
with according to the very force of the word " Antichrist " ? He who 
speaks for Christ must either be his true ambassador or Antichrist; 
and nothing but Antichrist can he be, if appointed ambassador there 
is none. Let his acts be the same in both cases, according as he has 
authority or not, so is he most holy or most guilty. It is not the acts 
that make the difference, it is the authority for those acts. The very 
same acts are Christ's or Antichrist's according to the doer; they are 
Antichrist's if Christ does them not. There is no medium between a 
vice-Christ and Antichrist. — John Henry Newman, in an article, " The 
Protestant Idea of Antichrist;' in the British Critic and Quarterly Theo- 
logical Review, October, 1840, pp. 430-432. 

Note. — This article was printed about five years before Newman joined the 
Church of Rome. — Eds. 

Antichrist.— Pages 12, (>5, 99, 307, 317, 363, 376, 381, 384, 444, 473, 
527, 529, 534, 597, 611, 612. 

Antiochus— Pages 127, 210, 213, 215. 

Apostasy, The Geeat, Beginnings of. — With the lapse of time 
changes for the worse had taken place in many Christian churches, 
gross corruptions of the pure doctrines of the gospel had appeared. 
Self-righteous legalism and Judaic ritualism on the one hand, and false 
philosophy, the boasted wisdom of the Gnostics on the other, had per- 
verted the minds of many, corrupting them from the simplicity which 
is in Christ. Sects had arisen in the church which denied the divinity 
of Christ and the atoning character of his death. Tares had been sown 
by the enemy among the wheat, and were already flourishing on every 
side. It appeared as though the Antichrist so long before foretold by 
Daniel and so emphatically predicted by Paul, might speedily come, 
springing up as a horn or ruler among the kings of the divided Roman 
Empire, and exalting himself as an overseer in the Christian church, 
in whose symbolical temple it was foretold he would sit supreme, 
clothed with divine honors and prerogatives, and deceiving many to 
their eternal destruction. These things were to be, and the times 
seemed dark enough to indicate that they might even then be at hand. 



APOSTASY, THE GREAT 35 

—"History Unveiling Prophecy," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., Intro- 
duction, pp. 9, 10. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 
1905. 

Apostasy, Sun Worship. — Diocletian [Roman emperor, 284-305 a. d.] 
himself, though he paid so much deference to the older faith as to as- 
sume the title of Jovius, as belonging to the Lord of the world, yet, on 
his accession, when he would exculpate himself from all concern in the 
murder of his predecessor Numerian, appealed in the face of the army 
to the all-seeing deity of the sun. It is the oracle of Apollo of Miletus, 
consulted by the hesitating emperor, which is to decide the fate of 
Christianity. The metaphorical language of Christianity had uncon- 
sciously lent strength to this new adversary; and in adoring the visible 
orb, some, no doubt, supposed that they were not departing far from the 
worship of the " Sun of Righteousness." — " The History of Christianity," 
Henry Hart Milman, D. D., book 2, chap. 9 (Vol. II, p. 215). New York: 
A. C. Armstrong & Son. 

Apostasy, The Man of Sin. — "Let no man deceive you by any 
means: for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away 
first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition; who op- 
poseth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is wor- 
shiped; so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, showing himself 
that he is God." 2 Thess. 2:3, 4. The day of Christ shall not come, 
4av at) e\0fl rj airoaraaia irpCorov lean me elthe he apostasia proton'], "except 
there come the apostasy first." 

The apostasy here described is plainly not of a civil, but of a religious 
nature: not a revolt from the government, but a defection from the true 
religion and worship, "a departing from the faith" (1 Tim. 4: 1); "a 
departing from the living God" (Heb. 3: 12), as the word is used by 
the apostle in other places. In the original it is " the apostasy," with 
an article to give it an emphasis. " The article being added," as Eras- 
mus remarks, " signifies that famous and before predicted apostasy." 
So, likewise it is 6 &v$p<airos rijs afiaprtas [ho anthropos tes hamartios'], 
"the man of sin," with the like article and the like emphasis: and 
" St. Ambrose, that he might express the force of the article, hath 
rendered it ' that man,' " as have likewise our English translators. — 
" Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., p. 439. 
London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Apostasy, The Great, Primitive Aspect Changed. — In the interval 
between the days of the apostles and the conversion of Constantine, the 
Christian commonwealth changed its aspect. The Bishop of Rome — a 
personage unknown to the writers of the New Testament — meanwhile 
rose into prominence, and at length took precedence of all other church- 
men. Rites and ceremonies, of which neither Paul nor Peter ever heard, 
crept silently into use, and then claimed the rank of divine institutions. 
Officers for whom the primitive disciples could have found no place, 
and titles which to them would have been altogether unintelligible, 
began to challenge attention, and to be named apostolic. — " The Ancient 
Church," William D. Killen, D. D., Preface to original edition, pp. 
xv, xvi. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1883. 

Apostasy, The Great, Quick Development of. — One hundred years 
after the death of the apostle John, spiritual darkness was fast settling 
down upon the Christian community; and the Fathers, who flourished 
toward the commencement of the third century, frequently employ lan- 
guage for which they would have been sternly rebuked, had they lived 



36 APOSTASY, THE GREAT 

in the days of the apostles and evangelists. — " The Ancient Church," 
William D. Killen, D. D., period 2, sec. 2, chap. 5, p. 418. London: 
James Nisbet & Co., 1883. 

Apostasy, The Great, Adopting Pagan Rites. — Confiding then in 
the power of Christianity to resist the infection of evil, and to transmute 
the very instruments and appendages of demon worship to an evangel- 
ical use, and feeling also that these usages had originally come from 
primitive revelations and from the instinct of nature, though they had 
been corrupted; and that they must invent what they needed, if they 
did not use what they found; and that they were moreover possessed 
of the very archetypes, of which paganism attempted the shadows; the 
rulers of the church from early times were prepared, should the occa- 
sion arise, to adopt, or imitate, or sanction the existing rites and cus- 
toms of the populace, as well as the philosophy of the educated class. 
— - " Development of Christian Doctrine,'' 1 John Henry Cardinal Newman, 
pp. 371, 372. London: Longmans, Greien & Co., 1906. 

Apostasy, The Great, Ritual of Roman Paganism. — They [Roman 
pagans, fourth century] are delighted, in fact, with gold and jewels and 
ivory. The beauty and brilliancy of these things dazzle their eyes, and 
they think that there is no religion where these do not shine. And thus, 
under pretense of worshiping the gods, avarice and desire are worshiped. 
. . . The more ornamented are the temples and the more beautiful the 
images, so much the greater majesty are they believed to have; so en- 
tirely is their religion confined to that which the desire of men admirer. 

These are the religious institutions handed down to them by their 
ancestors, which they persist in maintaining and defending with the 
greatest obstinacy. Nor do they consider of what character they are; 
but they feel assured of their excellence and truth on this account, 
because the ancients have handed them down; and so great is the 
authority of antiquity that it is said to be a crime to inquire into it. 
And thus it is everywhere believed as ascertained truth. — " The Divine 
Institutes," Lactantius, book 2, chap. 7; " Ante-Nicene Fathers," Vol. 
VII, p. 50. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

Apostasy, The Great, in the Fourth Century. — In the course of 
the fourth century two movements or developments spread over the face 
of Christendom, with a rapidity characteristic of the church; the one 
ascetic, the other ritual or ceremonial. We are told in various ways by 
Eusebius, that Constantine, in order to recommend the new religion to 
the heathen, transferred into it the outward ornaments to which they 
had been accustomed in their own. — " Development of Christian Doc- 
trine," John Henry Cardinal Newman, p. 373. London: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1906. 

Apostasy in the Seventh Century. — The Christians of the seventh 
century had insensibly relapsed into a semblance of paganism; their 
public and private vows were addressed to the relics and images that 
disgraced the temples of the East; the throne of the Almighty was 
darkened by a cloud of martyrs, and saints, and angels, the objects of 
popular veneration; and the Collyridian heretics, who flourished in the 
fruitful soil of Arabia, invested the Virgin Mary with the name and 
honors of a goddess. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 50, par. 13 (Vol. V, p. 105). Neiv 
York: Harper & Brothers. 

Apostasy, Great Changes Due to. — If the Christian apostles, St. 
Peter or St- Paul, could return to the Vatican, they might possibly iu- 



APOSTOLIC CHRISTIANITY 37 

quire the name of the deity who is worshiped with such mysterious 
rites in that magnificent temple: at Oxford or Geneva, they would ex- 
perience less surprise; but it might still be incumbent on them to peruse 
the catechism of the church, and to study the orthodox commentators 
on their own writings and the words of their Master. — " The History 
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" Edward Gibbon, chap. 
50, par. 42 (Vol. V, p. 167). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Apostasy.— Pages 27-34, 70, 366. 

Apostolic Christianity, Contrasted with Medieval. — Apostolic 
Christianity spread as the religion of the poor; medieval Christianity 
as the religion of the rich. The apostolic church was democratic in its 
origin and institutions. Far otherwise was the church of the eighth 
and ninth centuries, in which the monarchical ideas of the empire had 
superseded the republican order of its first founders. 

Such a change of views could not fail to make itself felt in the 
circumstances of both church and state, nor could it fail to influence 
the conduct and practice of churchmen. The higher ecclesiastics were 
now considered as alone constituting the church, as alone able to ex- 
press its voice. A marvelous importance was attached to the conver- 
sion of kings and princes, an example of which had already occurred 
at the conversion of Constantine. The great mass of Christians — the 
Christian populace, as it were — disappear from view; the spiritual 
aristocracy of monks and bishops alone becomes prominent. The feel- 
ings and wishes of the people are never considered, or are ignored; the 
interests and wishes of kings and princes are religiously observed. 
The church has become an institution for the great and the rich; the 
history of Christianity, a history of the relation of bishops to princes, 
and princes to bishops, of the Papacy to the empire, and the empire to 
the Papacy. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," Rev. Oswald J. 
Reichel, B. C. L., M. A., pp. 142, 143. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 
1870. 

Arian, Application of the Term. — Arian: In theology, one who 
adheres to the doctrines of Arius and his school. Arius was a presbyter 
of the church of Alexandria in the fourth century. He held that the 
Son was begotten of the Father, and therefore not coeternal nor con- 
substantial with the Father, but created by and subordinate to the 
Father, though possessing a similar nature. The name Arian is given 
in theology not only to all those who adopt this particular view of the 
nature of Christ, but also to all those who, holding to the divine nature 
of Christ, yet maintain his dependence upon and subordination to the 
Father in the Godhead. As a class the Arians accept the Scriptures as 
a divinely inspired and authoritative book, and declare their doctrines 
to be sustained by its teachings. — The Century Dictionary and Cyclo- 
pedia, Vol. I, art. "Arian," p. 808. 

Arians.— Pages 41, 385, 477, 479, 486, 488, 490. 

Arianism, Doctrine of. — Arianism, one of the most powerful and 
tenacious heresies in the history of the church, so called from Arius, 
a presbyter of Alexandria, who first reduced the doctrine to a clear ex- 
pression, and made it the subject of public agitation in church and state. 
It involves the question of the divinity of Christ and his relation to the 
Father, and indirectly the whole dogma of the Trinity. It led to a 
series of violent controversies which, during the fourth century, shook 
the Roman Empire, especially in the East, to its very base. Tp. 155] . . . 



38 ARIANISM 

The Father alone is God; he alone is unbegotten, eternal, wise, 
good, unchangeable. He is separated by an infinite chasm from man, 
and there is no real mediation between them. God cannot create the 
world directly, but only through an agent, the Logos, who is himself 
created for the purpose of creating the world. The Son of God is pre- 
existent before time and the world (icpb xpbvwv Kai aiAwv ['pro chronon 
kai aionon\), and before all creatures (ttpwtStokos irda-qs KTl<r€w[prototokos 
pases ktioeos]), a middle being between God and the world, the perfect 
image of the Father, the executor of his thoughts, yea, even the creator of 
the world of matter, and of the spirit. In a secondary or metaphorical 
sense he may be called God, Logos, and Wisdom (0ebs, \6yos, <ro<pla ) . But, 
on the other hand, Christ is himself a creature ( ktUt/m, irolwa [ktisma, 
poiema]), the first creature of God, through whom the Father called 
other creatures into existence; he is made, not of the essence of the 
Father (iK tt}s owtas [ek tes ousias]), but out of nothing (<f£ ovk 6vtwv 
[ex ouk ontori\ . . . ), or of the will of the Father before all con- 
ceivable time, yet in time; he is therefore not eternal, and there was a 

time when he was not {^v wore 8re oi»c i)v, apx^v exei, oi>K fy irplv yevvrjdrj, ijroi 

KTia-dri [en pote ote ouk en, archen echei, ouk en prin gennethe, etoi 
ktisthe'] ) ; neither is he unchangeable, but subject to the vicissitudes 
of a created being (rpe-n-rbs cptio-ei o>s rb. Kricfxara [treptos phusei os ta ktis- 
mata~\). In the last point Arius changed, having first asserted the un- 
changeableness of the Son (avaXKotwros, drpewros 6 vl6s [analloiotos, atreptos 
o uios] ) , unless we save his consistency by a distinction between moral 
and physical unchangeableness: the Son, it may be said, is changeable 
in his nature ( <pt<rei [phusei]), but remains morally good (*aX6s [kalos]) 
by an act of his will. With the limitation of Christ's duration is neces- 
sarily connected a limitation of his power, wisdom, and knowledge. 
It was expressly asserted by the Arians that the Son does not perfectly 
know the Father, and therefore cannot perfectly reveal him. He is 
essentially different from the Father ( irepoofoios t£ liar pi [eteroousios 
to Patri~\ ) in opposition to the orthodox formula d/xooticnos [homoousios], 
and the semi- Arian 6/j.oiofoiot [homoiousios] (hence also the name Hetero- 
ousiasts), and — as Aetius and Eunomius afterward more strongly ex- 
pressed it — unlike the Father (&v6/j.oios kclt' otolav [anomoios kaf ousiari]). 
As to the humanity of Christ, Arius ascribed to him only a human body 
with an animal soul (\f/vxv fooyos [psucfie alogos~\ ) , not a rational soul 
(vovs, irvev/xa [nous, pneuma] ) ; and on this point he anticipated Apolli- 
narius, who substituted the divine Logos for the human reason, but 
from the opposite motive of saving the unity of the divine personality 
of Christ. — " A Dictionary of Christian Biography" Smith and Wace, 
Vol. I, art. " Arianism," pp. 155, 156. London: John Murray, 1877. 

Arianism.— Pages 486, 488, 490. 

Armageddon, The Geographical Meaning of the Word. — Arma- 
geddon, the great battlefield where occurred the chief conflicts between 
the Israelites and their enemies. The name was applied to the table-land 
of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the center of which stood the 
town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun. — Encyclopedia 
Americana, art. "Armageddon ." 

Megiddo was the military key of Syria; it commanded at once the 
highway northward to Phoenicia and Ccele-Syria and the road across 
Galilee to Damascus and the valley of the Euphrates. . . . The vale of 
the Kishon and the region of Megiddo were inevitable battlefields. 
Through all history they retained that qualification; there many of the 
great contests of Southwestern Asia have been decided. ... It was re- 
garded as a predestined place of blood and strife; the poet of the 
Apocalypse has clothed it with awe as the ground of the final conflict 



ARMAGEDDON 39 

between the powers of light and darkness. — "Egypt in Asia" George 
Cormack, p. 83. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1908. 

Armageddon, Thought of, as the Wab of 1914-18 Broke. — In the 
clash of the two great European organizations, — the Triple Alliance and 
the Triple Entente, — we have all those wild features of universal chaos 
which the writer of the Apocalypse saw with prophetic eye as ushering in 
the great day of the Lord. — In an article, "Armageddon — and After," 
by Oulis, in the Fortnightly Review (London), October, 1914, p. 549. 

It may be that these events will quickly usher in the return of 
Christ to gather his saints together from the four quarters of the 
earth. . . . Many see in the events preceding and accompanying this 
terrible cataclysm of war the signs of our Lord's near return. If so, 
blessed will that servant be whom his Lord when he cometh shall find 
giving " their food in due season " to those fellow servants who have 
been put in his charge. — Message of the Church Missionary Society 
(Church of England) to its Missionaries, in the Church Missionary Re- 
view, November, 1914. 

Armageddon, The Spirit That Sties the World. — The whole of 
Asia is in the throes of rebirth. At last we may see these three — the 
yellow race, the Indian race, and the Arab-Persian Mohammedan race. 
And all that is making for the Armageddon. — Dr. N. H. Marshall, in 
Contemporary Review, London, September, 1909, p. 315. 

A new spirit is abroad in the East. It arose on the shores of the 
Pacific when Japan proved that the great powers of Europe are not in- 
vulnerable. North and south and west it has spread, rousing China out 
of centuries of slumber, stirring India into ominous questioning, re- 
viving memories of past glory in Persia, breeding discontent in Egypt, 
and luring Turkey onto the rocks. — Nineteenth Century and After, 
London, May, 1913. 

Artaxerxes, Seventh Year of, Season When It Began. — While, ac- 
cording to the principle of the canon, the reign of Artaxerxes is reck- 
oned as beginning with the first day of the year 284 of the Nabonassa- 
rean era, we only know from it that the actual commencement of the 
reign was sometime in the course of that year. 

Now the time of the year when he began to reign seems determi- 
nable from Ezra and Nehemiah. It appears from Neh. 1 : 1 and 2 : 1, that 
in the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, and consequently in 
the other years of his reign, the first Hebrew month, Nisan (March- 
April), came after the ninth, Chisleu (November-December).. Conse- 
quently the date of his accession must have been sometime between 
Nisan and Chisleu. And from Ezra 7: 7-10 it follows that in the sev- 
enth, and therefore in the other years of his reign, the fifth month, Ab 
(July-August), came after the first, or Nisan. Therefore the accession 
of Artaxerxes was somewhere between the latter end of July and the 
former part of November, i. e., somewhere about the summer of 464 
b. c. — " Fulfilled Prophecy" Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. S. A., pp. 212, 213, 
2d edition. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Artaxerxes. — Pages 435, 554, 555. 

v 
Ascension Robes. — Page 458. 



40 ASSYRIA, FALL OF 

Assyria, Fall of. — The exact year of the fall of Assyria is indeed 
uncertain; but all authorities agree that it had taken place before the 
date of Necho's expedition, which was in b. c. 608. By " king of As- 
syria," in 2 Kings 23: 29, we must therefore understand king of Baby- 
lon, just as in Ezra 6: 22 we must understand by "king of Assyria" 
king of Persia. The Babylonian monarch, Nabopolassar, had taken a 
share in the great war by which the empire of the Assyrians was 
brought to an end, and had succeeded to Assyria's right in western 
Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. He was probably regarded by 
Josiah as his suzerain, and therefore entitled to such help as he could 
render him. — " Egypt and Babylon,'" George Rawlinson, M. A., p. 183. 
New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Assyria, Fall of Nineveh. — The overthrow of Nineveh did not 
happen before the death of Josiah king of Judah in b. c. 609, because a 
king of Assyria is mentioned at that period; and Zephaniah, in the 
prophecy delivered in the reign of Josiah, predicts the destruction of 
Nineveh as a future event. Jackson has drawn together many testi- 
monies to the same point from the book of Tobit, which have been re- 
peated by Hales. The sum of the argument is this: From the age of 
Tobit it appears that Nineveh was standing in b. c. 610. For he became 
blind in the year 710, and survived that accident 100 years; and yet he 
died before the fall of Nineveh. The city was taken by Nabuchodonosor 
and Ahasuerus. Nabuchodonosor may be either the father of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, or himself acting for his father; and this passage will not 
determine whether Nineveh was taken before the accession of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. But a prophecy of Jeremiah written in the first year of 
the captivity, b. c. 605, seems to imply that the city was then destroyed; 
for in the particular enumeration of all the kings of the North far and 
near, and all the kingdoms of the world, etc., Assyria and Nineveh are 
not named. The testimony of Scripture then decides that the city was 
captured, and the Assyrian monarchy destroyed, certainly after b. c. 
609 and probably before b. c. 605. Herodotus brings the date to a nar- 
rower point. Cyaxares prepared to revenge his father's death upon the 
Assyrians, but was interrupted by the Scythians, who held Asia for 
twenty-eight years. After their expulsion Cyaxares conquered the 
Assyrians. But as the Scythians were not expelled till b. c. 607, the cap- 
ture of Nineveh could not occur till b. c. 606; and this date obtained 
from Herodotus is remarkably consistent with the accounts of Scripture. 
— " Fasti Hellenici,'' Henry Fynes Clinton, M. A., Vol. I, p. 269. London: 
Oxford University Press, 1834. 

Assyria. — Pages 48, 324. 

Athanasius. — Athanasius was born at Alexandria about 297 a. d., 
and died in 373 a. d. As an archdeacon and the attendant of the bishop 
Alexander, he took a prominent part against the Arians at the Council 
of Nicaea in 325 a. d. From that time during his whole life he struggled 
for the doctrine of Christ's essential divinity and eternal coexistence 
with the Father, and his importance as a theologian is that he de- 
veloped this idea. Five times he was sent into exile, and five times 
returned to power by the swing of the pendulum-like church politics of 
the Eastern emperors, but he lived to see his idea conquer, and it is 
today an essential part of the Catholic creed. — " The Library of Original 
Sources,^ edited by Oliver J. Thatcher, Vol. IV, p. 71. Milwaukee, Wis.: 
University Research Extension Company, copyright 1907. 



ATONEMENT, DAY OF 41 

Atonement, Day of, Celebration of. — The great Hebrew and Jew- 
ish fast day, occurring annually; called in Lev. 23: 27, 28, yom ha-kip- 
purim, in the Talmud simply yoma, " the day; " in vulgar Hebrew yom 
Tcippur. The legal provisions are given in Leviticus 16 (cf. Ex. 30: 10) ; 
23: 26-32; Num. 29: 7-11. Since these enactments, in spite of their 
relative differences, are not sufficient to define the very important 
ritual in all details, a supplementary tradition became necessary; the 
Mishnaic treatise Yoma is devoted to the celebration of the day during 
the Second Temple. According to Lev. 16: 29; 23: 27; Num. 29: 7, the 
day fell on the tenth of the seventh month (Tishri); it was to be a 
sabbath of rest ("sabbath of sabbaths," Lev. 16:31), on which all 
labor was prohibited, and the congregation had to meet in the sanctuary 
(Lev. 23: 27, 28). A general fast — the only one enjoined in the Mosaic 
law — was prescribed for the day. By this fast, the " afflicting of the 
soul," the members of the congregation were to bring themselves into 
a penitential mood appropriate to the serious atonement act. The day 
is therefore called sometimes simply "the fast day" (Josephus, Ant., 
XIV, iv, 3, where, however, as in XIV, xvi, 4, the " third month " causes 
some difficulty; Philo, De septenario, 296 M) or "the fast" (Philo, 278 
M; Acts 27: 9); by the rabbis also "the great fast" to distinguish it 
from the fast days which were introduced after the exile. The stranger 
who dwelt in the land was also obliged to rest from work, but he was 
not obliged to fast (Lev. 16: 29). 

The rite to be performed in the sanctuary is described in Leviticus 
16: 3-28. Aaron (i. e., the high priest), attired in plain priestly cloth- 
ing, is to offer, first for himself and his house, a young bullock for a 
sin offering. He is to bring its blood into the holy of holies and sprinkle 
with it the Kapporeth, the expiatory covering of the ark. In the same 
manner he has to deal with the blood of the goat appointed as a sin 
offering for the people. With this blood the other vessels of the sanctu- 
ary also were afterward sprinkled. Two goats were presented before 
God for the people, and the high priest cast lots, designating the one 
goat " for Yahweh " as a sin offering, the other " for Azazel " (A. V., 
" scapegoat " ) ; on this second goat the high priest laid his hands 
and confessed the sins of the people, which the goat was to carry 
away into the wilderness. Thither it was led by a man, so that 
it could not return (with the two goats compare the two birds, Lev. 14: 
4-7). The sin is to remain in the territory of the unclean desert-demon 
Azazel (cf. Zech. 5: 5-11). When this act was over, the burnt offering 
for the high priest and the people and other offerings were brought. 
The great importance of this day is seen from the fact that the high 
priest officiates personally, and his functions are mostly performed in the 
holy of holies, which he could enter only on this day; furthermore, from 
the purpose of the whole, to purify priest and congregation, and the 
habitation of God and its vessels, from all defilement, [p. 356] . . . 

After the destruction of Jerusalem the celebration of the day of 
atonement was continued, although the sacrificial rites could no more 
be performed. The grand festival with its solemn earnestness had so 
deeply impressed itself upon the people, that it could not be wholly dis- 
pensed with. (For the later usages see "Orach Chayim," translated 
by Lowe, 150 sqq.; Buxtorf, " Synagoga Judaica," chaps. 25, 26.) In 
general the penitential prayers in the synagogue have taken the place 
of the atoning temple sacrifices. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia 
of Religious Knowledge, Vol. I, art. ''Atonement, Day of," pp. 356, 857. 

Atonement, Day of, Reconciliation of Iseael upon. — The names 
" day of atonement," or in the Talmud, which devotes to it a special 
tractate, simply " the day" (perhaps also in Heb. 7:27), and in the 



42 ATONEMENT, DAY OF 

book of Acts " the fast," sufficiently designate its general object. It 
took place on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri), that is, 
symbolically, when the sacred or sabbath of months had just attained 
its completeness. Nor must we overlook the position of that day rela- 
tively to the other festivals. The seventh or sabbatical month closed 
the festive cycle, the Feast of Tabernacles on the 15th of that month 
being the last in the year. But, as already stated, before that grand 
festival of harvesting and thanksgiving, Israel must, as a nation, be rec- 
onciled unto God, for only a people at peace with God might rejoice be- 
fore him in the blessing with which he had crowned the year. And the 
import of the day of atonement, as preceding the Feast of Tabernacles, 
becomes only more striking, when we remember how that feast of har- 
vesting prefigured the final ingathering of all nations. In connection 
with this point it may also be well to remember that the jubilee year 
was always proclaimed on the day of atonement. — " The Temple, Its 
Ministry and Services, as They Were at the Time of Jesus Christ," 
Rev. Dr. Edersheim, pp. 265, 266. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 
1881. 

Atonement, Day of, Elaborate Ceremonial of. — The day of atone- 
ment, according to Biblical tradition, is one in the cycle of holidays 
instituted by Moses. It occurs on the tenth day of the seventh month, 
and is distinguished by abstaining thereon from food ("afflicting one's 
soul; " compare Isa. 58: 3, 5) and by an elaborate ceremonial. The de- 
tails of the ritual, in accordance with rabbinical interpretation (Sifra 
and Rashi on Leviticus 16; Mishnah and Gemara Yoma; " Yad " Hil. 
' Abodat Yom ha-Kippurim; Asheri), proceed about as follows: In the 
early morning the high priest, in his robes of office (described Ex. 28: 
39), offered the daily morning sacrifice (Num. 29: 11; Ex. 29: 38 et 
seq.) and performed the ordinary morning rite of dressing the lamps, 
which was accompanied by an offering of incense (Ex. 30: 7). Next in 
order was the festival sacrifice of a bullock and seven lambs (Num. 
29: 7 et seq.). 

Then began the peculiar ceremonies of atonement, for which the 
high priest put on special vestments of linen (Lev. 16: 4). With 
his hands placed on the head of a bullock (contributed from his own 
means), he made confession of his own sins and of those of his nearer 
household (verse 6, see Rashi). The two goats contributed by the peo- 
ple (verse 5) were placed before him, being designated by lot, the one 
for a sin offering " for the Lord," and the other to be sent away into 
the wilderness "for Azazel " (verses 7-10). Once more the high 
priest made confession over his own bullock, for himself and his wider 
household — his brother priests (verse 11a). After killing the animal 
(verse 116) and receiving its blood into a vessel, he took a censer full 
of live coals from the altar of burnt offering (Ex. 27: 1-8) and two hand- 
fuls of fine incense into the sacred recess behind the curtain, the 
holy of holies; there he placed the incense on the coals, the cloud of 
incense enveloping the so-called "mercy-seat" (verse 12 et seq.), and 
offered a short prayer (Yoma v. 1). He returned for the vessel con- 
taining the blood of the bullock and re-entered, sprinkling some of it 
with his finger eight times between the staves of the ark (verse 14; 
Ex. 25: 13-15). He then left the sacred compartment to kill the peo- 
ple's goat (marked "for the Lord"); with its blood he re-entered 
the holy of holies, there to perform the same number of sprinklings 
in the same place (verse 15). 

By these rites the most holy place was rendered free from all im- 
purities attaching to it through the intentional or unintentional en- 
trance of unclean persons into the sanctuary (verse 16, see Rashi; 



ATONEMENT, DAY OF 43 

Num. 19: 13, see Rashi). By sprinkling the bullock's blood and sim- 
ilarly that of the goat eight times against the curtain, the entrance to 
the holy of holies was purified (verse 16&, see Rashi). No one was per- 
mitted to remain in the sanctuary while the high priest officiated in 
the holy of holies (verse 17). The high priest then mixed the blood 
of the bullock and goat, and put some of it on the four corners of the 
altar of incense (Ex. 30: 1-10); he furthermore sprinkled some of it 
with his finger seven times on the surface of the altar, cleaned of its 
coal and ashes (verse 18 et seq.), while the remainder was poured out 
at the base of the altar outside (Lev. 4: 7). 

The live goat was now brought forward. The high priest laid his 
hand upon its head and confessed " all the iniquities of the Israelites, 
and all their transgressions, even all their sins," which were thus 
placed upon the goat's head. Laden with the people's sins, the animal 
was sent away into the wilderness (verses 20-22). The high priest then 
took those portions that belonged on the altar out of the bodies of the 
bullock and the goat, and placed them temporarily in a vessel; the 
carcasses of the animals were sent away " to the place where the ashes 
are thrown out" (Lev. 4: 12) and burned there (verse 27; Yoma vi. 7). 

Clothed in his ordinary robes, the high priest offered another goat 
for a sin offering (Num. 29: 11), and two rams for a burnt offering, 
one of which was contributed by himself (verse 24). The altar por- 
tions of the bullock and goat were now burned on the altar (verse 25; 
Yoma I. c; see Bertinoro), and the daily evening sacrifice was offered 
(Num. 29: 11; Ex. 29: 41). Once more the linen garments were put 
on, for the high priest again repaired to the holy of holies in order to re- 
move thence the censer; the sacred vestments were then deposited in 
the sanctuary. In his ordinary robes, the high priest closed the service 
with the evening rite of lighting the lamps, which was accompanied 
by an offering of incense (Ex. 30: 8; Yoma vii. 4). [p. 284] . . . 

The day of atonement survived the cessation of the sacrificial cult 
(in the year 70). "Though no sacrifices be offered, the day in itself 
effects atonement" (Sifra Emor, xiv). Yet both Sifra and the Mishnah 
teach that the day avails nothing unless repentance be coupled with it 
(Yoma viii. 8). Repentance was the indispensable condition for all the 
various means of atonement. Repentance must unquestionably ac- 
company a guilt or sin offering (Lev. 5: 5; Maimonides, "Yad," Tesh- 
ubah, i. 1). Penitent confession was a requisite for expiation through 
capital or corporal punishment (Sanh. vi. 2; Maimonides, ib.). "The 
day of atonement absolves from sins against God, but not from sins 
against a fellow man unless the pardon of the offended person be se- 
cured " (Yoma viii. 9). Hence the custom of terminating on the eve of 
the fast day all feuds and disputes (Yoma 87a; Maimonides, ib. ii. 9 
et seq.). Even the souls of the dead are included in the community of 
those pardoned on the day of atonement. It is customary for children 
to have public mention made in the synagogue of their departed parents, 
and to make charitable gifts on behalf of their souls (Shulhan 'Aruk, 
Orah Hayyim, 621, 6). But no amount of charity will avail the soul 
of a wicked man (Ture Zahab to Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 249, 
note 5). 

The service in the synagogue opens in the evening with the Kol 
Nidre. The devotions during the day are continuous from morning until 
evening. Much prominence is given to the liturgical pieces in which the 
temple ceremonial is recounted ('Abodah service; Zunz, " Literatur- 
gesch," pp. 27 et seq., 64 et seq.). Ibn Gabirol's rVD^tt irO(" Crown of 
Royalty") skilfully deals with the problem of sin: it is appended to 
the Sephardic liturgy for the evening service, and is also read by the 



44 ATONEMENT, DAY OF 

more devout in the Ashkenazic synagogues. In the center of the older 
liturgy is the confession of sins. " For we are not so bold of face and 
stiff-necked as to say to Thee, We are righteous and have not sinned; but, 
of a truth, we are sinners. . . . May it be Thy will that I sin no more; 
be pleased to purge away my past sins, according to Thy great mercy, 
only not through severe chastisements." 

The traditional melodies with their plaintive tones endeavor to give 
expression alike to the individual's awe before the uncertainties of fate 
and to a people's moan for its departed glories. On the day of atone- 
ment the pious Jew becomes forgetful of the flesh and its wants, and, 
banishing hatred, ill-feeling, and all ignoble thoughts, seeks to be oc- 
cupied exclusively with things spiritual. 

However rigorously the rabbinical law may insist on the outward 
manifestation of contrition, the corrective is provided for in the lessons 
from the prophets (Isaiah 58; Jonah; see Ta'anit ii. 1), which teach that 
the true fast day in which God delights is a spirit of devotion, kindli- 
ness, and penitence. The serious character impressed upon the day 
from the time of its institution has been preserved to the present day. 
No matter how much else has fallen into desuetude, so strong is its hold 
upon the Jewish conscience that no Jew, unless he have cut himself en- 
tirely loose from the synagogue, will fail to observe the day of atone- 
ment by resting from his daily pursuits and attending service in the 
synagogue. With a few exceptions, the service even of the Reformed 
synagogue is continuous through the day. — The Jewish Encyclopedia, 
Vol. II, art. "Atonement, Day of," pp. 284, 286, 288. 

Atonement, Day of. — Page 187. 

Attila — Pages 477, 486, 535, 540, 590. 

Augustus. — Page 467. 

Azazel, Satan. — The command to present two goats to Jehovah for 
a sin offering (Lev. 16: 5), and to cast lots on them, one for Jehovah, 
the other for Azazel (verse 8), requires us to take Azazel as a spiritual 
personality, in contrast to Jehovah, who must be thought of as dwelling 
in the wilderness, the habitation of demons and impure beings (Matt. 
12: 43; Luke 11: 24), inasmuch as the goat devoted to Azazel is sent into 
the wilderness (Lev. 16: 11, 21). Thus he must belong to the kingdom of 
evil spirits, and that not as a subordinate demon, for he is here put in 
contrast to Jehovah, but can only be the ruler of the kingdom of the 
demons or their head, that evil spirit who is afterward called Satan. — 
" Manual of Biblical Archaology '," Johann F. K. Keil, Vol. II, p. 43. 

Azazel, Another Name for Satan. — The use of the preposition im- 
plies it [that Azazel is a proper name]. The same preposition is used 
on both lots, La-Yehovah, La- Azazel, and if the one indicates a person, 
it seems natural the other should. Especially, considering the act of 
casting lots. If one is Jehovah, the other would seem for some other 
person or being; not one for Jehovah, and the other for the goat itself. 

What goes to confirm this is, that the most ancient paraphrases and 
translations treat Azazel as a proper name. The Chaldee paraphrase 
and the targums of Onkelos and Jonathan would certainly have trans- 
lated it if it was not a proper name, but they do not. The Septuagint, 
or oldest Greek version, renders it by dTroiro/Miraloi [apopompaios], a word 
applied by the Greeks to a malign deity, sometimes appeased by sac- 
rifices. 



AZAZEL 45 

Another confirmation is found in the Book of Enoch, where the 
name Azalzel/ evidently a corruption of Azazel, is given to one of the 
fallen angels, thus plainly showing what was the prevalent understand- 
ing of the Jews at that day. 

Still another evidence is found in the Arabic, where Azazel is em- 
ployed as the name ot the evil spirit. 

In addition to these, we have the evidence of the Jewish work 
Zohar, and of the Cabalistic and Rabbinical writers. They tell us that 
the following proverb was current among the Jews: "On the day of 
atonement, a gift to Sammael." Hence Moses Gerundinensis feels called 
to say that it is not a sacrifice, but only done because commanded 
by God. 

Another step in the evidence is when we find this same opinion 
passing from the Jewish to the early Christian church. Origen was the 
most learned of the Fathers, and on such a point as this, the meaning 
of a Hebrew word, his testimony is reliable. Says Origen: "He who is 
called in the Septuagint 6 diroirofxTraios [ho apopompaios], and in the He- 
brew Azazel, is no other than the devil." 

Lastly, a circumstance is mentioned of the emperor Julian, the apos- 
tate, that confirms the argument. He brought as an objection against 
the Bible, that Moses commanded a sacrifice to the evil spirit. An 
objection he never could have thought of, had not Azazel been generally 
regarded as a proper name. 

In view, then, of the difficulties attending any other meaning, and 
the accumulated evidence in favor of this, Hengstenberg affirms, with 
great confidence, that Azazel cannot be anything else but another name 
for Satan. — Observations on Lev. 16:8, in "Redeemer and Redeemed: 
an Investigation of the Atonement and of Eternal Judgment," Charles 
Beecher, pp. 67, 68. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1864. 

Azazel, A Personal Being. — The meaning of Azazel is much dis- 
puted; it is, of course, a subject closely connected with the inquiry into 
the origin of the custom [of setting apart one goat for Azazel]. It is 
at least certain that, as Azazel receives one goat while Yahwe [Jehovah] 
receives the other, both must be personal beings. — Encyclopedia Bib- 
lica, a Dictionary of the Bible, edited by the Rev. T. K. Cheyne, M. A., 
D. D., and T. Sutherland Black, M. A., LL. D., art. "Azazel." New York: 
The Macmillan Company, 1899. 

Azazel, A Supernatural Being. — > The name of a supernatural being 
mentioned in connection with the ritual of the day of atonement (Leviti- 
cus 16). After Satan, for whom he was in some degree a preparation, 
Azazel enjoys the distinction of being the most mysterious extrahuman 
character in sacred literature. — The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. 
"Azazel," p. 365. 

Azazel, Representing the Source of Evil. — Far from involving the 
recognition of Azazel as a deity, the sending of the goat was, as stated 
by Nahmanides, a symbolic expression of the idea that the people's sins 
and their evil consequences were to be sent back to the spirit of desola- 
tion and ruin, the source of all impurity. — Id., p. 366. 

Azazel, A Name for the Devil. — 8. Scapegoat. See different opin- 
ion in Bochart. Spencer, after the oldest opinions of the Hebrews and 
Christians, thinks Azazel is the name of the devil, and so Rosenmuller, 
whom see. The Syriac has Azzail, the "angel (strong one) who re- 
volted." — " The Comprehensive Commentary of the Holy Bible" edited 
by Rev. William Jenks, D. D., note on Lev. 16:8, p. 410. Brattleboro, 
Vt.: Fessenden & Co., 1835. 



46 BAAL 

Azazel. — In later times the word " Azazel " was by many Jews and 
also by Christian theologians, such as Origen, regarded as that Satan 
himself who had fallen away from God. — The International Standard 
Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D. t Vol. I, art. ''Aza- 
zel;' p. S48. 

Baal. — Baal is " lord," or " master," an equivalent of the Latin 
dominus, and hence a term which naturally requires another after it, 
since a lord must be lord of something. Hence in Phoenician inscrip- 
tions we find Baal-Tsur, "Lord of Tyre;" Baal-Tsidor, "Lord of Zi- 
don; " Baal-Tars, "Lord of Tarsus; " and the like. Hence also we meet 
with such words as Baal-berith, "Lord of treaties;" Baal-peor, "Lord 
of Peor " (a mountain); Baal-zebub, "Lord of flies;" and Beel-samin, 
" Lord of heaven." Adonis, or more properly Adoni, for the " s " is 
merely the Greek nominatival ending, has nearly the same meaning as 
Baal, being the Phoenician equivalent of the Hebrew Adonai, the word 
ordinarily rendered " Lord " in our version of the Old Testament. — 
" The Religions of the Ancient World" George Rawlinson, M. A., pp. 
102, 103. New York: Hurst & Co. 

Baal. — Baal, . . . the Babylonian Belu or Bel, " Lord," was the 
title of the supreme god among the Canaanites. 

1. Name and Character of Baal. — In Babylonia it was the title 
specially applied to Merodach of Babylon, which in time came to be 
used in place of his actual name. As the word in Hebrew also means 
" possessor," it has been supposed to have originally signified, when 
used in a religious sense, the god of a particular piece of land or soil. 
Of this, however, there is no proof, and the sense of " possessor " is 
derived from that of " lord." The Babylonian Bel-Merodach was a sun 
god, and so too was the Canaanitish Baal whose full title was Baal- 
Shemaim, " lord of heaven." . . . 

The forms under which Baal was worshiped were necessarily as 
numerous as the communities which worshiped him. Each locality had 
its own Baal, or divine " lord," who frequently took his name from the 
city or place to which he belonged. Hence there was a Baal-Zur, " Baal 
of Tyre;" Baal-Hermon, "Baal of Hermon " (Judges 3:3); Baal- 
Lebanon, "Baal of Lebanon;" Baal-Tarz, "Baal of Tarsus." At other 
times the title was attached to the name of an individual god; thus we 
have Bel-Merodach, "the Lord Merodach" (or "Bel is Merodach") at 
Babylon; Baal-Melkarth at Tyre, Baal-gad (Joshua 11: 17) in the north 
of Palestine. Occasionally the second element was a noun, as in Baal- 
Shemaim, "Lord of heaven;" Baal-zebub (2 Kings 1:2), "Lord of 
flies;" Baal-Hamman, usually interpreted "Lord of heat," but more 
probably " Lord of the sun pillar," the tutelary deity of Carthage. All 
these various forms of the sun god were collectively known as the 
Baalim, or " Baals," who took their place by the side of the female 
Ashtaroth and Asherim. . . . 

Temples of Baal at Samaria and Jerusalem are mentioned in 
1 Kings 16: 32, 2 Kings 11: 18, where they had been erected at the 
time when the Ahab dynasty endeavored to fuse Israelites and Jews 
and Phoenicians into a single people under the same national Phoe- 
nician god. Altars on which incense was burned to to Baal were set 
up in all the streets of Jerusalem, according to Jeremiah (11: 13), 
apparently on the flat roofs of the houses (Jer. 32: 29); and the tem- 
ple of Baal contained an image of the god in the shape of a pillar 
or Bethel (2 Kings 10: 26, 27). In the reign of Ahab, Baal was served 
in Israel by 450 priests (1 Kings 18: 19), as well as by prophets (2 
Kings 10: 19), and his worshipers wore special vestments when his 



BABYLON 47 

ritual was performed (2 Kings 10: 22). The ordinary offering made to 
the god consisted of incense (Jer. 7:9) and burnt sacrifices; on extraor- 
dinary occasions the victim was human (Jer. 19: 5). At times the 
priests worked themselves into a state of ecstasy, and dancing round the 
altar slashed themselves with knives (1 Kings 18: 26, 28), like certain 
dervish orders in modern Islam. — The International Standard Bible 
Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. I, art. "Baal" pp. 
345, 346. 

Babylon, Historical Sketch of. — Babylonia (Assyr. Babilu, Per. 
Babirush) was the name given to the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
now forming the modern Arab province of Irak-Arabi. In the Old 
Testament it is Shinar, Babel, or " the land of the Chaldees." The 
boundaries of Babylonia varied at different periods of its history. The 
northern frontier was formed partly by the Euphrates and its tribu- 
taries, but chiefly by a line of forts and frontier stations established by 
mutual arrangement between the Assyrian and Babylonian kings, prob- 
ably the Median Wall of the classical writers, [p. 38-] .... * 

It is now evident, from the monuments and inscriptions which have 
been obtained from the traditionally oldest cities of Chaldea, that the 
civilization of the ancient people of Babylonia has an antiquity rivaling 
that of ancient Egypt, [p. 40] . . . 

On the disruption of the Assyrian Empire after the death of Assur- 
bani-pal, the throne of Babylon was seized by Nabu-abla-utzar, or 
Nabopolassar, the general of the Babylonian garrison, who had married 
a Median princess, and was himself no doubt of collateral descent from 
the royal line of Babylonian kings. He was succeeded in 604 b. c. by 
his son Nebuchadnezzar, one of the greatest sovereigns who ever ruled 
over the ancient empire. During a long reign of forty-three years he 
succeeded in recovering the long-lost provinces of the kingdom, and once 
more making Babylon queen of nations. He not only restored the em- 
pire and rebuilt Babylon, but almost every temple and edifice through- 
out the land underwent restoration at his hands. It is an astonishing 
fact that not a single mound throughout Babylonia has as yet been 
opened by the explorers which has not been found to contain bricks, 
cylinders, or tablets inscribed with his name. In 599 b. c. he captured 
Jerusalem, and sent Jehoiachin captive to Babylon, and eleven years 
later, owing to the still disturbed state of the kingdom (588 b. a), he 
destroyed the city, and removed most of the inhabitants to Chaldea. 

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded in 561 b. c. by his son Evil-merodach, 
who was murdered by his brother-in-law, " chief seer " of one of the 
temples. His reign lasted until 556 b. c. The throne was in 556 b. c. 
usurped by a powerful and active prince, Nabu-naid or Nabonidus, the 
son of a " chief seer," whose reign is the most critical, next to that of 
Nebuchadnezzar, in later Babylonian history. The inscriptions of this 
king are found in almost all temples, and some of them contain impor- 
tant historical facts. In a cylinder found at Sippara the king records 
his restoration of the temple at Kharran, which was destroyed by the 
Scythians; and in his sixth year, 549 b. c, he records the overthrow of 
Astyages, king of the Medes, and the capture of Ecbatana by Cyrus. 
In the king's seventeenth year the whole land of Babylonia was in revolt 
against him for neglecting the duties of court and religion, leaving all 
to his son Belshazzar. 

During the summer of this year Cyrus invaded Babylonia, advancing 
from the neighborhood of the modern Bagdad, and reaching Sippara on 
the 14th day of Tammuz (June), which the garrison yielded without 
fighting. Two days later, Tammuz 16, Babylon capitulated. Babylonia 
now became a Persian province, and under the rule of Cyrus (538-529 



48 BABYLON 

b. c.) and Cambyses (529-521), it appears to have been peaceful. On 
the accession to the throne of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the old rebel- 
lious spirit once more asserted itself, and for three years (521-519) the 
city held out against the Persians. 

With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Babylonia came under 
the short-lived dominion of Alexander the Great, who died in that city 
(323 b. c). — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. 
Ill, art. " Babylonia," pp. 38, 40, 43, 44. 

The epoch of the new Babylonian Empire covers a period of time 
from about 615 to 538 b. c, approximately three quarters of a cen- 
tury, [p. 448] . . . 

Nabopolassar (Nabu-apal-usur, i. e., " Nabu protect the heir" ), ac- 
cording to the Ptolemaic Canon, reigned from 625 b. c. (the date of his 
accession thus being 626) until 605 b. c, in which year he died, shortly 
before the victory won by his son Nebuchadrezzar over the Egyptians 
at Carchemish, having been in ill health before Nebuchadrezzar started 
for Syria. . . . 

Nabopolassar, who died in 605, while his son was on the march for 
Syria, only just missed the satisfaction of seeing the new kingdom of 
Babylonia which he had founded enter upon the heritage of the Assyrian 
Empire, out of which the western province could least of all be spared. 
He did not see it: instead the news of his father's death reached the 
young Nebuchadrezzar (Nabu-kudur-usur, i. e., "Nabu protect the 
crown") shortly after the victory of the Egyptians, which decided the 
fate of Syria for the time being; and leaving his generals to follow up 
the victory, he had to return to Babylon in hot haste to assume the 
royal dignity that awaited him. There he received the crown at the 
hands of the great nobles without encountering any obstacles, and for 
the long period of his glorious reign, which lasted forty-two years (604- 
562) he guided the destinies of his country, extended and strengthened 
its borders, and thus made Babylonia a great power, and Babylon one of 
the most splendid and illustrious cities of ancient times. If we further 
take into consideration that it was he who likewise conquered Syria 
for Babylonia, we cannot but acknowledge his claim to be counted the 
first ruler who entered upon the full possession of Assyria and con- 
solidated it. 

Amid all the many and sometimes detailed inscriptions of Nebu- 
chadrezzar which have been found in the ruins of Babylon and other 
cities, not one contains any account of his campaigns; but from a pas- 
sage in the preamble of the great inscription of the kingdom, we see 
that in spite of his preference for building and other peaceful labors he 
was a mighty warrior. — " The Historians'' History of the World" edited 
by Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. I, pp. 448, 449. New York: The 
Outlook Company, 1905. 

Babylon, City of. — The accounts given by the classic writers are 
very confused. With the capital of the older kingdom they have, for 
the most part, nothing to do; they are all to be referred to the resusci- 
tated and adorned residence of Nebuchadnezzar. Herodotus gives a 
description of the city, as if from his own observation. It stood on 
both sides of the river, in the form of a square, the length of whose 
sides is variously given; by Herodotus it is stated at 120 stadia, making 
the whole circumference 60 miles. It was surrounded by a wall 200 
cubits high and 50 cubits thick, and furnished with 100 brazen gates — 
the last number is raised by Diodorus to. 250. The city was built with 
extreme regularity, with broad, straight streets crossing one another at 
right angles; and the two parts were connected by a roofed bridge built 



BABYLON, CITY OF 49 



of hewn stones, fastened together with iron clamps. Of this bridge, not 
a trace has yet been discovered. The western part of the city is 
undoubtedly the older, belonging to the early and properly Babylonish 
dynasty. Here stood, in the middle of the city, as it is described, the 
famous temple of Belus or Baal, called by the Arabs, Birs Nimrud. 
The next important point on the western side is the mass of ruins 
called Mujellibe, which was probably the royal citadel of the old Baby- 
lonian monarchy. On the eastern side of the river stood the buildings 
of the Neo-Babylonian period, among which the " Hanging Gardens " of 
Semiramis are to be singled out as one of the wonders of the world. 
Of these gardens Diodorus has left us a detailed description. The ruins 
may be recognized in the mound called El-Kasr. The city suffered 
greatly from the Persian conquest. Xerxes plundered the temple of 
Belus, which had been hitherto spared, and Herodotus found it empty. 
Although the Persian kings made Babylon their residence, nothing was 
done for the restoration of the city; and Alexander the Great, who, on 
his entrance, in 331 b. c, had promised the inhabitants to rebuild the 
ruined temple, was unable even to clear away the rubbish, although he 
employed 10,000 workmen for two months. After his death in the palace 
of Nebuchadnezzar, and the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by 
Seleucus Nicator, Babylon went rapidly to decay. — Standard Encyclo- 
pedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. " Babylonia," p. 37. 

Babylon, City of, Description by Herodotus. — 178. When Cyrus 
had reduced all the other parts of the continent, he attacked the Assyr- 
ians. Now Assyria contains many large cities, but the most renowned 
and the strongest, and where the seat of government was established 
after the destruction of Nineveh, was Babylon, which is of the following 
description: The city stands in a spacious plain, and is quadrangular, 
and shows a front on every side of one hundred and twenty stades; these 
stades make up the sum of four hundred and eighty in the whole cir- 
cumference. Such is the size of the city of Babylon. It was adorned 
in a manner surpassing any city we are acquainted with. In the first 
place, a moat deep, wide, and full of water, runs entirely around it; 
next, there is a wall fifty royal cubits in breadth, and in height two 
hundred; but the royal cubit is larger than the common one by three 
fingers' breadth. 

179. . . . And on the top of the wall, at the edges, they built dwell- 
ings of one story, fronting each other, and they left a space between 
these dwellings sufficient for turning a chariot with four horses. In the 
circumference of the wall there were a hundred gates, all of brass, as 
also are the posts and lintels. . . . 

180. In this manner Babylon was encompassed with a wall; and the 
city consists of two divisions, for a river, called the Euphrates, sepa- 
rates it in the middle. . . . The wall, therefore, on either bank, has an 
elbow carried down to the river; from thence, along the curvatures of 
each, bank of the river, runs a wall of baked bricks. The city itself, 
which is. full of houses three and four stories high, is cut up into 
straight streets, as well all the other as the transverse ones that lead 
to the river. At the end of each street a little gate is formed in the 
wall along the riverside, in number equal to the streets; and they are 
all made of brass, and lead down to the edge of the river. 

181. This outer wall, then, is the chief defense, but another wall 
runs round within, not much inferior to the other in strength, though 
narrower. In the middle of each division of the city fortified buildings 
were erected; in one, the royal palace, with a spacious and strong 
inclosure, brazen-gated; and in the other, the precinct of Jupiter Belus, 
which in my time was still in existence, a square building of two stades 

4 



50 BABYLON, CITY OF 

on every side. In the midst of this precinct is built a solid tower of 
one stade both in length and breadth, and on this tower rose another, 
and another upon that, to the number of eight; and an ascent to these 
is outside, running spirally round all the towers. About the middle of 
the ascent there is a landing place and seats to rest on, on which those 
who go up sit down and rest themselves; and in the uppermost tower 
stands a spacious temple. . . . 

183. There is also another temple below, within the precinct at 
Babylon; in it is a large golden statue of Jupiter [Bel] seated, and near 
it is placed a large table of gold, the throne also and the step are of 
gold, which together weigh eight hundred talents, as the Chaldeans 
affirm. . . . There was also at that time within the precincts of this 
temple a statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high: I, indeed, did not see 
it; I only relate what is said by the Chaldeans. Darius, son of Hys- 
taspes, formed a design to take away this statue, but dared not do so; 
but Xerxes, son of Darius, took it, and killed the priest who forbade 
him to remove it. — Herodotus, book 1, pars. 178-183, pp. 77-79, translated 
by Henry Gary, M. A. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1864. 

Babylon, Extent of. — The district within the walls [of Babylon] 
represented a vast intrenched camp, more than what we now mean by 
a city. Aristotle remarks with respect to it: " It is not walls by them- 
selves that make a town. Otherwise one would only have to surround 
the Peloponnese with a wall [in order to constitute it a city]. The case 
is the same with Babylon and all other towns, the walls of which inclose 
rather a nation than a body of citizens." Large portions of the space 
inclosed were occupied by gardens, orchards, and palm groves; some 
part of it was even devoted to the cultivation of corn [wheat]. It was cal- 
culated that, in case of a siege, the inhabitants might, by making the best 
use of all the unoccupied ground, raise grain sufficient for their own con- 
sumption. — "Egypt and Babylon, 1 ' George Rawlinson, M. A., pp. 50, 51. 
New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Babylon, City or, Its Palaces and Temples. — The most remarkable 
buildings which the city contained were the two palaces, one on either 
side of the river, and the great temple of Belus. Herodotus describes 
the great temple as contained within a square inclosure, two stades 
(nearly a quarter of a mile) both in length and breadth. Its chief 
feature was the ziggurat, or tower, a huge solid mass of brickwork, 
built (like all Babylonian temple towers) in stages, square being em- 
placed on square, and a sort of rude pyramid being thus formed, at the 
top of which was the main shrine of the god. [pp. 514, 515] . . . 

The great palace was a building of still larger dimensions than the 
great temple. According to Diodorus, it was situated within a triple 
inclosure, the innermost wall being twenty stades, the second forty 
stades, and the outermost sixty stades (nearly seven miles), in cir- 
cumference, [p. 516] . . . 

But the main glory of the palace was its pleasure-ground — the 
" Hanging Gardens," which the Greeks regarded as one of the seven 
wonders of the world. This extraordinary construction, which owed 
its erection to the whim of a woman, was a square, each side of which 
measured 400 Greek feet. It was supported upon several tiers of open 
arches, built one over the other, like the walls of a classic theater, and 
sustaining at each stage, or story, a solid platform, from which the 
piers of the next tier of arches rose. The building towered into the 
air to the height of at least seventy-five feet, and was covered at the 
top with a great mass of earth, in which there grew not merely flow- 
ers and shrubs, but trees also of the largest size. Water was sup- 



BABYLON, WEALTH OF 51 

plied from the Euphrates through pipes, and was raised (it is said) by 
a screw working on the principle of Archimedes. — " The Five Great 
Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World," George Rawlinson, M. A., 
Vol. II, pp. 514-517 ; " The Fourth Monarchy;' chap. 4. New York: Dodd, 
Mead & Co. 

Babylon, Luxury of. — The luxury of the Babylonians is a constant 
theme with both sacred and profane writers. The " daughter of the 
Chaldeans " was " tender and delicate," " given to pleasures," apt to 
" dwell carelessly." Her young men made themselves " as princes to 
look at, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads," painting their faces, 
wearing earrings, and clothing themselves in robes of soft and rich 
material. Extensive polygamy prevailed. The pleasures of the table 
were carried to excess. Drunkenness was common. Rich unguents were 
invented. The tables groaned under the weight of gold and silver plate. 
In every possible way the Babylonians practised luxuriousness of liv- 
ing, and in respect of softness and self-indulgence they certainly did not 
fall short of any nation of antiquity. — Id., Vol. II, pp. 504, 505; " The 
Fourth Monarchy" chap. 3. 

Babylon, Golden City. — We have noticed indirectly, in connection 
with its commerce, the great wealth of Babylon. Isaiah calls it em- 
phatically "the golden city" (Isa. 14: 4), or "the exactress of gold," 
as the passage may be rendered literally. Jeremiah compares Babylon 
to "a golden cup in the hand of the Lord" (Jer. 51: 7), and calls her 
"abundant in treasures " (verse 13), declaring, moreover, that at her 
fall all those who partook of her spoil should be "satisfied" (Jer. 50: 
10). In Daniel the Babylonian kingdom is typified by the "head of 
gold" (Dan. 2: 38), and the opulence of the monarch is shown by the 
enormous size of the image, or rather pillar, of gold which he set up, 
a pillar ninety feet high by nine feet wide (Dan. 3: 1). The inscrip- 
tions are in accordance. Nebuchadnezzar tells us that he brought into 
the treasury of Merodach at Babylon " wares, and ornaments for the 
women, silver, molten gold, precious stones, metal, umritgana and cedar 
wood, a splendid abundance, riches and sources of joy." The temple of 
Merodach he "made conspicuous with fine linen, and covered its seats 
with splendid gold, with lapis lazuli, and blocks of alabaster." Its 
portico "with brilliant gold he caused men to cover; the lower thresh- 
old, the cedar awnings with gold and precious stones he embellished." 
And the rest of his sacred buildings were adorned similarly. 

The primary source of the wealth of Babylon was its agriculture. 
Herodotus tells us that the yield of grain was commonly two hundred- 
fold, and in some instances three hundred-fold. Pliny asserts that the 
wheat crop was reaped twice, and afterward afforded good keep for 
beasts. When Babylonia became a province of the Persian Empire, it 
paid a tribute of a thousand talents of silver, and at the same time 
furnished the entire provision of the court during one third of the year. 
Notwithstanding these calls upon them, its satraps became enormously 
wealthy. To the wealth obtained by agriculture is to be added that 
derived from commerce and from conquest. Both of these points have 
already engaged our attention, and we have seen reason to believe that 
the gains made were in each case very great. Scripture makes allusion 
to the agricultural wealth of the country, when it enumerates among 
the chief calamities of the final invasion the " cutting off of the sower, 
and of him that handled the sickle in the time of harvest " (Jer. 50: 16) ; 
and again when it makes special mention of the " opening of the gran- 
aries " as a feature in the sack of the city (verse 26). The commercial 
wealth is implied in the description of Babylon as " a city of mer- 



52 BABYLON, THE CAPITAL 

chants" (Eze. 17: 4), and of Babylonia as "a land of traffic" (ibid.). 
The wealth derived from conquest receives notice in the statement of 
Habakkuk, " Because thou hast spoiled many nations, all the remnant 
of the people shall spoil thee" (Hab. 2: 8), and is illustrated by the 
narrative of Kings (2 Kings 25: 13-17). Nebuchadnezzar alludes to it 
when he says, " A palace for my royalty in the midst of the city of 
Babylon I built, . . . tall cedars for its porticoes I fitted, . . . with silver, 
gold, and precious stones I overlaid its gates. ... I valiantly collected 
spoils; as an adornment of the house were they arranged and collected 
within it; trophies, abundance, royal treasures, I accumulated and gath- 
ered together; " and again, "Gatherings from great lands I made; and, 
like the hills, I upraised its head." — " Egypt and Babylon," George Raw- 
linson, M. A., pp. 96-98. New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Babylon, The Capital of Ancient Learning. — Here were the great 
libraries of the Semitic race. Here were the scholars who copied so 
painstakingly every little omen or legend that had come down to them 
out of the hoary past. Here were the men who calculated eclipses, 
watched the moon's changes, and looked nightly from observatories 
upon the stately march of constellations over the sky. Here were the 
priests who preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerian language, 
that its sad plaints and solemn prayers might be kept for use in tem- 
ple worship. — "History of Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, 
Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 575, 576, 6th edition. New York: The Abingdon 
Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Religious Capital of the Semitic Race. — The Assyrian 
rulers regarded it as both a privilege and a solemn duty to come to 
Babylon and invoke the protection of Marduk and Nabu. In E-Saggila 
the installation of the rulers over Babylonia took place, and a visit to 
Marduk's temple was incomplete without a pilgrimage across the river 
to E-Zida. The influence of these two temples upon the whole course of 
Babylonian history from the third millennium on, can hardly be over- 
estimated. From the schools grouped around E-Saggila and E-Zida went 
forth the decrees that shaped the doctrinal development of the religion 
of Babylonia and Assyria. . . . The thought of E-Saggila and E-Zida 
must have stirred up emotions in the breast of a Babylonian and Assyr- 
ian, that can only be compared to a pious Mohammedan's enthusiasm 
for Mecca, or the longing of an ardent Hebrew for Jerusalem. . . . The 
priests of Marduk could view with equanimity the rise and growth of 
Assyria's power. The influence of E-Saggila and E-Zida was not affected 
by such a shifting of the political kaleidoscope. Babylon remained the 
religious center of the country. When one day, a Persian conqueror — 
Cyrus — entered the precincts of E-Saggila, his first step was to ac- 
knowledge Marduk and Nabu as the supreme powers in the world; and 
the successors of Alexander continue to glory in the title, "Adorner of 
E-Saggila and E-Zida." — " The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria," Mor- 
ris Jastrow, Jr., pp. 649, 650. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1898. 

Babylon, A World Center. — Babylonian civilization and history 
was not confined to the region watered by the Tigris and Euphrates. 
A civilization so advanced as that of Babylonia could not exist without 
attracting to itself the assistance of neighboring lands and carrying 
thither its own achievements. Thus we see, even in remote antiquity, 
Babylon reaching out toward Palestine, Armenia, Elam, and even to 
Arabia. Her merchants went forth in the pursuits of commerce, her 
soldiers to war and victory. The products of her artists and artisans 



BABYLON, POWER OF 53 

were laid in foreign markets. Her superfluous population found homes 
on alien soil. — " The History of Babylonia and Assyria," Hugo Winckler, 
Ph. D., p. 5, translated by J. A. Craig. New York: Charles: Scribner's 
Sons, 1907. 

Babylon, A Souece of Invention and Learning. — Babylonia her- 
self, so far as we know, drew her stores from no foreign country. Hers 
was apparently the genius which excogitated an alphabet; worked out 
the simpler problems of arithmetic; invented implements for measuring 
the lapse of time; conceived the idea of raising enormous structures 
with the poorest of all materials — clay; discovered the art of polishing, 
boring, and engraving gems; reproduced with truthfulness the outlines 
of human and animal forms; attained to high perfection in textile 
fabrics; studied with success the motions of the heavenly bodies; con- 
ceived of grammar as a science; elaborated a system of law; saw the 
value of an exact chronology, — in almost every branch of science made 
a beginning, thus rendering it comparatively easy for other nations to 
proceed with the superstructure. To Babylonia, far more than to Egypt, 
we owe the art and learning of the Greeks. It was from the East, not 
from Egypt, that Greece derived her architecture, her sculpture, her 
science, her philosophy, her mathematical knowledge — in a word, her 
intellectual life. And Babylon was the source to which the entire 
stream of Eastern civilization may be traced. — " The Five Great Mon- 
archies of the Ancient Eastern World," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. 
Ill, pp. 75, 76; "The Fourth Monarchy," chap. 8. New York: Dodd, 
Mead '& Co. 

Babylon, Power of King. — The position of the king in the Baby- 
lonian court, as absolute lord and master of the lives and liberties even 
of the greatest of his subjects, able to condemn to death, not only in- 
dividuals (Dan. 3: 19), but a whole class, and that class the highest in 
the. state (Dan. 2: 12-14), is thoroughly in accordance with all that 
profane history tells us of the Babylonian governmental system. In 
Oriental monarchies it was not always so. The writer of the book of 
Daniel shows a just appreciation of the difference between the Baby- 
lonian and the Medo-Persian systems, when he makes Darius the Mede 
influenced by his nobles, and compelled to do things against his will 
by a "law of the Medes and Persians, which altered not" (Dan. 6: 
14-17); while Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian is wholly untrammeled, 
and does not seem even to consult his lords on matters where the high- 
est interests of the state are concerned. Babylonian and Assyrian 
monarchs were absolute in the fullest sense of the word. No tradi- 
tional " law " restrained them. Their nobility was an official nobility, 
like that of Turkey at the present day. They themselves raised it to 
power; and it lay with them to degrade its members at their pleasure. 
Officers such as the tartan, or " commander-in-chief," the rabshakeh, 
or " chief cupbearer," and the rabsaris, or " chief eunuch," held the 
highest positions (2 Kings 18: 17) — mere creatures of the king, whom 
a " breath had made," and a breath could as easily " unmake." — 
"Egypt and Babylon" George Rawlinson, M. A., p. 39. New York: 
John B. Alden, 1885. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar Joint Ruler in. — NabulasSar, the father, 
understanding that his deputy in Egypt, Ccele-Syria, and Phoenicia, was 
up in arms, being old himself, and past the fatigues of war, he sent his 
son Nabuchodonosor [Nebuchadnezzar] (in the vigor of his youth), at 
the head of a strong army, to bring him to reason. This prince encoun- 



54 BABYLON, CHRONOLOGY OF 

tered the rebel, defeated him, and recovered all the provinces that were 
engaged in the revolt. 

It happened, at the same time, that Nabulassar fell sick at Baby- 
lon, and died, after a reign of nine and twenty years. It was not long 
before the son had notice of his father's death; whereupon he immedi- 
ately settled his affairs in Egypt and the rest of the provinces; and com- 
mitting the captive Jews, Phoenicians, and Syrians, that had been in 
Egypt, to the care of some particular confidents, to see them brought 
up to Babylon, together with the army and the baggage, he himself, 
with a small retinue, took his journey for Babylon by the way of the 
desert. — Josephus, " In Answer to Apion," Whiston's translation, took 1, 
pars. 38, 39 (Vol. II, p. 461). New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Babylon, Nebuchadrezzar. — Two years later, in b. c. 604, Nabo- 
polassar died, and Nebuchadrezzar succeeded to the throne. His name 
is written Nabu-kudur-uzur, " O Nebo, defend the crown," in the cune- 
iform, so that the form Nebuchadrezzar, which is found in the book 
of Jeremiah, is the only correct one, Nebuchadnezzar being a corruption 
of it, like Asnapper for Assur-bani-pal. [p. 131] . . . 

Records of Nebuchadrezzar's building operations exist in plenty, 
but of his annals only a small fragment has as yet been discovered. 
This, however, contains an allusion to his campaign in Egypt, of which 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel prophesied, and which an overhasty criticism has 
denied. The campaign, we learn, took place in the thirty-seventh year 
of his reign. Other references to it have been detected on the Egyptian 
monuments, and we gather from these that the Babylonian army swept 
the whole of the northern part of Egypt, and penetrated as far south 
as Assouan, from whence they were forced to retreat by the Egyptian 
general Hor. Amasis was at this time king of Egypt, having dethroned 
and murdered Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of the Bible, whose miserable 
end had been foretold by Jeremiah (44: 30). [p. 132] . . . 

Nebuchadrezzar had a long reign of nearly forty-three years. — 
"Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments" A. H. Sayce, M. A., pp. 
131-133. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1890. 

Babylon, Ancient, Chronology of Nebuchadnezzar's Reign. — The 
first year of Judah's captivity was also the first year of Nebuchadnezzar's 
power, and the prophetic date of the Babylonian monarchy. The year 
of that monarch's accession, in the canon, is a. c. 604. And to this 
date the prophet refers in the vision of the image, which is said to be 
in the second year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. But it appears, from other 
passages, that this monarch began to reign conjointly with his father 
two years earlier; and from this earlier accession his years, and those 
of the captivity, are reckoned in every other place. This appears from 
Daniel's own narrative. He and his fellows were nourished three full 
years to stand before the king. Yet the vision was interpreted in 
Nebuchadnezzar's second year. Hence the separation of those youths 
must have been more than one and less than two years before his 
accession, and their captivity still earlier. Now this took place in the 
third of Jehoiakim, the time which is elsewhere called the first of 
Nebuchadnezzar. Hence at Babylon, the seat of empire, the reign of 
the king was dated from the death of his father, a. c. 604; but in 
Judea, two years earlier, a. c. 606, from his actual supreme command 
over the Babylonian forces. — " The Four Prophetic Empires," Rev. T. R. 
Birks, M. A., pp. 25, 26, 2d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and See- 
ley, 1845. 



BABYLON, NEBUCHADNEZZAR 55 

Babylon, Golden Age of, under Nebuchadnezzar. — Nebuchadnezzar 
is the great monarch of the Babylonian Empire, which, lasting only 88 
years — from b. c. 625 to b. c. 538 — was for nearly half the time under 
his sway. Its military glory is due chiefly to him, while the con- 
structive energy, which constitutes its especial characteristic, belongs 
to it still more markedly through his character and genius. It is 
scarcely too much to say that, but for Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonians 
would have had no place in history. At any rate, their actual place is 
owing almost entirely to this prince, who to the military talents of an 
able general added a grandeur of artistic conception and a skill in 
construction which place him on a par with the greatest builders of 
antiquity. — " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World" 
George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. Ill, p. 50; " The Fourth Monarchy," chap. 
8. New York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar the Great Builder of. — So began one 
of the longest and most brilliant reigns (604-562 b. c.) of human history. 
Nebuchadnezzar has not left the world without written witnesses of his 
great deeds. In his inscriptions, however, he follows the common 
Babylonian custom of omitting all reference to wars, sieges, campaigns, 
and battles. Only in a very few instances is there a single reference to 
any of these. The great burden of all the inscriptions is building. In 
Babylon was centered his chief pride, and of temples and palaces, and 
not of battles and sieges, were his boasts. — " History of Babylonia and 
Assyria" Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 504, 505, 6th edition. 
New York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar's Military Exploits. — This Babylonian 
king conquered Egypt, and Syria, and Phoenicia, and Arabia, and ex- 
ceeded in his exploits all that had reigned before him in Babylon and 
Chaldea. — ■ Berosus, the Chaldean; cited by Josephus, " Against Apion," 
Whiston's translation, book 1, par. 19. Philadelphia: The John C. 
Winston Company. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar's First Expedition Against Jerusalem. 

— The first year of Nebuchadnezzar falling, according to Jeremiah, in 
some part of the fourth of Jehoiakim, this expedition, in the course of 
which he besieged Jerusalem, was before his accession to the throne. 
This coincides with the account in Berosus of Nebuchadnezzar's suc- 
cessful expedition, when sent by his father Nabopolassar, from which 
he brought to Babylon Jewish captives, as well as Syrian, Phoenician, 
and Egyptian; and "from the spoils" of which war "he ornamented 
splendidly the temple of Bel," who was specially his god. In Daniel, 
whose king Nebuchadnezzar had been from boyhood, it is nothing sur- 
prising that he should speak of Nebuchadnezzar in no other way than 
" king Nebuchadnezzar," even when speaking of the time before his 
accession. Daniel does not ordinarily mention kings by their name 
only, Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Cyrus, but adds the royal title also. 

— " Daniel the Prophet" Rev. E. B. Pusey, D. D., Lecture 7, pp. 399, 400. 
London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar's Treatment of Captives. — From the 
time when he first took the field at the head of an army, he adopted the 
Assyrian system of forcibly removing almost the whole population of 
a conquered country, and planting it in a distant part of his dominions. 
Crowds of captives, the produce of his various wars, — Jews, Egyptians, 
Phoenicians, Syrians, Ammonites, Moabites, — were settled in various 



56 BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 

parts of Mesopotamia, more especially about Babylon. From these un- 
fortunates forced labor was as a matter of course required; and it 
seems to have been chiefly, if not solely, by their exertions that the 
magnificent series of great works was accomplished, which formed the 
special glory of the Fourth Monarchy. — " The Five Great Monarchies 
of the Ancient Eastern World" George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. Ill, pp. 
55, 56; " The Fourth Monarchy," chap. 8. New York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, Madness of. — It is now conceded that 
the madness of Nebuchadnezzar agrees with the description of a rare 
sort of disease, called lycanthropy, from one form of it, of which our 
earliest notice is in a Greek medical writer of the fourth century after 
our Lord, in which the sufferer retains his consciousness in other re- 
spects, but imagines himself to be changed into some animal, and acts, 
up to a certain point, in conformity with that persuasion. Those who 
imagined themselves changed into wolves howled like wolves, and (there 
is reason to believe, falsely) accused themselves of bloodshed. Others 
imitated the cries of dogs. It is said that others thought themselves 
nightingales, lions, cats, or cocks, and these crowed like a cock. — 
" Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, D. D., Lecture 7, pp. 428, 429. 
London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar's Madness. — In the inscription known 
as the " Standard Inscription " of Nebuchadnezzar, the monarch him- 
self relates that during some considerable time — four years apparently 
— all his great works were at a stand, — "he did not build high places; 
he did not lay up treasures; he did not sing the praises of his lord, 
Merodach; he did not offer him sacrifice; he did not keep up. the works 
of irrigation." The cause of this suspension, at once of religious wor- 
ship and of works of utility, is stated in the document in phrases of 
such obscurity as to be unintelligible; until therefore a better explana- 
tion is offered, it cannot but be regarded as at least highly probable 
that the passage in question contains the royal version of that remark- 
able story with which Daniel concludes his notice of the great Chaldean 
sovereign. — " The Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture 
Records," George Rawlinson, M. A., p. 137. New York: John B. Alden, 
1888. 

Babylon, Capture of, by Cybus, According to Herodotus. — He had 
recourse to the following stratagem: Having stationed the bulk of his 
army near the passage of the river where it enters Babylon, and again 
having stationed another division beyond the city, where the river 
makes its exit, he gave orders to his forces to enter the city as soon as 
they should see the stream fordable. Having thus stationed his forces 
and given these directions, he himself marched away with the inef- 
fective part of his army; and having come to the lake [" a considerable 
distance above Babylon"], Cyrus did the same with respect to the river 
and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had done [Queen Nitocris 
had once diverted the river into a marshy lake in order to build a bridge 
over it in Babylon] ; for having diverted the river, by means of a canal, 
into the lake, which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel 
fordable by the sinking of the river. When this took place, the Per- 
sians who were appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the 
river, which had now subsided to about the middle of a man's thigh, 
entered Babylon fry this passage. If, however, the Babylonians had 
been aware of it beforehand, or had known what Cyrus was about, they 
would not have suffered the Persians to enter the city, but would have 
utterly destroyed them; for, having shut all the little gates that lead 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 57 

down to the river, and mounting the walls that extend along the banks 
of the river, they would have caught them as in a net; whereas the 
Persians came upon them by surprise. It is related by the people 
who inhabited this city, that, by reason of its great extent, when they 
who were at the extremities were taken, those of the Babylonians who 
inhabited the center knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to 
be a festival); but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying them- 
selves, till they received certain information of the truth. And thus 
Babylon was taken for the first time. — Herodotus, book 1, par. 191, 
pp. 82, 83, translated by Henry Gary, M. A. New York: Harper & Broth- 
ers, 1864. [Bracketed remarks by editors.] 

Babylon, Capture or, According to Xenophon. — 13. Thus his army 
was employed [digging great trenches alongside the walls], but the 
men within the walls laughed at his preparations, knowing they had 
supplies to last them more than twenty years. When Cyrus heard that, 
he divided his army into twelve, each division to keep guard for one 
month in the year. 14. At this the Babylonians laughed louder still, 
greatly pleased at the idea of being guarded by Phrygians and Lydians 
and Arabians and Cappadocians, all of whom, they thought, would be 
more friendly to themselves than to the Persians. 

15. However by this time the trenches were dug. And Cyrus heard 
that it was a time of high festival in Babylon when the citizens drink 
and make merry the whole night long. As soon as the darkness fell, 
he set his men to work. 16. The mouths of the trenches were opened, 
and during the night the water poured in, so that the river-bed formed 
a highway into the heart of the town. 

17. When the great stream had taken to its new channel, Cyrus 
ordered his Persian officers to bring up their thousands, horse and foot 
alike, each detachment drawn up two deep, the allies to follow in their 
old order. 18. They lined up immediately, and Cyrus made his own 
bodyguard descend into the dry channel first, to see if the bottom was 
firm enough for marching. 19. When they said it was, he called a 
council of all his generals and spoke as follows: 

20. "My friends, the river has stepped aside for us; he offers us a 
passage by his own high-road into Babylon. We must take heart and 
enter fearlessly, remembering that those against whom we are to march 
this night are the very men we have conquered before, and that too 
when they had their allies to help them, when they were awake, alert, 
and sober, armed to the teeth, and in their battle order. 21. Tonight 
we go against them when some are asleep and some are drunk, and all 
are unprepared: and when they learn that we are within the walls, 
sheer astonishment will make them still more helpless than before. 
22. If any of you are troubled by the thought of volleys from the roofs 
when the army enters the city, I bid you lay these fears aside: if our 
enemies do climb their roofs, we have a god to help us, the god of Fire. 
Their porches are easily set aflame, for the doors are made of palm 
wood and varnished with bitumen, the very food of fire. 23. And we 
shall come with the pine-torch to kindle it, and with pitch and tow to 
feed it. They will be forced to flee from their homes or be burnt to 
death. 24. Come, take your swords in your hand: God helping me, I 
will lead you on. Do you," he said, turning to Gadatas and Gobryas, 
"show us the streets, you know them; and once we are inside, lead 
us straight to the palace." 

25. " So we will," said Gobryas and his men, " and it would not 
surprise us to find the palace gates unbarred, for this night the whole 
city is given over to revelry. Still, we are sure to find a guard, for 
one is always stationed there." 



58 BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 

" Then," said Cyrus, " there is no time for lingering; we must be 
off at once and take them unprepared." 

26. Thereupon they entered: and of those they met some were 
struck down and slain, and others fled into their houses, and some 
raised the hue and cry, but Gobryas and his friends covered the cry 
with their shouts, as though they were revelers themselves. And thus, 
making their way by the quickest route, they soon found themselves 
before the king's palace. 27. Here the detachment under Gobryas and 
Gadatas found the gates closed, but the men appointed to attack the 
guards rushed on them as they lay drinking round a blazing fire, and 
closed with them then and there. 28. As the din grew louder and 
louder, those within became aware of the tumult, till, the king bidding 
them see what it meant, some of them opened the gates and ran out. 
29. Gadatas and his men, seeing the gates swing wide, darted in, hard 
on the heels of the others who fled back again, and they chased them at 
the sword's point into the presence of the king. 

30. They found him on his feet, with his drawn scimitar in his 
hand. By sheer weight of numbers they overpowered him: and not one 
of his retinue escaped, they were all cut down. — " Cyropmdia: The Edu- 
cation of Cyrus," Xenophon, oook 7, chap. 5, pars. 1S-80, Dakyns* trans- 
lation. London: J. M. Dent & Son. 

Note. — Xenophon's " Cyropsedia " is classed as historical fiction, the writer 
enlarging upon conversations and details to round out his story of Cyrus, yet 
he must have had access to a vast mass of material. Of this description of 
Babylon's fall, Rawlinson says, " The picture is graphic, and may well be true." 
— " The Fourth Monarchy/' chap. 8, p. 72, footnote. — Eds. 

Babylon, Capture of, by Cyrus, According to the Tablets. — 213. 
Fortunately we are not dependent upon the statements of second or 
third hand historians for a description of the fall of Babylon. We have 
the records both of Nabonidus, the reigning and vanquished king, and 
of Cyrus, the conqueror. Though somewhat fragmentary in some places, 
they nevertheless furnish us with a reasonably good picture of that 
momentous event. Nabonidus's own record [rather, the record of the 
scribes, evidently priests, who kept the annals of his reign. — Eds.] will 
be cited first (Nab.-Cyr. Chron. col. i. Rev. 12-24) : 

" In the month Tammuz [June], when Cyrus gave battle in the city 
of Opis, on the banks of the river Salsallat, to the troops of Accad, the 
inhabitants of Accad he subdued. Whenever the people gathered them- 
selves together, he slew them. On the 14th day of the month, Sippar 
was taken without fighting. Nabonidus fled. On the 16th day, Gobryas, 
the governor of Guti, and the troops of Cyrus entered Babylon without 
battle. Nabonidus, because of his delay, was taken prisoner in Babylon. 
Until the end of the month, the shields of the country of Guti guarded 
the gates of Esagila. No weapons were brought into Esagila or 
other sacred precincts, nor was any war standard carried there. On 
the 3d day of Marcheshvan (October), Cyrus entered Babylon. Ob- 
structions (?) fell down before him. Peace for the city he established. 
Cyrus proclaimed peace to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, he 
appointed governor of Babylon. And from the month Kislev (Novem- 
ber) to Adar (February), the gods of Accad, whom Nabonidus had 
carried to Babylon, returned to their own cities. In the night of the 
11th day of Marcheshvan, Gobryas against ... he slew the king's son. 
From the 27th of Adar (February) to the 3d of Nisan (March), there 
was lamentation in Accad; all the people hung their heads." 

This remarkable piece of the royal annals astonishes us by record- 
ing but one battle in the neighborhood of Babylon. That was fought near 
Accad, and resulted favorably for Cyrus's troops. Thence the way was 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 59 

open into the city of the empire. The reception of the army is equaled 
only hy the liberty which was announced for the whole city. 

214. Cyrus's own cylinder gives us a no less wonderful story. This 
sets out by assuring the reader that Cyrus was thoroughly imbued with 
the idea that he was the man of destiny (Cyl. 11-19, 22-24). " Through 
all lands he (Merodach) searched, he saw him, and he sought the 
righteous prince, after his own heart, whom he took by the hand. 
Cyrus, king of Anshan, he called by name; to sovereignty over the 
whole world he appointed him. The country of Kutu (Gutium), all the 
Umman-Manda, he made his subjects. As for the black-headed people, 
whom he (Merodach) caused his (Cyrus's) hands to conquer, with 
justice and uprightness he cared for them. Merodach, the great lord, 
guardian of his people, beheld with joy his gracious deeds and his 
upright heart; to his own city, Babylon, he issued orders to march, and 
he caused him to take the road to Babylon, marching by his side like 
a friend and companion. His wide-extended troops, whose number like 
the waters of a river cannot be known, fully equipped, marched by his 
side. "Without skirmish or battle he (Merodach) made him enter 
Babylon. His city Babylon he spared (in its) distress. Nabonidus, 
the king, who did not reverence him, he delivered into his hand. All 
the people of Babylon, all Sumer and Accad, nobles and governors, pros- 
trated themselves before him, kissed his feet, rejoiced at his sovereignty, 
their faces beamed with joy. The lord (Merodach), who by his power 
brings the dead to life, who by care and protection benefits all mankind 
— they gladly did him homage, they obeyed his command. . . . When I 
made my peaceful entrance into Babylon, with joy and rejoicing I took 
up my lordly residence in the king's palace. Merodach, the great lord, 
[granted] me favor among the Babylonians, and I gave daily attention 
to his worship. My vast army spread itself out peacefully in the city 
of Babylon." — " The Monuments and the Old Testament," Ira M. Price, 
Ph. D., pp. 225-228, 5th edition. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publi- 
cation Society, 1907. 

Babylon, Capture of; Differences in the Record. — It will be re- 
membered that the old historian Herodotus tells us that Cyrus drained 
the river Euphrates nearly dry by means of a canal running into a lake, 
and that the Persians marched up through the river gates, which were 
carelessly left open by the Babylonians. No mention of this is made in 
the inscriptions; but there is no reason why Cyrus should not have had 
recourse to this means as well as to fighting. — " The Assyrian Eponym 
Canon," George Smith; cited in " Light for the Last Days," Mr. and Mrs. 
H. Grattan Guinness, p. 421. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Note. — The tablets, it must be remembered, were written by the priestly 
scribes to magnify the part of Marduk in leading Cyrus into Babylon, and in 
the interests of Cyrus, to publish to the world how gladly he was welcomed 
by the people. It would be perfectly in keeping with their style of history to 
omit reference to the siege, and entrance by draining the river, etc. On the other 
hand, both Herodotus and Xenophon wrote in times so near (comparatively) to 
the events, that they must have gathered information from many Babylonian and 
other records. The descriptions of Babylon given by these Greek writers, have 
been generally verified by the modern excavations, showing that they wrote 
from knowledge gained by careful historical research and inquiry. Their ac- 
counts of the draining of the Euphrates by Cyrus are not discredited by the 
omission of such reference in the tablets. All this may be covered by the state- 
ments of both tablets that Cyrus entered without battle; and it would be in 
harmony with their plan, for the glorification of Cyrus as the chosen deliverer of 
Marduk's shrine and people, to omit reference to any street fighting after Cyrus's 
army entered ; though they preserve the essential story of the attack upon the 
citadel. — Eds. 

Babylon, Capture of, the Citadel. — It is clear that a Babylonian 
citadel was not simply a fortress to be used by the garrison for the 



60 BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 

defense of the city as a whole: it was also a royal residence, into which 
the monarch and his court could shut themselves for safety should the 
outer wall of the city itself be penetrated. ... In the case of the South- 
ern citadel of Babylon on which excavations have now been continuously 
carried out for sixteen years, we shall see that it formed a veritable 
township in itself. It was a city within a city, a second Babylon in 
miniature. 

The southern or chief citadel was built on the mound now known as 
the Kasr, and within it Nebuchadnezzar erected his principal palace 
partly over an earlier building of his father Nabopolassar. The palace 
and citadel occupy the old city square or center of Babylon, which is re- 
ferred to in the inscriptions as the irsit Babili, " the Babil place." . . . 
We may conclude that the chief fortress of Babylon always stood upon 
this site, and the city may well have derived its name Bab-ili, " the 
gate of the gods," from the strategic position of its ancient fortress, 
commanding as it does the main approach to Esagila, the famous 
temple of the city god. — "A History of Babylon" L. W. King, p. 27. 

Babylon, Capture of, Slaying of King's Son. — It was October be- 
fore Cyrus entered the city. ... On the night of the 11th of Marchesh- 
van, Gobryas descended (or went) upon or against something, and the 
king, or son of the king, died. The combination of these two state- 
ments, taken in connection with the record of Dan. 5: 30, suggests that 
the latter reading is the correct one. [p. 417] . . . 

The probability is, therefore, that the " son of the King," Belshaz- 
zar, held out against the Persians in some part of the capital, and kept 
during that time a festival on the 11th of Marcheshvan, when Gobryas 
pounced upon the palace, and he, the rightful Chaldean king, was slain, 
as recorded in Daniel. — " The Old Testament in the Light of the His- 
torical Records," T. G. Pinches, pp. 417, 418. 

Babylon, Capture of, Storming the Place of Belshazzar's Feast. 
— Cyrus's triumphal entry took place on 3d Marcheshvan (October 27). 
. . . Seven days after Cyrus's triumphal entry . . . Guburu stormed 
that part of Babylon which still held out against the Medo-Persian 
army. On that night (the 11th of Marcheshvan — November 4) Bel- 
shazzar, " the king's son," was slain. The record of Cyrus confirms the 
narrative of the last day of Babylon as it is depicted in Daniel 5. 
[p. 129] . . . 

As to the feast itself, so vividly described in this chapter of Dan- 
iel, there is nothing, apart from the story of the handwriting on the 
wall, which ought to present any difficulty to a historical critic of the 
broadest school of thought. 

The great palace of Babylon and the portion of the city which it 
commanded was (as Cyrus's tablets lead us to believe) the rallying 
place for the Babylonian army in command of Belshazzar. [p. 130] . . . 

To encourage his soldiers in their struggle with the Medo-Persian 
foe, Belshazzar considered it fit to make a magnificent banquet. He 
was in possession of the treasures that had been carried off from Jeru- 
salem. At his feast, therefore, Belshazzar sought to remind his war- 
riors of the old campaigns which their forefathers fought, when they 
had trodden down the people of Jehovah as the mire in the street?. — 
" Daniel and His Prophecies" Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., pp. 
129-131. London: Williams and Norgate, 1906. 

Babylon, Fall of. — The prophecy of the capture of Babylon is so 
graphic that it takes its place in history, accrediting the accounts of 
Herodotus and Xenopho.n. Its mighty men "forbear to fight; they re- 



BABYLON, CAPTURE OP 61 

main in their strongholds; they become as women. Post shall run to 
meet post, and messenger to meet messenger, to tell the king of Baby- 
lon that his city is taken at the end thereof, and that, the passages are 
stopped, and the reeds they have burned with fire, and the men of war 
are affrighted." 

The title " vision " justifies us in conceiving that vivid pictures, 
such as those of the capture of Babylon in Jeremiah and Isaiah (and 
the like in other prophets), were first spread before the prophets' minds, 
and then described by them in God-given words. The traits are char- 
acteristic of this siege, not of sieges in general. The idolatrous festival 
of Belshazzar; its night of revelry; its sudden interruption; the fruit- 
less cry "To arms; " the drying up of the Euphrates as by fire; the 
possession of the passages; the vast city taken, ere it was aware; the 
hurrying of the posts to tell the king — we see it all vividly with our 
own eyes, as much as in the historical relations of the capture. 

Yet neither prophet supplies the whole history. Both see the be- 
sieging armies; Jeremiah, the kings of the Medes and of the North; 
Isaiah, the Persians also; both, the destruction of Babylon, the break- 
ing in pieces of her gods. 

Isaiah alone sees the festive night, the sudden surprise amid 
their revelry. " The night of my pleasure He hath turned to terror to 
me. They prepare the table; watch the watch; eat, drink; 'arise, ye 
princes; anoint the shield.'" In another vision he sees the slaughter 
of the king, his burial not among the tombs of his fathers. 

Jeremiah alone sees the mode of the capture, the completeness of 
the slumber of repose in which they were wrapped. 

Daniel, Xenophon, Herodotus, relate the festival-revelry; Herodo- 
tus and Xenophon state that Cyrus knew of it, and entered by the Eu- 
phrates. Daniel and Xenophon relate the death of the king; Xenophon 
relates that the assault was in the night, that the watch was surprised 
drinking, the city captured through the death of the king, in that same 
night, as Daniel relates that in the night the king was slain; Herodotus 
adds that the river gates were left open, those same passages which 
Jeremiah beholds as seized. The complete security of Babylon is re- 
lated by both the Greek historians; its deliberated unwarlikeness stands 
in strange contrast to its subsequent energy in rebelling. — " Daniel the 
Prophet" Rev. E. B. Pusey, D. D., Lecture 5, pp.' 270, 271. London: 
Rivingtons, 1868. 

Babylon, Capture of, Scene of Belshazzar' s Feast. — The front of 
the great palace of Belshazzar was six times as great as the front of 
St. Peter's church at Rome, four times as great as the length of the 
Capitol at Washington. The whole structure was surrounded by three 
walls, so high that it would take thirteen tall men, standing erect one 
above the other, to reach the top. The outer wall of the palace inclosed 
more ground than Central Park in New York. . . . 

The flames of idolatrous sacrifice rose high into heaven from the 
lofty tower of Belus. The hanging gardens were hung with lanterns 
and torches, till they seemed like a mountain of fire at midnight. 
Torchlight processions flowed like rivers of flame through the broad 
streets. The light of lamps outshone the starlight, and the blue Chal- 
dean heavens looked black above the blaze of the great illumination. 
Meanwhile, Belshazzar has entered the hall of banquet, 
"And a thousand dark nobles all bend at his board; 
Fruits glisten, flowers blossom, meats steam, and a flood 
Of the wine that man loveth runs redder than blood; 
Wild dancers are there and a riot of mirth, 
And the beauty that maddens the passions of earth; 



62 BABYLON, CAPTURE OF 

And the crowd all shout, while the vast roofs ring, 
All praise to Belshazzar, Belshazzar the king! " 

" The music and the banquet and the wine; the garlands, the rose 
odors, and the flowers; the sparkling eyes, the flashing ornaments, the 
jeweled arms, the raven hair, the braids, the bracelets, the thin robes 
floating like clouds; the fair forms, the delusion and the false enchant- 
ment of the dizzy scene," take away all reason and all reverence from 
the flushed and crowded revelers. There is now nothing too sacred for 
them to profane, and Belshazzar himself takes the lead in the riot and 
the blasphemy. Even the mighty and terrible Nebuchadnezzar, who 
desolated the sanctuary of Jehovah at Jerusalem, would not use his 
sacred trophies in the worship of his false gods. But this weak and 
wicked successor of the great conqueror, excited with wine and carried 
away with the delusion that no foe can ever capture his great city, is 
anxious to make some grand display of defiant and blasphemous 
desecration. 

" ' Bring forth,' cries the monarch, ' the vessels of gold 
Which my father tore down from the temples of old; 
Bring forth, and we'll drink while the trumpets are blown, 
To the gods of bright silver, of gold, and of stone. 
Bring forth.' And before him the vessels all shine, 
And he bows unto Baal, and he drinks the dark wine, 
While the trumpets bray and the cymbals ring, 
' Praise, praise to Belshazzar, Belshazzar the king.' 
Now what cometh? Look, look! without menace or call, 
Who writes with the lightning's bright hand on the wall? 
What pierceth the king like the point of a dart? 
What drives the bold blood from his cheek to his heart? 
Let the captive of Judah the letters expound. 
They are read; and Belshazzar is dead on the ground. 
Hark! the Persian has come on the conqueror's wing, 
And the Mede's on the throne of Belshazzar the king." 

The graphic lines of the modern poet do not exaggerate the rapidity 
with which the ministers of vengeance came upon Belshazzar and his 
thousand lords on the last night of his impious reign. At the very 
moment when their sacrilegious revelry was at its height, the bodiless 
hand came forth and wrote the words of doom upon the wall of the 
banqueting-room, the armies of Cyrus . . . were already in possession 
of the palace gates when Belshazzar and his princes were drinking wine 
from the vessels of Jehovah and praising the gods of gold and silver 
and stone, and that great feast of boasting and of blasphemy was the 
last ceremonial of the Chaldean kings. — "Night Scenes in the Bible," 
Rev. Daniel March, D. D., pp. 289-294. Philadelphia: Zeigler, McCurdy 
& Co.. 1869. 

Babylon, Fall of, Handwriting on the Wall. — The ancient trans- 
lation of Meni, Meni, Tekel, u-Pharsin, " Numbered, numbered, weighed, 
and divided," ought still to be upheld as the true rendering of the words 
of doom. — " Daniel and His Prophecies," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, 
D. D., p. 133. London: Williams and Norgate, 1906. 

Babylon, Belshazzar as Co-Ruler. — Though there is no clear state- 
ment in his records to this effect, it seems almost certain that the great 
concerns of state were left to his son, Bel-shar-usur ("Bel, protect the 
king," the biblical Belshazzar), who was a sort of regent during prob- 
ably a large part of the reign. That the position of Bel-shar-usur was 
unusual appears quite clearly from the manner of the allusions to him 



BABYLON, EXTINCTION OF 63 

in Nabonidus's inscriptions. At the end of some of them his name is 
coupled in the prayers with that of Nabonidus, and blessings are espe- 
cially invoked upon him.i 

No such usage as this appears in any other text, and there must be 
a specific reason for it, which it is simplest to find in his regency. This 
is supported, likewise, by the otherwise inexplicable conduct of Naboni- 
dus during the most threatening situation in all the history of Babylon. 
When the army of Cyrus, as will be shown later, was approaching the 
city, he remained in retirement at Tema, and gave over the control and 
leadership completely to Bel-shar-usur. By this regency of Belshazzar 
is also explained the origin of the Jewish tradition preserved in the 
book of Daniel, which makes Belshazzar, and not Nabonidus, the last 
king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 1, 30, 31. — "History of Babylonia and As- 
syria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 554, 555, 6th edition. New 
York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Belshazzar as Second Ruler. — Oaths were never sworn 
by the names of any men except kings. . . . [The writer then quotes a 
tablet of the 12th year of Nabonidus. — Eds.]: 

" Ihi-Amurru, son of Nuranu, has sworn by Bel, Nebo, the lady of 
Erech, and Nana, the oath of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, and Bel- 
shazzar, the king's son, that, on the 7th day of the month Adar of the 
12th year of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, I will go to Erech," etc. 

The importance of this inscription is that it places Belshazzar prac- 
tically on the same plane as Nabonidus, his father, five years before the 
latter's deposition, and the bearing of this will not be overlooked. 
Officially, Belshazzar had not been recognized as king, as this would 
have necessitated his father's abdication, but it seems clear that he 
was in some way associated with him on the throne, otherwise his 
name would hardly have been introduced into the oath with which the 
inscription begins. We now see that not only for the Hebrews but also 
for the Babylonians, Belshazzar held a practically royal position. The 
conjecture as to Daniel's being made the third ruler in the kingdom 
because Nabonidus and Belshazzar were the first and second, is thus 
confirmed, and the mention of Belshazzar's third year in Dan. 8: 1 is 
explained. — T. G. Pinches, in Expository Times, Vol. XXVI, April, 1915; 
cited in "Studies in the Book of Daniel," Robert D. Wilson, footnote, 
p. 102. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. 

Babylon, Extinction of. — The second point specially to be noted 
in the prophecies concerning Babylon is the prediction of absolute loss 
of inhabitants. The positions of important cities are usually so well 
chosen, so rich in natural advantages, that population clings to them; 
dwindle and decay as they may, decline as they may from their high 
estate, some town, some village, some collection of human dwellings 
still occupies a portion of the original site; their ruins echo to the 
sound of the human voice; they are not absolute solitudes. Clusters 
of Arab huts cling about the pillars of the great temples at Luxor and 
Karnak; the village of Nebbi Yunus crowns the hill formed by the 
ruins of Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh; Memphis hears the hum of 
the great city of Cairo; Tanis, the capital of Rameses II and his suc- 
cessor, the Pharaoh of the exodus, lives on in the mud hovels of San; 
Damascus, Athens, Rome, Antioch, Byzantium, Alexandria, have re- 



1 So, for example : " From sin against thy great godhead guard me, and grant 
me, as a gift, life for many days, and in the heart of Belshazzar, my first-born 
son, the offspring of my heart, establish reverence for thy great godhead. May 
he not incline to sin, but enjoy the fulness of life " (small inscription of Ur, 
col. ii, lines 20-31). — Langdon, Neubabylonische Kbniqsinschriften, Nabonid, No. 5, 
pp. 252. 253. 



64 BABYLON, RUINS OF 



mained continuously from the time of their foundation towns of con- 
sequence. But Babylon soon became, and has for ages been, an absolute 
desert. — ■ " Egypt and Babylon" George Rawlinson, M. A., pp. 107, 108. 
New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Babylon, Its Glory Ended. — The glory of Babylon is ended. The 
long procession of princes, priests, and kings has passed by. No city 
so vast had stood on the world before it. No city with a history so long 
has even yet appeared. From the beginnings of human history it had 
stood. It was in other hands now, and it would soon be a shapeless 
mass of ruins, standing alone in a sad, untilled desert. — "History of 
Babylonia and Assyria" Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, p. 576, 6th 
edition. New York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Desolations of, in First Century. — No one would hesi- 
tate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of Megalopolitae, 
in Arcadia, " The great city is a great desert." — " The Geography of 
Strabo," book 16, chap. 1, sec. 5 (Vol. Ill, p. 145). London: Henry G. 
Bohn, 1857. 

Babylon, Desolations of, in Fifth Century. — Cyril of Alexandria 
says that at the beginning of the fifth century Babylon was changed into 
a swamp in consequence of the bursting of the canal banks. — " The Old 
Testament in the Light of the Ancient East" Jeremias, Vol. I, p. 294. 

Babylon, Its Ruins, in Twelfth Century. — The ruins of the pal- 
ace of Nebuchadnezzar are still to be seen [twelfth century], but people 
are afraid to venture among them on account of the serpents and scor- 
pions with which they are infested. — Benjamin of Tudela; quoted in 
" History of Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. I, 
p. 109, 6th edition. New York: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Babylon, Become " Heaps." — Shapeless heaps of rubbish cover for 
many an acre the face of the land. ... On all sides, fragments of glass, 
marble, pottery, and inscribed brick are mingled with that peculiar 
nitrous and blanched soil, which, bred from the remains of ancient hab- 
itations, checks or destroys vegetation, and renders the site of Babylon 
a naked and a hideous waste. Owls [which are of a large gray kind, 
and often found in flocks of nearly a hundred] start from the scanty 
thickets, and the foul jackal skulks through the furrows. — " Discoveries 
Among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon," A. Henry Layard, chap. 21, 
p. 413 (Layard's first visit, 1845). 

Babylon, Its Ruins Fulfil the Prophecy. — When we turn from 
this picture of the past to contemplate the present condition of the 
localities, we are at first struck with astonishment at the small traces 
which remain of so vast and wonderful a metropolis. " The broad walls 
of Babylon " are " utterly broken " down, and her " high gates burned 
with fire." Jer. 51: 58. "The golden city hath ceased." Isa. 14: 4. 
God has swept "it with the besom of destruction." Isa. 14: 23. "The 
glory of the kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," is be- 
come "as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah." Isa. 13:19. 
. . . The whole country is covered with traces of exactly that kind 
whicn it was prophesied Babylon should leave. (Jer. 51: 37: "And 
Babylon shall become heaps." Compare 50:26.) Vast "heaps" or 
mounds, shapeless and unsightly, are scattered at intervals over the 
entire region. — " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
World," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. II, pp. 520, 521; "The Fourth 
Monarchy," chap. 4. New York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 



BABYLON, ANCIENT AND MODERN 65 

Babylon, A Recent Look over Its Ruins. — When we gaze today 
[book written in 1912] over the wide area of ruins, we are involuntarily 
reminded of the words of the prophet Jeremiah (50: 39): "Therefore 
the wild beasts of the desert, with the wild beasts of the islands, shall 
dwell there, and the owls shall dwell therein: and it shall be no more 
inhabited forever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to gen- 
eration." — " The Excavations at Babylon," Robert Koldeway, p. 314. 
London, 1914. 

Babylon, Compared with Rome as Religious Capital. — From now 
on [days of " first empire," about time of Hammurabi, when southern 
Babylonia was united with northern, Babylon the capital. — Eds.] the 
"kingdom of Babylon" is the province Kar-duniash, as it was later called, 
with Babilu, the holy city of the god Marduk (Merodach), the seat of 
authority in the Babylonian world of culture. In the history of the 
world Rome alone can be compared with Babylon, when we consider the 
important role which this city of Marduk played in Western Asia. As 
in the Middle Ages Rome exercised its power over men's minds and, 
through its teaching, dominated the world, so did Babylon from this 
time on in the ancient Orient. Just as the German kings strove to gain 
for themselves world sovereignty in papal Rome, as the heiress of world 
power, so shall we find later a similar claim by the kings of Assyria 
who look back to Babylon. — " The History of Babylonia and Assyria," 
Hugo Winckler, Ph. D., pp. 61, 62, translated by J. A. Craig. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

Babylon in Scripture. — Throughout the extent of Bible history, 
from Genesis to Revelation, one city remains, which in fact and symbol 
is execrated as the enemy of God and the stronghold of evil. In Genesis 
we are called to see its foundation, as of the first city that wandering 
men established, and the quick ruin which fell upon its impious build- 
ers. By the prophets we hear it cursed as the oppressor of God's peo- 
ple, the temptress of the nations, full of cruelty and wantonness. And 
in the book of Revelation its character and curse are transferred to 
Rome, and the New Babylon stands over against the New Jerusalem. 

The tradition and infection which have made the name of Baby- 
lon as abhorred in Scripture as Satan's own, are represented as the 
tradition and infection of pride, — the pride which, in the audacity of 
youth, proposes to attempt to be equal with God: "Go to, let us build 
us a city and a tower, whose top may touch heaven, and let us make us 
a name;" the pride which, amid the success and wealth of later years, 
forgets that there is a God at all : " Thou sayest in thine heart, I am, 
and there is none beside me." Babylon is the Atheist of the Old Testa- 
ment, as she is the Antichrist of the New. — " The Book of Isaiah ." 
George Adam Smith, M. A., D. D. (" The Expositor's Bible "J, Vol. II, 
p. 189. London : Hodder and Stoughton. 

Babylon of the West. — The shell of Babylon, the gorgeous city 
which rose by Euphrates, has indeed sunk into heaps; but Babylon her- 
self is not dead. Babylon never dies. To the conscience of Christ's 
seer, this mother of harlots, though dead and desert in the East, came 
to life again in the West. — Id., Vol. II, p. 199. 

Babylon, Ancient and Modern. — We must not neglect the historical 
parallel between Babylon and Rome. Babylon had been and was the 
Queen of the East in the age of the Hebrew prophets; and Rome 
was the Mistress of the West when St. John wrote. Babylon was 
called the Golden City, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the 
Chaldees' excellency. She claimed eternity and universal supremacy. 
5 



66 BABYLON, ROME 

She said in her heart, " I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my 
throne above the stars of God. I shall be a lady forever. I am, and 
none else beside me: I shall not sit as a widow, neither shall I know the 
loss of children." In these respects also, Babylon was imitated by 
Rome. She also called herself the Golden City, the Eternal City. 

Again: the king of Babylon was the rod of God's anger, and the 
staff of his indignation against Jerusalem for its rebellion against 
him. Babylon was employed by God to punish the sins of Sion, and to 
lay her walls in the dust. So, in St. John's own age, the imperial 
legions of Rome had been sent by God to chastise the guilty city which 
had crucified his beloved Son. 

Again: the sacred vessels of God's temple at Jerusalem were carried 
from Sion to Babylon, and were displayed in triumph on the table at 
the royal banquet in that fatal night, when the fingers of a man's 
hand came forth from the wall and terrified the king. 

So, the sacred vessels of the Jewish temple, which were restored by 
Cyrus, and the book of the law, and the golden candlestick, and the 
table of showbread were carried captive in triumphal procession to the 
Roman capitol: and even now their effigies may be seen at Rome, 
carved in sculpture on one of the sides of the triumphal Arch of Titus, 
the imperial conqueror of Jerusalem. — " Union with Rome" Ghr. Words- 
worth, D. D., pp. 6-8. London: Longmans, Green & Go., 1909. 

Babylon, Identified as Rome. — That Babylon was an accredited 
name for Rome, both among the Jews and Christians, in the early 
period of the Christian era, and was so used by the apostles Peter and 
John, rests upon numerous testimonies. And the use of this name for 
Rome may be easily accounted for. Rome was in many respects the 
successor of Babylon. It was the chief city of the empire that succeeded 
that of which Babylon had been the capital. It stood in the same rela- 
tion to the Jews, after the destruction of the second temple, as Babylon 
had done. And the use of this name for Rome enabled the apostles and 
early Christians to speak more freely of the end that awaited it. To 
foretell the destruction of Rome under its ordinary name, would have 
been suicidal to them. 

Some testimonies that the ancient Jews called Rome Babylon may 
be found in Schoettgen. The reason for its being so called probably 
was, as Schoettgen observes (Hor. Hebr., Vol. I, p. 1050), that Rome 
performed the same part toward the Jews under the second temple as 
Babylon did to them under the first. 

So Augustine says that Babylon was as it were the first Rome, and 
Rome as it were the second Babylon. 

Jerome testifies that some of the early Christian expositors main- 
tained that the Old Testament prophecies referring to Babylon would 
have a further fulfilment in Rome, and presignified the fate that 
awaited it. 

And when speaking of the Babylon of the Apocalypse, the Fathers 
from the earliest period with one voice unhesitatingly assert it to be 
Rome. 

Thus in two places Tertullian says, " Babylon, in our John, is a 
figure of the city of Rome." 

So Victorinus, bishop of Petau, toward the close of the third 
century, interprets the ruin of Babylon as the ruin of Rome, and the 
woman sitting on the seven mountains (Rev. 17: 9), as meaning "the 
city of Rome," and the kings in verse 10 are the Roman emperors; and 
he holds that the prophecies of Isaiah relating to Babylon, refer to the 
same Babylon as that spoken of in the Apocalypse, the name being so 
applied as meaning the city of confusion. 



BABYLON, ROME 67 

So also Jerome, commenting on Isaiah 47: 1, et seq., says that "the 
city of Rome," " in the Apocalypse of John and the epistle of Peter, is 
specially called Babylon." 

And in the letter of Paula and Bustochium to Marcella, urging her 
to quit Rome and join them at Bethlehem, occurring in the works of 
Jerome, she is thus exhorted : " Read the Apocalypse of John, and see 
what is said of the woman clothed in purple, and blasphemy written 
on her forehead, the seven hills, the many waters, and the end of 
Babylon. 'Go out of her, my people, saith the Lord, etc' [Rev. 18: 4]. 
Reverting also to Jeremiah, consider what is written, ' Fly out of the 
midst of Babylon, etc' [Jer. 51: 6]." 

The identity of Rome with the Babylon of St. John is here taken 
for granted. 

Primasius, in his " Commentary on the Revelations," seems also to 
take the same view. 

And Andrew of Csesarea, in his •• Commentary on the Revelations," 
though he does not himself hold the view, admits that " the ancient 
doctors of the church " understood Babylon in the Revelations to mean 
Rome. 

St. Peter also apparently uses the name Babylon for Rome, when 
he says, at the end of his first epistle, " The church that is at Babylon, 
elected together with you, saluteth you." 1 Peter 5: 13. For — 

1. This is the unopposed testimony of several of the Fathers. 
Thus, Eusebius tells us that it was said that Peter wrote his first 

epistle from Rome, and that he signified this by calling the city 
figuratively Babylon, in the words, " The church that is at Babylon, 
elected together with you, saluteth you." His words leave it somewhat 
doubtful to whom he refers as bearing this testimony; but the names of 
Clement of Alexandria and Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, occur in the 
previous context in a way which has led some to suppose that his ref- 
erence is to them. 

St. Jerome also twice asserts that St. Peter meant Rome when he 
spoke of Babylon in his first epistle. 

In like manner GEcumenius says, without hesitation, that by Baby- 
lon St. Peter means Rome. 

2. Several MSS. add at the end of the first epistle of St. Peter, that 
" it was written from Rome." 

And one MS. is mentioned by Griesbach and Scholz which has 
" Rome " in the margin opposite V Babylon." 

3. There is nothing to lead us to suppose that St. Peter was ever 
at Babylon in Assyria, still less at Babylon in Egypt. 

Now, it is difficult to understand that there should be this general 
agreement among the early Fathers that the apostles thus used the 
name Babylon for Rome, unless there was good ground for the state- 
ment. — "Fulfilled Prophecy," Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. S. A., pp. 189- 
192, 2d edition. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

To sum up the evidence on this portion of the inquiry: We have in 
our hands a book, dictated by the Holy Spirit to St. John, the beloved 
disciple, the blessed evangelist, the last surviving apostle, — a book pre- 
dicting events from the day in which it was written even to the end of 
time; a book designed for the perpetual warning of the church, and 
commended to her pious meditation in solemn and affectionate terms. 
In it we behold a description, traced by the divine finger, of a proud 
and prosperous power, claiming universal homage, and exercising 
mighty dominion, — a power enthroned upon many waters, which are 
peoples, and multitudes, and nations, and tongues; a power arrogating 
eternity by calling ierself a queen forever ; a power whose prime agent, 



68 BABYLON, ROME 

by his lamblike aspect, bears a semblance of Christian purity, and yet, 
from his sounding words and cruel deeds, is compared to a dragon; a 
power beguiling men from the pure faith, and trafficking in human 
souls, tempting them to commit spiritual adultery, alluring them to her- 
self by gaudy colors and glittering jewels, and holding in her hand a 
golden cup of enchantments, by which she intoxicates the world, and 
makes it reel at her feet. 

This power, so described in the Apocalypse, is identified in this 
divinely inspired book with — 

(1) a great city; and that city is described as 

(2) seated on seven hills. It is also characterized as 

(3) that great city, which reigned over the kings of the earth in 
the time of St. John. And 

(4) it is called Babylon. 

Having contemplated these characteristics of this prophetic de- 
scription, we pause, and consider, — what city in the world corresponds 
to it? 

It cannot be the literal Babylon, for she was not built on seven hills, 
nor was she the queen of the earth in St. John's age. It is some great city 
which then existed, and would continue to exist to our age. Among the 
very few great cities which then were, and still survive, one was seated 
on seven hills. She was universally recognized in St. John's age as the 
Seven-hilled City. She is described as such by the general voice of her 
own most celebrated writers for five centuries; and she has ever since 
continued to be so characterized. She is represented as such on her own 
coinage, the coinage of the world. This same city, and no other, then 
reigned over the kings of the earth. She exercised universal sovereignty, 
and boasted herself eternal. This same city resembled Babylon in many 
striking respects, — in dominion, in wealth, in physical position, and 
in historical acts, especially with regard to the ancient church and 
people of God. This same city was commonly called Babylon by St. 
John's own countrymen, and by his disciples. And, finally, the voice 
of the Christian church, in the age of St. John himself, and for many 
centuries after it, has given an almost unanimous verdict on this sub- 
ject, — that the Seven-hilled City, that great city, the queen of the 
earth, Babylon the Great of the Apocalypse, is the city of Rome. — 
" Union with Rome,"" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 13, 14. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

It has been known all along that popery was baptized paganism; 
but God is now making it manifest that the paganism which Rome has 
baptized is, in all its essential elements, the very paganism which 
prevailed in the ancient literal Babylon, when Jehovah opened before 
Cyrus the two-leaved gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of iron. 
— " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 2, 7th edition. Lon- 
don: S. W. Partridge & Co. 

The church which has its seat and headquarters on the seven hills 
of Rome might most appropriately be called " Babylon," inasmuch as 
it is the chief seat of idolatry under the New Testament, as the ancient 
Babylon was the chief seat of idolatry under the Old. — Ibid. 

Now, as the Babylon of the Apocalypse is characterized by the name 
of " Mystery," so the grand distinguishing feature of the ancient Baby- 
lonian system was the Chaldean '.' mysteries," that formed so essential 
a part of that system. — Id., p. 4. 

Babylon, Luther Identifies It with the Papacy. — I now know 
and am sure that the Papacy is the kingdom of Babylon and the power 
of Nimrod, the mighty hunter. Here, moreover, that all may go pros- 



BABYLON, ANTITYPICAL, 69 

perously with my friends, I entreat the booksellers, and entreat my 
readers, to burn all that I have published on this subject, and to hold 
to the following proposition: The Papacy is the mighty hunting of the 
Bishop of Rome. — •• Luther 's Primary Works," edited by Wace and 
Buchheim, p. 295. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Babylon the Great. — " Rome "... is a Greek word meaning 
" strength " or " power," and as the Greeks obtained their letters from 
the same source as their religion, it is evidently a cognate term of the 
Chaldee Roma. 

If then Rome means the great, or powerful, it is the distinctive 
epithet applied to both ancient Babylon and the mystical Babylon of the 
Apocalypse. " Is not this," said Nebuchadnezzar, " Great Babylon, or 
Babylon the Great, that I have builded? " So likewise the Babylon of 
the Apocalypse is called " Babylon the Great," i. e., " Babylon Roma," 
" that great city which ruleth over the kings of the earth." Hence 
Rome is not only Babylonish in origin and name, but " the city Rome " 
is " the great city." . . . 

Hence we see that there was good reason for entitling the seven- 
hilled city of papal Rome, "Babylon Roma" or "Babylon the Great." 
Moreover, although the actual city of Rome is the center and seat of 
that vast organization which for centuries " ruled over the kings of the 
earth," and over " peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues," 
yet " the great city " includes all, in every place, who can claim to be 
its citizens, all who are subject to its laws and ordinances, who bow 
to its authority, or are morally identified with it. Just as the citizens 
of pagan Rome included multitudes who had never seen Rome but who 
claimed to be its citizens, bowed to its laws , and authority, and were 
entitled to its privileges. — " The True Christ and the False Christ" 
J. Gamier, Vol. II, pp. 94-96. London: George Allen, 1900. 

She is called " Babylon the Great." What symbolical title could 
better describe papal Rome; for has she not been the worldly, idolatrous, 
proud, persecuting power in the history of the Christian church which 
the literal Babylon was in the history of apostate Israel? What could 
better symbolize the idolatrous and persecuting Church of Rome than 
that Babylon which in the days of Jewish apostasy filled Jerusalem 
with bloodshed, and drank to her idol gods out of the golden vessels of 
Jehovah's sanctuary? — " Key to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan Guinness, 
D. D., p. 75. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Babylon, Type and Antitype. — The gigantic system of moral cor- 
ruption and idolatry described in this passage under the emblem of a 
woman with a "golden cup in her hand" (Rev. 17: 4), "making all 
nations drunk with the wine of her fornication" (Rev. 17: 2; 18: 3), 
is divinely called "Mystery, Babylon the Great" (Rev. 17: 5). That 
Paul's "mystery of iniquity," as described in 2 Thess. 2:7, has its 
counterpart in the Church of Rome, no man of candid mind, who has 
carefully examined the subject, can easily doubt. Such was the im- 
pression made by that account on the mind of the great Sir Matthew 
Hale, no mean judge of evidence, that he used to say that if the 
apostolic description were inserted in the public Hue and Cry, any con- 
stable in the realm would be warranted in seizing, wherever he found 
him, the Bishop of Rome as the head of that " mystery of iniquity." 

Now, as the system here described is equally characterized by the 
name of " mystery," it may be presumed that both passages refer to 
the same system. But the language applied to the New Testament 
Babylon, as the reader cannot fail to see, naturally leads us back to 
the Babylon of the ancient world. As the Apocalyptic woman has in 



70 BABYLON, ROME 

her hand a cup, wherewith she intoxicates the nations, so was it with 
the Babylon of old. Of that Babylon, while in all its glory, the Lord 
thus spake, in denouncing its doom by the prophet Jeremiah: " Babylon 
hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made all the earth 
drunken: the nations have drunken of her wine; therefore the nations 
are mad." Jer. 51 : 7. Why this exact similarity of language in regard 
to the two systems? The natural inference surely is, that the one 
stands to the other in the relation of type and antitype. — " The Two 
Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 4. London: 8. W. Partridge & Co., 
1907. 

Babylon, The Apostate Church. — There is a marked and inten- 
tional contrast in the Apocalypse between the two cities Babylon and 
Jerusalem, which is overlooked by the papal interpretation. Babylon, in 
the Apocalypse, is a city and a harlot; Jerusalem, in the same book, is 
a city and a bride. The former is the corrupt associate of earthly 
kings; the latter, the chaste bride of the heavenly King. But the latter 
is a church; the former then is no mere heathen metropolis. The con- 
trast is between church and church; the faithful church and the 
apostate church. . . . 

Read this wonderful prophecy concerning " Babylon the Great " 
in the clear and all-revealing light of history. I ask those of you who 
have read the history of the last eighteen centuries, Did not Rome 
Christian become a harlot? Did not papal Rome ally itself with the 
kings of the earth? Did it not glorify itself to be as a queen, and call 
itself the mistress of the world? Did it not ride upon the body of 
the beast, or fourth empire, and govern its actions for centuries? Did 
not papal Rome array itself in purple and scarlet, and deck itself with 
gold and precious stones and pearls? Is not this its attire still? 

We appeal to facts. Go to the churches and see. Look at the 
priests; look at the cardinals; look at the popes; look at the purple 
robes they wear; look at their scarlet robes; see the encrusted jewels; 
look at the luxurious palaces in which they live; look at the eleven 
thousand halls and chambers in the Vatican, and the unbounded wealth 
and glory gathered there; look at the gorgeous spectacles in St. Peter's 
at Rome, casting even the magnificence of royalty into the shade. Go 
and see these things, or read the testimony of those who have seen 
them. Shamelessly Rome wears the very raiment, the very hues # and 
colors, portrayed on the pages of inspired prophecy. You may know 
the harlot by her attire, as certainly as by the name upon her brow. — 
"Romanism and the Reformation," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. 
A. 8., pp. 99-101. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Babylon, Antiquity of Interpretation of. — The interpretation 
which identifies the Church of Rome with the Apocalyptic Babylon, 
does not date from the Reformation; the truth is, that it was prior to 
the Reformation, and did much to produce the Reformation. 

In the seventh and following centuries, the Church of Rome was 
united with the city of Rome, by the junction of the temporal and 
spiritual powers in the person of the Roman Pontiff; and when the 
Church of Rome began to put forth her new dogmas, and to enforce 
them as necessary to salvation, then it was publicly affirmed by many 
(although she burnt some who affirmed it), that she was fulfilling the 
Apocalyptic prophecies concerning Babylon. And though the de- 
struction of heathen Rome by the Goths in the fifth century was a most 
striking event, yet not a single witness of any antiquity can be cited 
in favor of the exposition of Bossuet and his coreligionists, who see 
a fulfilment of the predictions of the Apocalypse, concerning the de- 



BABYLON, A MYSTERY 



71 



struction of Babylon, in the fall of heathen Rome by the sword of 
Alaric. 

Indeed, that exposition is a modern one; it is an after-thought; and 
has been devised by Bossuet and others to meet the other, which they 
call the Protestant interpretation. The identification of the Apocalyptic 
Babylon with ancient heathen Rome, as its adequate antitype, is an 
invention of modern papal Rome. — "Union with Rome" Chr. Words- 
worth, D. D., pp. 19, 20. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Babylon, Cup of. — In 1825, on the occasion of the jubilee, Pope 
Leo XII struck a medal, bearing on the one side his own image, and on 
the other that of the Church of Rome symbolized as a " woman," hold- 
ing in her left hand a cross and in her right a cup, with the legend 
around her, " Sedet super universum" (The whole world is her seat). 
— " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 6. London: S. W. 
Partridge & Co., 1907, 




MEDAL 

Struck by 

Pope Leo XII 

in 1825 



Babylon, A Mystery. — Heathen Rome doing the work of heathen- 
ism in persecuting the church was no mystery. But a Christian church, 
calling herself the Mother of Christendom, and yet drunken with the 
blood of saints — this is a mystery. A Christian church boasting 
herself to be the bride, and yet being the harlot; styling herself Sion, 
and being Babylon — this is a mystery. A mystery indeed it is, that, 
when she says to all, " Come unto me," the voice from heaven should 
cry, " Come out of her, my people." A mystery indeed it is, that she 
who boasts herself the city of saints, should become the habitation of 
devils: that she who claims to be infallible should be said to corrupt 
the earth: that a self-named "Mother of Churches," should be called 
by the Holy Spirit the "Mother of Abominations:" that she who 
boasts to be indefectible, should in one day be destroyed, and that 
apostles should rejoice at her fall: that she who holds, as she says, in 
her hands the keys of heaven, should be cast into the lake of fire by 
him who has the keys of hell. All this, in truth, is a great mystery. 

Nearly eighteen centuries have passed away since the Holy Spirit 
prophesied, by the mouth of St. John, that this mystery would be 
revealed in that city which was then the queen of the earth, the city 
on seven hills, — the city of Rome. 

The mystery was then dark, dark as midnight. Man's eye could 
not pierce the gloom. The fulfilment of the prophecy seemed im- 
probable, almost impossible. Age after age rolled away. By degrees, 
the mists which hung over it became less thick. The clouds began to 
break. Some features of the dark mystery began to appear, dimly at 
first, then more clearly, like mountains at daybreak. Then the form of 



72 BABYLON, MODERN 

the mystery became more and more distinct. The seven hills, and 
the woman sitting upon them, became more and more visible. Her 
voice was heard. Strange sounds of blasphemy were muttered by her. 
Then they became louder and louder. And the golden chalice in her 
hand, her scarlet attire, her pearls and jewels, were seen glittering in 
the sun. Kings and nations were displayed prostrate at her feet, and 
drinking her cup. Saints were slain by her sword, and she exulted 
over them. And now the prophecy became clear, clear as noonday; 
and we tremble at the sight, while we read the inscription, emblazoned 
in large letters, " Mystery, Babylon the Great," written by the hand 
of St. John, guided by the Holy Spirit of God, on the forehead of the 
Church of Rome. — " Union with Rome" Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 
61-63. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Babylon, Transfer of Religion of, to Pergamos (Rev. 2: 13). — 
The Chaldean Magi enjoyed a long period of prosperity at Babylon. 
A pontiff appointed by the sovereign ruled over a college of seventy- 
two hierophants. They were also established at Memphis and at Tibet, 
where the costume is preserved by the priests to this day; they also 
extended their influence and doctrines into Etruria. When the Medes 
and Persians overthrew the reigning power at Babylon, they put down 
the old mythology, and set up their own religion. The Chaldeans, to 
recover their lost influence, brought in one of their own number, 
Smerdis, the Magian, as king; but the imposture was detected, and 
he was slain. After this they revolted in the absence of the Persian 
king, and set up a Babylonian of their own choice; but Xerxes re- 
turned, the city was taken and sacked, and the people slaughtered 
(b. c. 487). The defeated Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixed 
their central college at Pergamos, and took the palladium of Babylon, 
the cubic stone, with them. Here, independent of state control, they 
carried on the rites of their religion, and plotted against the peace of 
the Persian Empire, caballing with the Greeks for that purpose. — 
" Lares and Penates," William B. Barker, pp. 232, 233. London: Ingram. 
Cooke & Co., 1853. 

Babylon, Modern, Interpretation of, by a Roman Catholic Priest. 
— If we examine, in good faith (de bonne foi), the different features 
which the harlot in the Apocalypse is said to possess, it is very difficult 
not to recognize, under this emblem, the " city of Rome." 

" I will tell thee," says the angel to St. John, " the mystery of the 
woman and the beast, who has seven heads and ten horns. The seven 
heads are seven mountains, on which the woman is seated. Inasmuch 
as it is a woman that thou sawest, this is the great city that ruleth over 
the kings of the earth." 

That there may be some other city that sitteth on seven hills besides 
Rome is, indeed, very possible, but the reigning over the kings of the 
earth as well can be predicted of Rome alone. She alone of all that are 
built on seven hills has, in the first place, reigned over the kings of the 
earth by a temporal dominion, and for eighteen centuries has continued 
to lord it over a large number of princes, kings, and people, by the as- 
cendancy of her religion. No other city in the world shares this remark- 
able characteristic with the city of Rome. This first point is not, can- 
not be disputed. But next to this it is natural to inquire, if it is of 
Rome while yet pagan, or of Rome when become Christian, but degen- 
erate and corrupted, that John speaks under the name of Babylon the 
Great. It is certain, in the first place, that the Babylon which the 
apostle describes with features so marked and frightful, its abomina- 
tions and future ruin, cannot be the ancient city of that name so often 



BABYLON, MODERN 73 



accursed by the prophets. The terrible catastrophe which he pictures 
is for a far-distant future. 

Next, the first, or literal, Babylon, was no longer in existence when 
John wrote his Revelation. Buried in her ruins, humbled to the dust, 
she had been for a long series of years the refuge of the vilest reptiles 
and dragons, as Isaiah had foretold. What likelihood is there that the 
prophecy of John should have for its object a city which is no longer 
in existence, in which no person in the world now takes any interest, 
and of which no traces remain but in the pages of history? But once 
more, this point is clearly a settled one. 

Neither can it be pagan Rome that the apostle mentions. The guilty 
city in question is shown him as a profound mystery. She even carries 
her name written on her front (Rev. 19: 5); and the apostle was seized 
with astonishment on beholding it. Her guilt is excessive; the severest 
punishment will be far below her deserts. But these abominations are 
cloaked over with a certain external covering which conceals her de- 
formity. It requires great attention and a superior light to discover 
what she is, and what she deserves in the judgment of truth. 

But if the design of St. John had been to speak of ancient pagan 
Rome, how could it have been astonishing, how would it have been 
mysterious or difficult to comprehend that an idolatrous city, openly the 
enemy of the true God, bent on abolishing his worship and exterminat- 
ing his worshipers, should be odious in his eyes and devoted to a signal 
punishment? There is, then, reason to believe that, in throwing his 
eyes down the perspective of the future, from which he was separated 
by so many centuries, the holy apostle points us to a Christian city, but 
still such as shall then be depraved and corrupted, charged with guilt, 
making religion subservient to her pride, domination, and avarice, and 
such as shall merit God's pouring over her the vials of his indignation. 
It is to her to whom he applies the mournful epithet, which will attach 
to her toward the end of the second dispensation, the Mother of Forni- 
cations and Abominations of the Earth. 

It is from her principally that there will burst into open day the 
abuses and mischief which in the last times are destined to inundate 
the Gentile church, and consummate the mystery of iniquity, by sub- 
stituting for the spirit of the gospel an unbridled pride, a violent desire 
to invade and subjugate everything. Blinded by ambition, this myste- 
rious woman will change the august but moderate prerogatives into 
foolish and turbulent pretensions, which cause infinite evils to religion 
and governments. She will be in her own eyes, and wishes to be in the 
eyes of all throughout the world, an absolute ruler, set free from all law, 
and superior to every power, the only source and fulness of all author- 
ity. She will strive to put under her feet all that is greatest in that 
age, all that is most eminent in religion. She will believe that she has 
alone the right to give laws without receiving them at the hands of any 
person. She will usurp, at least in her conduct, the august and incom- 
municable title of the Holy and True. Rev. 3:7. By a necessary con- 
sequence of this attempt, she will desire that all her mandates should 
be executed without resistance, that all her words should be revered as 
infallible oracles. Not contented with having invaded or annihilated 
the most sacred rights of those whom she ought to cherish as brethren, 
she will extend her domination, even over the spouse of the Son of God. 
She will leave no means unemployed to reduce her to slavery; she will 
lord it with tyranny over her whom she ought herself to obey. Such 
large excesses will be furnished with unlimited permission to plunge 
herself into still greater. By degrees she will be led even to proscribe 
and anathematize the most important parts of the depository of faith. 
She will prostitute her favors, she will furnish with arms a number of 



74 BABYLON, MODERN 

teachers of lies, who have conspired to ruin the faith. Abusing the 
ascendancy which her prerogatives have given her, she will make kings 
and pontiffs, priests and Levites, and the faithful of every rank and 
state, drink the cup of her abuses, her errors, and her attempts against 
righteousness and truth. She will erect into laws the most palpable 
and grossest simonies, and the most shameful traffic in holy things. 
She will set all an example of pride and tyranny. She will lull sinners 
to sleep by her arbitrary dispensations, and by a scandalous expendi- 
ture of the treasure of the church. She will asperse by her iniquitous 
censures the characters of the just, who will have refused to burn 
incense to her tyranny, or to fall in with her infamous irregularities. 
She will make open war on the most astounding miracles, however so 
little adverse to her pride or her disastrous policy. 

All these excesses, and many others which we pass over in silence, 
will make up the character of the symbolic woman, whom St. John did 
not see except with profound astonishment, and who in the end of the 
dispensation is to take so signal a part in affairs, will be the cause of 
so many evils, will produce so many double-dealers and victims, will 
bring to its crowning height the mystery of iniquity, and will entail on 
the Gentile church — the accomplices of her crimes and falsehoods — 
the dreadful inflictions so often announced in Scripture. 

It is an objection not less frivolous than odious to say that Prot- 
estants have also looked at Rome as the harlot of the Apocalypse. There 
are here two extremes to avoid, the one the adopting the erroneous and 
schismatic views of the sectaries of the sixteenth century; the other the 
applauding to excess the court of Rome. We ought neither to follow 
blind and headstrong heretics, who, under the vain pretext of reform, 
have trampled underfoot the holiest institutions, nor to imitate the 
superstitious and deluded Catholics who respect thousands of practices 
which the gospel condemns. 

But because the original chair of St. Peter did not deserve the out- 
rages of those bitter and headstrong innovators, it does not follow that 
the popes may not before or after that epoch fall into great excess, and 
declare war on the most important truths. Still less just is it to con- 
clude that at some future time they cannot more criminally abuse 
their ministry, and that toward the end of the Gentile dispensation 
(when the defection or apostasy, spoken of by St. Paul, shall reach its 
consummation) one of these pontiffs carrying the depravity to its 
height, may not, to his own destruction, verify in his person that which 
the prophet Bzekiel and others have so clearly announced for the last 
times of the Gentile dispensation. 

Whoever since the second or third century should have asserted 
that the mystery of iniquity was consummated, of which St. Paul 
pointed out the first germ, and that it consisted in the Catholics believ- 
ing in the real presence of the Eucharist, and the verity of the sacrifice 
of the mass, in their offering prayers for the dead, and in fasting at 
Lent, — whoever, I say, should have asserted this, would have been justly 
considered an innovator or a fanatic. 

But this does not prevent the mystery of iniquity from being des- 
tined, after progressive increase, to arrive one day at its consummation 
among the Gentiles, to work their entire reprobation. The essential 
thing for us is to discern well its nature, and by what marks we may 
recognize it, with a view to assure oneself against that fatal disease. It 
would be great madness, or show much bad faith, to conclude from 
thence that the features under which St. John describes the harlot, can- 
not at any time apply to Rome; no, not even in that day when Jesus 
Christ, tired with our impenitence and our crimes, shall remove us 
from his kingdom, recall his people Israel, and put them in possession 



BAPTISM, MODE OF 75 

of all the blessings of which, we have rendered ourselves so unworthy. 
— " Exposition des Predictions et des Prowesses Faites a VEglise pour 
les Derniers Temps de la Gentilite" par le Pere Lambert (R. C.J [" Ex- 
position of the Prophecies and Promises Made to the Church for the 
Last Times of the Gentiles," by Father Lambert], Paris, 1806, chap, on 
"Last Times of the Gentile Church;" cited in the Quarterly Journal of 
Prophecy, London, January, 1851, pp. 40-43. 

Babylon, Value of Old Testament Records Concerning. — The only 
ancient authority of value on Babylonian and Assyrian history is the 
Old Testament. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. Ill, art. " Babylonia 
and Assyria," p. 101. 

Babylon.— Pages 207, 327, 408, 426, 613. 

Babylonish Captivity of Papacy. — Page 374. 

Balaam. — Page 526. 

Balkan States. — Page 156. 

Bamfield, Francis. — Page 508. 

Baptism and Faith. — j Though baptism is not necessary for faith's 
validity, it is with the apostles necessary as the outcome and expression 
of faith. It is the symbol at once of the life which the individual has 
attained in Christ, and of his recognition that he shares that life as a 
member of the new humanity of which Christ is the head. — " The 
Christ of History and of Experience," David W. Forrest, D. D., p. 282. 
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Baptism, Mode of. — " Baptism [says Calvin] was administered by 
John and Christ, by the submersion of the whole body." Tertullian, the 
great Latin Father, a. d. 200, also says: " Nor is there any material dif- 
ference between those whom John dipped in the Jordan, and those whom 
Peter dipped in the Tiber." So Lightfoot: "That the baptism of John was 
by the immersion of the body, seems evident from those things which 
are related concerning it; namely, that he baptized in the Jordan, and in 
iEnon, because there was much water, and that Christ being baptized 
went up out of the water." MacKnight says the same thing: "Christ 
submitted to be baptized, that is, to be buried under the water by John, 
and to be raised out of it again." Olshausen agrees with these interpre- 
ters, for he says : " John, also, was baptizing in the neighborhood, be- 
cause the water there being deep, afforded conveniences for submersion." 
De Wette bears the same testimony: "They were baptized, immersed, 
submerged. This is the proper meaning of the frequentative form of 
bapto, to immerse." And Alford, on Matthew 3: 6, says: "The baptism 
was administered in the daytime by immersion of the whole person." 

These authorities abundantly show that our Lord, in requiring the 
first act of obedience on the part of his new disciple, employed a Greek 
word in common use for expressing the most familiar acts of everyday 
life. And the testimony of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old 
Testament, completed b. c. 285, harmonizes exactly with this use. When 
quoting the Hebrew Scriptures, Jesus and his apostles generally used 
this version. Here the Greek word ebaptisato is used to translate the 
Hebrew word taval (2 Kings 5: 14), where the English version also 
renders it by the word "dipped," to express the act of Naaman in the 
river Jordan. The word taval is used fifteen times in the Old Testa- 
ment, and is rendered in our common English version fourteen times by 
"dip," and once (Job 9: 31) by "plunge." In Genesis 37: 31, the Jew- 
ish scholars who made the Septuagint Version rendered moluno, to 



76 BAPTISM, MODE OF 

stain, the effect of dipping, as in dyeing, this being the chief thought 
which the translator would express. It is also worthy of note that the 
preposition en is rendered " in " before Jordan in all the commonly 
received versions of the English New Testament (Matt. 3: 6); namely, 
in that of Wycliffe, 1380; Tyndal, 1534; Cranmer, 1539; Geneva, 1557; 
Rheims, 1582; and King James, 1611. In the last named "with" was 
afterward substituted for " in," but it is restored by the late Anglo- 
American revisers, in various passages of the Gospels. — "A History of 
the Baptists," Thomas Armitage, D. D., LL. D., p. 35. New York: Bryan, 
Taylor & Co., 1887. 

Baptism by Water. — The law and history of the Jews abound with 
lustrations and baptisms of different sorts. Moses enjoined the people 
to wash their garments, and to purify themselves, by way of prepara- 
tion for the reception of the law. Ex. 19 : 10. The priests and Levites, 
before they exercised their ministry, washed themselves. Ex. 29: 4; 
Lev. 8 : 6. All legal pollutions were cleansed by baptism, or by plunging 
into water. Certain diseases and infirmities, natural to men and to 
women, were to be purified by bathing. To touch a dead body, to be 
present at funerals, etc., required purification. But these purifications 
were not uniform: generally, people dipped themselves entirely under 
the water, and this is the most simple notion of the word " baptize." 
— CalmeVs Dictionary of the Holy Bible, revised by Edward Robinson, 
art. "Baptism," p. 142. New York: N. Tibbals & Sons, 1832. 

Baptism, Teaching of Fathers Concerning. — The doctrine of bap- 
tism stands in intimate connection with the doctrine of the church. 
From the founding of Christianity great efficacy was attached to bap- 
tism in relation to the forgiveness of sins and to regeneration. Some of 
the Fathers, especially Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Cyprian, in treating 
of this subject, as well as of the doctrine of the church, often indulged 
in exaggerated, fanciful, and absurd allegories and symbolisms, while 
Origen draws a more distinct line between the external sign and the 
thing signified. Infant baptism was not universal until the time of 
Tertullian; and this Father, though a strenuous advocate of the doc- 
trine of original sin, nevertheless opposed psedobaptism, on the ground 
that an innocent age needs no cleansing from sins. Origen, on the 
contrary, is in favor of infant baptism. In the time of Cyprian it be- 
came more general in the African church, so that the African bishop 
Fidus appealed to the analogy of circumcision under the Old Testament 
dispensation, and proposed to delay the performance of the ceremony 
of baptism to the eighth day, which, however, Cyprian did not allow. — 
"A History of Christian Doctrines," Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, Vol. I, pp. 
277, 278. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1880. 

Baptism, Conybeare and Howson on Immersion. — It is needless to 
add that baptism was (unless in exceptional cases) administered by 
immersion, the convert being plunged beneath the surface of the water. 
— " The Life and Epistles of the Apostle Paul," Conybeare and Howson, 
p. 361. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 

Baptism, As Originally Instituted. — In respect to the form of 
baptism, it was in conformity with the original institution and the orig- 
inal import of the symbol, performed by immersion. — " General History 
of the Christian Religion and Church," Neander, translated by Joseph 
Torrey, sec. 3, div. 2, par. 4 (Vol. I, p. 310), 7th edition. Boston: Crocker 
& Brewster, 1854. 

Baptism, Luther on Meaning of Word. — Baptism is a Greek word; 
in Latin it can be translated immersion, as when we plunge something 



BAPTISM, INFANT 77 

into water that it may be completely covered with water. — " Works of 
Luther," p. 319, on the Sacraments ; cited in Baptist Encyclopedia, art. 
" Baptism." 

Baptism, Cardinal Pullus (12th Century) on Meaning of. — 
Whilst the candidate for baptism in water is immersed, the death of 
Christ is suggested; whilst immersed and covered with water, the burial 
of Christ is shown forth; whilst he is raised from the waters, the resur- 
rection of Christ is proclaimed. — ''Patrol. Lat." Vol. CL, p. 315; cited 
in Baptist Encyclopedia, art. "Baptism." 

Baptism, John Wesley on Ancient Practice. — " Buried with him," 
alluding to the ancient practice of baptizing by immersion. — " Explana- 
tory Notes upon the New Testament," John Wesley, on Rom. 6:4. Phila- 
delphia: John Dickens, 1791. 

Baptism, Calvin on Meaning of Word. — The very word " baptize," 
however, signifies to immerse; and it is certain that immersion was the 
practice of the ancient church. — " Institutes of the Christian Religion," 
John Calvin, Vol. II, book 4, chap. 15, sec. 19, p. 434, translated by 
John Allen. London: Thomas Tegg, 1844. 

Baptism, Dean Stanley on Change in Practice. — For the first 
thirteen centuries the almost universal practice of baptism was that of 
which we read in the New Testament, and which is the very meaning 
of the word " baptize," — that those who were baptized were plunged, 
submerged, immersed into the water. That practice is still, as we have 
seen, continued in Eastern churches. In the Western church it still 
lingers amongst Roman Catholics in the solitary instance of the Cathe- 
dral of Milan; amongst Protestants, in the numerous sect of the Baptists. 
It lasted long into the Middle Ages. . . . But since the beginning of 
the seventeenth century, the practice has become exceedingly rare. With 
the few exceptions just mentioned, the whole of the Western churches 
have now substituted for the ancient bath the ceremony of letting fall a 
few drops of water on the face. . . . Not by any decree of council or par- 
liament, but by the general sentiment of Christian liberty, this remark- 
able change was effected. Beginning in the thirteenth century, it has 
gradually driven the ancient catholic usage out of the whole of Europe. 
— " Christian Institutions," Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Dean of Westmin- 
ster, chap. 1, par. 2, pp. 19, 20. London: John Murray, 1881. 

Baptism, Infant. — The New Testament Scriptures do not in so 
many words either forbid or command the baptism of children. The 
question is in this respect on all fours with the change of the holy day 
from the seventh to the first day of the week. No positive command au- 
thorizes the universal usage with regard to the Christian Sabbath day; 
that the change is authorized must be settled by a weighing of evidence. 
So it is with the case of infant baptism. — The International Standard 
Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. I, art. "Bap- 
tism," p. 391. 

Baptism, Infant, Not an Apostolic Institution. — Originally bap- 
tism was administered to adults; nor is the general spread of infant 
baptism at a later period any proof to the contrary; for even after 
infant baptism had been set forth as an apostolic institution, its intro- 
duction into the general practice of the church was but slow. Had it 
rested on apostolic authority, there would have been a difficulty in ex- 
plaining its late approval, and that even in the third century it was 



78 BAPTISM, INFANT 

opposed by at least one eminent Father of the church. Paul's language, 
in 1 Cor. 7: 14, is also against its apostolic origin, where he aims at 
proving that a Christian woman need not fear living in wedlock with 
a heathen, since the unbeliever would be sanctified by the believing 
wife; as a proof of this he adds, otherwise the children of Christians 
would be unclean, but now are they ctyia [hagia, holy] ; therefore, the 
children of Christian parents are called holy, on account of the influence 
of Christian fellowship. Had infant baptism been practised at that time, 
the argument would have had no force; for they would have been dyia 
by means of their baptism. Infant baptism, therefore, cannot be regarded 
"as an apostolic institution. — " Lectures on the History of Christian Dog- 
mas." Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230. London: George Bell 
& Sons, 1882. 

Whereas, in the early ages, adult baptism was the rule and infant 
baptism the exception, in later times infant baptism is the rule and 
adult baptism the exception. 

What is the justification of this almost universal departure from 
the primitive usage? There may have been many reasons, some bad, 
some good. One, no doubt, was the superstitious feeling already men- 
tioned which regarded baptism as a charm, indispensable to salvation, 
and which insisted on imparting it to every human being who could be 
touched with water, however unconscious. — " Christian Institutions" 
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Dean of Westminster, chap. 1, par. 3, p. 22. 
London: John Murray, 1881. 

Baptism, Infant, Tuetullian Opposed to. — From his [Tertullian's] 
language respecting the magical power of baptism it might be expected 
that he would favor infant baptism, and therefore his opposition to it 
tells so much the more against its apostolic origin, and must have pro- 
ceeded from the great importance which he attached to its spiritual 
conditions. He says, " Children ought first to learn Christ, before they 
are incorporated with him. Why should the innocent age hasten to the 
forgiveness of sins? How can we think of intrusting heavenly things 
to that age to which we cannot intrust earthly things? " He met the 
objection that Christ said, " Suffer little children to come unto me," by 
remarking that children can only be brought to Christ by instruction 
and teaching, and that baptism ought not to be administered to them till 
they know Christ. We should never intrust a person with property un- 
less he knew its value. Nor would the use of sponsors justify the bap- 
tism of infants, since the issue is uncertain, and they might easily 
promise more than they could perform. He also proposes the question: 
How, if any one should die before baptism? In this case, he answers, 
faith is sufficient for salvation. Many persons have maintained that 
Tertullian does not speak against infant baptism absolutely, but only 
means that it should not be practised generally, so that it is not for- 
bidden in cases of necessity: this is not, however, what Tertullian says. 
The expressions we have quoted force us to the conclusion that he was 
an unconditional opponent of infant baptism. — " Lectures on the His- 
tory of Christian Dogmas]' Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. I, p. 232. Lon- 
don: George Bell & Sons, 1882. 

Baptism, Infant, Reformers' Adoption of. — The principle of the 
Reformation according to its material as well as formal relation, might 
easily lead to a fresh examination of infant baptism, which, since the 
third century, had been held in general repute. For infant baptism had 
received its authority through tradition, which, according to the Prot- 
estant principle, possessed no decisive weight. The question therefore 



BAPTISM, INFANT 79 

was, in this respect, how the apostolic origin of infant baptism could be 
proved; and in reference to another point, how could faith, from which 
everything in the Christian life must proceed, be shown in children. 
The Reformers had conformed to the prevalent usage, and were first 
called from without to the examination of it. 

The Zwickau enthusiasts who came to Wittenberg a. d. 1522, were 
zealous opponents of infant baptism; they raised a controversy upon it, 
and placed the Wittenbergers in a state of embarrassment. Melanch- 
thon, in writing to the elector, declared that Satan had attacked them 
in a weak place, for he knew not how he should refute those enthu- 
siasts: he thought it best not to dispute on this subject, since this ar- 
ticle was not of vital importance. 

On Luther the doubts of the enthusiasts could not make such a 
great impression; he knew how to relieve himself, though he put down 
objections more by bold assertions than by arguments. He granted that 
the church had power not to baptize children, but his opponents could 
not prove that infant baptism was against Scripture; who could tell 
whether God did not implant faith in early childhood as in sleep; 
moreover, at baptism nothing else is done but to bring them to the 
present Christ, who always receives what is brought to him. These 
arguments prevailed, and thus the necessity of infant baptism was 
established. The Augsburg Confession maintained against the Ana- 
baptists that baptism was necessary to salvation, that children ought 
to be baptized who are presented to God by baptism. — " Lectures on 
the History of Christian Dogmas," Dr. Augustus Neander, Yol. II, pp. 
692, 693. London : George Bell & Sons, 1882. 

Baptism. — Page 297. 

Baptists. — Page 136. 

Bavarians. — Page 476. 

Belisarius.— Pages 370, 385-387, 478, 480, 481. 

Belshazzar. — Pages 60-63. 

Bible, The Writers of Its Sixty-six Books. — The authorship of 
this book is wonderful. Here are words written by kings, by emperors, 
by princes, by poets, by sages, by philosophers, by fishermen, by states- 
men; by men learned in the wisdom of Egypt, educated in the schools 
of Babylon, trained up at the feet of rabbis in Jerusalem. It was 
written by men in exile, in the desert, in shepherds' tents, in " green 
pastures " and beside " still waters." Among its authors we find the 
tax-gatherer, the herdsman, the gatherer of sycamore fruit; we find 
poor men, rich men, statesmen, preachers, exiles, captains, legislators, 
judges; men of every grade and class are represented in this wonderful 
volume, which is in reality a library, filled with history, genealogy, 
ethnology, law, ethics, prophecy, poetry, eloquence, medicine, sanitary 
science, political economy, and perfect rules for the conduct of personal 
and social life. It contains all kinds of writing; but what a jumble it 
would be if sixty-six books were written in this way by ordinary men! 
— "Will the Old Book Stand?" H. L. Hastings, p. 19. Boston: H. L. 
Hastings & Sons, 1916. 

Bible, Contents of. — The Bible contains the mind of God, the state 
of man, the doom of the impenitent, and the eternal happiness of be- 
lievers in Christ. Its doctrines are holy, its precepts binding, its his- 



80 BIBLE AUTHORSHIP 



tories true, its decisions immutable. Read it to be wise, believe it to 
be safe, practise it to be holy. It contains light to direct you, food to 
support you. It is the Christian's charter. Christ is its subject, our 
good its design, and the glory of God its end. — " The Modern Conflict 
over the Bible;' G. W. McPherson, Vol. II, p. 68. Yonkers, N. Y.: 34 St. 
Andrew's Place, copyright 1919. 

Bible, About Foety Persons Used in Its Writing. — Altogether 
about forty persons, in all stations of life, were engaged in the writing 
of these oracles, the work of which was spread over a period of about 
1,600 years, viz., from about 1500 b. c, when Moses commenced to write 
the Pentateuch amid the thunders of Sinai, to about a. d. 97, when the 
apostle John, himself a son of thunder (Mark 3: 17), wrote his Gospel 
in Asia Minor. — " All About the Bible," Sidney Collett, pp. 11, 12, 9th 
edition. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, Its Authorship. — 

Hast thou ever heard 
Of such a book? The Author, God himself; 
The subject, God and man, salvation, life 
And death — eternal life, eternal death — 
Dread words! whose meaning has no end, no bounds. 
Most wondrous Book! bright candle of the Lord! 
Star of eternity! the only star 
By which the bark of man could navigate 
The sea of life, and gain the coast of bliss 
Securely! only star which rose on time, 
And on its dark and troubled billows, still, 
As generation, drifting swiftly by, 
Succeeded generation, threw a ray 
Of heaven's own light, and to the hills of God, 
The eternal hills, pointed the sinner's eye. 
By prophets, seers, and priests, and sacred bards, 
Evangelists, apostles, men inspired, 
And by the Holy Ghost anointed, set 
Apart, and consecrated to declare 
To earth the counsels of the Eternal One, — 
This Book, this holiest, this sublimest Book, 
Was sent. Heaven's will, heaven's code of laws entire, 
To man, this Book contained; denned the bounds 
Of vice and virtue, and of life and death; 
And what was shadow, what was substance taught. 

This Book, this holy Book, on every line 
Marked with the seal of high divinity, 
On every leaf bedewed with drops of love 
Divine, and with the eternal heraldry 
And signature of God Almighty stamped 
From first to last, this ray of sacred light, 
This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, 
Mercy took down, and, in the night of time 
Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow; 
And evermore beseeching men, with tears 
And earnest sighs, to read, believe, and live. 
— " The Course of Time," Robert Pollok, book 2, pars. 17, 19. 

Bible, The Pentateuch Written by Moses. — The unanimous tra- 
dition of the Jews ascribes the Pentateuch to Moses, and among Chris- 



BIBLE INSPIRATION 81 

tians the Mosaic authorship was not called into question until a com- 
paratively recent period. The evidence of the genuineness of the Pen- 
tateuch rests on direct testimony. If it had perished, most of its ordi- 
nances could have been gathered from the later books of the Bible; and 
the chain of evidence is completed by the testimony of Christ and his 
apostles, who without hesitation ascribe the composition of the Penta- 
teuch to Moses. — " The Bible and Its Transmission," Walter Arthur- 
Copinger, p. 10. London: Henry Sotheran & Co., 1897. 

Bible, Its Inspiration and Authenticity. — On what ground do we 
believe that the Bible is inspired? Some will give the ready answer, 
'/ We believe that the Bible is inspired because the church says so." 
. . . Others there are who, when asked why they believe the Bible to 
be inspired, would reply, " It is because we have found it to be so 
practically; by reading it we found our way to God; by searching it 
the will of God has become clearer to us; by living according to its 
precepts we have proved that they are divine; and now its words move 
us as no other words do: other books delight us, instruct us, thrill us, 
but this book is a prophetic voice discoursing about eternity and the 
unseen in the same breath that it speaks with a demonstrable truth- 
fulness concerning the temporal and the seen." . . . The people who 
answer in this way certainly seem to render a more solid reason than 
those who found their assertion about inspiration upon the tradition of 
an authoritative church. — " Inspiration and the Bible," Robert F. Hor- 
ton, M. A., pp. 2, 4, 5. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1891. 

There are, it is well known, many theories of inspiration. But what- 
ever view or theory of inspiration men may hold, plenary, verbal, dy- 
namical, mechanical, superintendent, or governmental, they refer either 
to the inspiration of the men who wrote, or to the inspiration of what 
is written. In one word, they imply throughout the work of God the 
Holy Ghost, and are bound up with the concomitant ideas of authority, 
veracity, reliability, and truth divine. — Canon Dyson Hague, M. A., in 
"The Fundamentals," Vol. I, p. 105. Chicago: Testimony Publishing 
Company. 

Inspiration is not affected by minor differences in various narra- 
tives. While God used men as media of communication, they were not 
mere machines, but were left to use their faculties in individual free- 
dom. Hence arose peculiarities, not only of style, but of treatment, 
according as the same utterances or occurrences might impress each 
observer or narrator. But this, instead of impairing, rather increases 
the trustworthiness of the record, as it proves that there could have 
been no prior agreement or conspiracy among the various writers. 

Most so-called discrepancies or disagreements disappear when the 
various records are regarded as partial, rather than complete, as each 
of the four Gospel narratives may present some feature not found in the 
rest, but capable of being combined with the others in one full state- 
ment. For example, the complete inscription over the cross was, " This 
is Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Of this inscription of ten 
words, Matthew records eight, Mark five, Luke seven, and John eight, 
and not the same in any two cases; but the full inscription includes all 
the words found in any record. There is, therefore, no antagonism or 
contradiction. — " Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., 
p. 18. New York,: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

The revelations of prophecy are facts which exhibit the divine 
omniscience. So long as Babylon is in heaps; so long as Nineveh lies 
C 



82 BIBLE AND ARCHEOLOGY 



empty, void, and waste; so long as Egypt is the basest of kingdoms; so 
long as Tyre is a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the 
sea; so long as Israel is scattered among all nations; so long as Jeru- 
salem is trodden underfoot of the Gentiles; so long as the great em- 
pires of the world march on in their predicted course, — so long we have 
proof that one Omniscient Mind dictated the predictions of that book, 
and " prophecy came not in old time by the will of man." — " Will the 
Old Book Stand? " H. L. Hastings, p. 19. Boston: H. L. Hastings & Sons, 
1916. 

Bible, History in, Differs from Other Histories. — Niebuhr says 
that the Old Testament history is the only exception to ancient history, 
in that it is free from what he calls all " national patriotic falsehood." 
... In other histories we see the great tendency to hero worship. The 
historian has some favorite character. He wants to show what a grand 
man that was. The Bible never wants to show what a grand man any- 
body was. There is no hero worship in the Bible. — " The Divine Unity 
of Scripture," Rev. Adolph Saphir, D. D., pp. 213, 214. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1909. 

Bible, Credibility of: Archeological and Geographical Confirma- 
tions. — This is the century of romance, — romance in exploration, in 
discovery, in invention, in thought, and in life. . . . Through a series of 
marvelous discoveries and romantic events we have been let into the 
secrets of wonderful centuries of hitherto unknown peoples and events. 
. . . Now through the co-operation of explorer, archeologist, and lin- 
guist, we are the heirs of what was formerly regarded as prehistoric 
times. . . . These marvelous revelations from the archives of the na- 
tions of the past have painted for us a new background, in fact, our first 
background, of the Old Testament. — " The Monuments and the Old Tes- 
tament," Ira Maurice Price, Ph. D., pp. 17, 18, 5th edition. Philadelphia: 
American Baptist Publication Society, 1907. 

Almost every year ancient records are brought to light which con- 
firm some statement of the Old Testament which the scholars supposed 
to be a mistake. One of the most familiar is that with reference to the 
location of Ur of the Chaldees. Scholars knew of only one Ur, and it 
was at Oorfah, six hundred miles away from Chaldea. So they said the 
Bible must be mistaken. But Lenormant and Smith have identified 
Mughier as the site of the home of Terah and Abraham. The scholars 
were wrong because they did not have the facts in hand. When the 
facts came to light, the Scriptures proved to be exactly correct. — " Sci- 
entific Faith," Howard Agnew Johnston, pp. 117, 118. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1910. 

Bible, Languages and Dialects Printed in. — Up to the end of 1919 
the word of God had been printed, throughout the world, in 713 lan- 
guages and dialects. . . . 

The whole Bible has been printed in 159 languages, the New Testa- 
ment in 138 more, and portions, consisting of at least one book, in 416 
more. The British and Foreign Bible Society has been the chief pro- 
ducer, the American Bible Society being next. 

During the past decade some complete book of the Bible has ap- 
peared in a new language at the rate of one every six weeks. — Bible 
Society Record, September, 1920, p. 136. 

Bible, Circulation of. — The Bible Society exists simply to circulate 
one Book, without note or comment. During the first fifty years of its 



BIBLE, READING OF 83 

existence, it issued each year, on an average, 559,000 copies of the 
Scriptures, complete or in parts; during the next fifteen years, the an- 
nual average rose to 1,951,000 copies; during the last six years it has 
been 5,190,000 copies. 

At the end of the first twenty-five years, the society sent out, on an 
average, one volume in every seventy seconds; at the end of fifty years, 
one volume in twenty-three seconds; at the end of seventy-five years, 
one volume in nine seconds; and at the end of a hundred years, one 
volume in every five seconds. 

During its first fifty years, the society sent out altogether 27,939,000 
copies, in 152 languages and dialects; during the hundred years, it has 
sent out 186,680,000 copies, in 378 languages and dialects. 

At the end of half a century, the society had 3,315 auxiliaries, 
branches, and associations in England and Wales, besides 886 in other 
countries., At the end of the century, the number at home has risen to 
5,726, in addition to 2,224 others in the colonies and abroad. — " After 
a Hundred Years," report of the British and Foreign Bible Society for 
the centenary year 1903-04, p. 3. London: The Bible House, 1904. 

Bible. Forbidden to Laity in Thirteenth Century. — Another no 
less evil result of this period [thirteenth century] so fraught with out- 
rage, was, that the laity were entirely forbidden Holy Scripture, so that 
the possession of a translation of the Bible was forthwith accounted a 
token of heresy, and only translations prepared for the purpose of sup- 
porting the Romish Church were tolerated. — "A Compendium of Ecclesi- 
astical History," Dr. John C. L. Gieseler, Vol. Ill, pp. 440, 441. Edin- 
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1853. 

Bible, Roman Catholic Rules Concerning Reading of. — 5. Editions 
of the original text and of the ancient Catholic versions of Holy Scrip- 
ture, as well as those of the Eastern Church, if published by non- 
Catholics, even though apparently edited in a faithful and complete 
manner, are allowed only to those engaged in theological and Biblical 
studies, provided also that the dogmas of Catholic faith are not im- 
pugned in the prolegomena or annotations. 

6. In the same manner, and under the same conditions, other ver- 
sions of the Holy Bible, whether in Latin or in any other dead language, 
published by non-Catholics, are permitted. 

Chapter III 
Of Vernacular Versions of Holy Scripture 

7. As it has been clearly shown by experience that, if the Holy 
Bible in the vernacular is generally permitted without any distinction, 
more harm than utility is thereby caused, owing to human temerity: 
all versions in the vernacular, even by Catholics, are altogether pro- 
hibited, unless approved by the holy see, or published under the vigilant 
care of the bishops, with annotations taken from the Fathers of the 
church and learned Catholic writers. 

8. All versions of the Holy Bible, in any vernacular language, made 
by non-Catholics are prohibited; and especially those published by the 
Bible societies, which have been more than once condemned by the 
Roman pontiffs, because in them the wise laws of the church concerning 
the publication of the sacred books are entirely disregarded. 

Nevertheless, these versions are permitted to students of theological 
or biblical science, under the conditions laid down above (No. 5). — 
" The Great Encyclical Letters of Pope Leo XIII," pp. 412, 413. New 
York : Benziger Brothers, copyright 1903. 



84 BIBLE, CIRCULATION OF 

Bible, Catholic Encyclopedia on Circulation of, by Bible Socie- 
ties. — The attitude of the church toward the Bible societies is one of 
unmistakable opposition. Believing herself to be the divinely appointed 
custodian and interpreter of Holy Writ, she cannot without turning 
traitor to herself, approve the distribution of Scripture " without note 
or comment." The fundamental fallacy of private interpretation of the 
Scriptures is presupposed by the Bible societies. It is the impelling 
motive of their work. But it would be likewise the violation of one of 
the first principles of the Catholic faith — a principle arrived at through 
observation as well as by revelation — the insufficiency of the Scriptures 
alone to convey to the general reader a sure knowledge of faith and 
morals. Consequently, the Council of Trent, in its fourth session, after 
expressly condemning all interpretations of the sacred text which con- 
tradict the past and present interpretation of the church, orders all 
Catholic publishers to see to it that their editions of the Bible have the 
approval of the bishop. 

Besides this and other regulations concerning Bible reading in gen- 
eral, we have several acts of the popes directed explicitly against the 
Bible societies. Perhaps the most notable of these are contained in the 
Encyclical TJbi Primum of Leo XII, dated 5 May, 1824, and Pius IX's 
Encyclical Qui Pluribus, of 9 November, 1846. Pius VIII in 1829 and 
Gregory XVI in 1844, spoke to similar effect. It may be well to give 
the most striking words on the subject from Leo XII and Pius IX. 
To quote the former (loc. cit.J: 

" You are aware, venerable brothers, that a certain Bible society is 
impudently spreading throughout the world, which, despising the tradi- 
tions of the holy Fathers and the decree of the Council of Trent, is 
endeavoring to translate, or rather to pervert, the Scriptures into the 
vernacular of all nations. ... It is to be feared that by false interpre- 
tation, the gospel of Christ will become the gospel of men, or still worse, 
the gospel of the devil." 

The Pope then urges the bishops to admonish their flocks that owing 
to human temerity, more harm than good may come from indiscrim- 
inate Bible reading. 

Pius IX says (loc. cit.J: "These crafty Bible societies, which renew 
the ancient guile of heretics, cease not to thrust their Bibles upon all 
men, even the unlearned, — their Bibles, which have been translated 
against the laws of the church, and often contain false explanations of 
the text. Thus, the divine traditions, the teaching of the Fathers, and 
the authority of the Catholic Church are rejected, and every one in his 
own way interprets the words of the Lord, and distorts their meaning, 
thereby falling into miserable errors." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, 
Vol. Ill, art. " Bible Societies,''' p. 545. 

Bible, The Writing. — The original word for Scripture is Tpacprf 
(Graphe), and this word is a general one, and signifies any writing. 
Now this word occurs fifty-one times in the New Testament, but it is 
never once applied there to any other kind of writing than the writings 
of the Old and New Testament — the Scriptures. Hence it is evident 
that Christ and the authors of the New Testament regarded the Old 
Testament as a writing distinguished from all other writings; as the 
Writing, that is, the Writing of God. And, we may add, by speaking of 
their own books as Graphai also, the apostles place the New Testament 
on the same level as the Old; they assert it also to be divine. 

Thus, then, my brethren, we have a blessed assurance from Christ 
himself, that the books which the Jews received, and which we have 
received from them, constitute the pure and entire Word of God. The 
New Testament canonizes the Old; the incarnate Word sets his seal 



BIBLE, STATISTICS CONCERNING 85 

on the written Word. The incarnate Word is God; therefore the in- 
spiration of the Old Testament is authenticated by God himself. 

Let it also be observed here, that we who believe in Christ, have 
stronger grounds for faith in those Scriptures which were given to the 
Jews, than even the Jews themselves to whom they were given, and by 
whom they were guarded and delivered to us; for we have the witness 
to them of Christ, and believing him to be God, we receive them on the 
assurance of God. — " On the Inspiration of Holy Scripture,'" Christopher 
Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 55, 56. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1851. 

Note. — The word Graphe is applied to both the Old and New Testaments in 
2 Peter 3 : 16. — Eds. 

Bible, Testimony of History Concerning. — Surveying this sum- 
mary of history in relation to the Bible, three things stand out: 

First, The Singularity of the Scripture. — It is unique. There is 
no other book in the world of which these things can be said. There is 
no real alternative: either this book is divine, or else there is no other. 

Second, The Sufficiency of the Scripture. — In the Bible we have 
a little book, easily obtained and quickly read. It has transformed in- 
dividuals, uplifted communities, permeated literature, influenced phi- 
losophy, faced empires, dominated civilization, and demands attention 
wherever it goes. 

Third, The Supremacy of the Scripture. — History shows that the 
Christian revelation and the Bible go together, and that Christ never 
reveals himself fully apart from the Scripture. The Bible is supreme 
over human reason because reason is only a channel, not a source of 
truth; an opportunity for testing revelation, not the creator of it. And 
Scripture is supreme over the church, because the church was created 
by the word of God, first spoken and afterward written. We do not 
set aside either reason or church, but simply say that for the purest, 
clearest, fullest revelation of Christ as our supreme authority we have 
to turn to the Bible. It is our final court of appeal, and contains the 
last and supreme word on everything connected with the spiritual life. 
— From an Address by W. H. Griffith Thomas, D. D., printed in " God 
Hath Spoken," pp. 106, 107. Philadelphia: Bible Conference Committee, 
copyright, 1919. 

Bible, Some Interesting Statistics. — 

The books in the Old Testament are 39 

The chapters in the Old Testament are 929 

The verses in the Old Testament are 23,214 

The words in the Old Testament are 592,439 

The letters in the Old Testament are 2,728,100 

The books in the New Testament are 27 

The chapters in the New Testament are 260 

The verses in the New Testament are 7,959 

The words in the New Testament are 181,253 

The letters in the New Testament are 838,380 

The Apocrypha has chapters 183 

The Apocrypha has verses 6,081 

The Apocrypha has words 152,185 

The middle chapter, and least in the Bible, is Psalm 117. 

The middle verse is the 8th of Psalm 118. 

The word " and " occurs in the Old Testament 35,543 times. 

The word " Jehovah " occurs 6,855 times. 

The word " and " occurs in the New Testament 10,684 times. 

The middle book of the Old Testament is Proverbs. 

The middle chapter of the Old Testament is Job 29. 



86 BIBLE, BETWEEN THE TESTAMENTS 

The middle verse of the Old Testament is 2 Chronicles, chapter 20, 
verse 17. 

The least verse of the Old Testament is 1 Chronicles, chapter 1, 
verse 1 [25]. 

The middle book of the New Testament is 2 Thessalonians. 

The middle chapters of the New Testament are Romans 13, 14. 

The middle verse of the New Testament is Acts 17: 17. 

The least verse in the New Testament is John 11: 35. 

Verse 21 of chapter 7 of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet, 
except j. 

Chapter 19 of 2 Kings and chapter 37 of Isaiah are alike. — "New 
and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible," Rev. Roswell B. Hitchcock, 

D. B., p. 750. New York: A. J. Johnson, 1870. 

Bible, Between the Testaments, Knowledge of This Period Nec- 
essary. — When we leave the Old Testament, the history of this period 
is necessary as an introduction to the New Testament. To neglect the 
interbiblical story of the Jews is fatal to any thorough and vivid knowl- 
edge of the New Testament. When we open the New Testament, Mat- 
thew and Luke take us at once in meddas res [into the midst of things]. 
Things are not taken up by the New Testament where the Old Testa- 
ment laid them down. When we begin to read the New Testament, we 
are in an entirely different world. The empire of the world has changed 
from the East to the West, and the whole face of Jewish society has been 
revolutionized. New things challenge us: a score of questions get them- 
selves asked, and demand a score of intelligent and historical answers. 
This score of answers must come out of this interbiblical period. These 
answers are between the Testaments, or they are nowhere. — " Between 
the Testaments, or Interbiblical History," Rev. David Gregg, B. B., 
LL. B., pp. 11, 12. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1907. 

Bible, Between the Testaments, A Change of Empire. — In giving 
the history of the period between the Testaments, I wish to set this 
fact in the forefront, and to keep it there, viz., the ruling world power 
of that period was the Greek. The Greek as a world ruler postdated 
the Persian, and immediately antedated the Roman. The Greeks came 
into power through the conquests of Alexander the Great, the king of 
the Macedonians. The Macedonians were not Greeks, but were of a 
ruder branch of the same stock. The royal family of the Macedonians, 
however, maintained descent from the old Greek heroes. Alexander 
himself had a Greek soul and Greek ambitions. He had the best of 
Greek education. Aristotle was his master. He was a champion of 
Hellenism. In the year 334 b. c. young Alexander with a force of thirty- 
five thousand Macedonians met the Persian army and dethroned Persia, 
and seized the scepter of the world. The Jews were now his subjects; 
and the empire of the world changed from the East to the West. — Id., 
pp. 18, 19. 

Bible, St. Basil (329-379) on. — Without doubt it is a most mani- 
fest fall from faith, and a most certain sign of pride, to introduce any- 
thing that is not written in the Scriptures, our blessed Saviour having 
said, " My sheep hear my voice, and the voice of strangers they will 
not hear; " and to detract from Scripture, or to add anything to the 
faith that is not there, is most manifestly forbidden by the apostle, 
saying, " If it be but a man's testament, no man addeth thereto." — 
" Be Fide" Garnier's edition, Vol. II, p. 813; quoted in " The Infallibil- 
ity of the Church," George Salmon, D. B., pp. 143, 144. New York: 

E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 



BIBLE AND BOMAN CHURCH 87 

Bible, St. Jerome (340-420) on. — As we accept those things that 
are written, so we reject those things that are not written. — On Matt. 
$3:36; quoted in " The Infallibility of the Church" George Salmon, 
B> D„ p. 147. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Bible, Pope Prtrs VII on Bible Societies, 1816. — We have been 
truly shocked at this most crafty device, by which the very foundations 
of religion are undermined: and having, because of the great impor- 
tance of the subject, convened for consultation our venerable brethren, 
the cardinals of the holy Roman Church, we have, with the utmost care 
and attention, deliberated upon the measures proper to be adopted by 
our Pontifical authority, in order to remedy and abolish this pestilence 
as far as possible. — Letter Against Bible Societies, written at Rome, 
June 29, 1816, by Pope Pius Vll to the Archbishop of Onezn, Primate of 
Poland; cited in "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the 
Apocalypse," William Cuninghame, Preface, p. xiii, 4th edition. Lon- 
don: Thomas Cadell, 184$. 

Bible, Cardinal Wiseman on Reading of, by Common People. — 
Years of experience, and observation not superficial, have only strength- 
ened our conviction that this course must be fearlessly pursued. We 
must deny to Protestantism any right to use the Bible, much more to 
interpret it. — " The Catholic Doctrine on the Use of the Bible" Cardinal 
Wiseman, p. 11. London. 

It is not too much to say, that God, who could have given us a 
Bible as easy to read as a child's primer, a Bible in words of two syl- 
lables, has, on the contrary, chosen to give us a work more difficult to 
understand than any other perhaps in existence. — Id., p. 13. 

We answer, therefore, boldly, that we give not the Word of God 
indiscriminately to all, because God himself has not so given it. He has 
not made reading an essential part of man's constitution, nor a congeni- 
tal faculty, nor a term of salvation, nor a condition of Christianity. 
But hearing he has made such, and then has told us that " faith cometh 
from hearing, and hearing from the Word of God." Rom. 10: 16, 17. He 
has not made paper and ink (2 John 12) the badges of his apostles' 
calling, but the keys of his kingdom. — Id., p. 20. 

In Catholic countries, such as can read, or do read, have access to 
the Latin Version without restraint. . . . But though the Scriptures 
may be here permitted [in Great Britain, with notes] we do not urge 
them on our people; we do not encourage them to read them; we 
do not spread them to the utmost among them. Certainly not. — 
Id., p. 26. 

Bible, Roman Catholic Claims Concerning. — Roman Catho- 
lics hold that the church is older than the Holy Scriptures, that these 
proceed from her, and that Protestantism arbitrarily reverses this re- 
lation. They teach that the canon of Scripture itself was collected and 
fixed by the church, and that therefore the interpretation of the written 
Word of God remains the express prerogative of the church, with the 
help of tradition.—" Modernism and the Reformation" John Benjamin 
Rust, Ph. D., D. D., pp. 44, 45. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, Roman Catholic Writers on the. — In order to make 
us believe that if we would believe anything, we must believe in the 
Pope, your Romish doctors strain every nerve to persuade us that 



88 BIBLE SUFFICIENT 

Scripture is imperfect, uncertain, ambiguous, and unintelligible: and 
that in many cases the reading of it is unnecessary and unprofitable, 
if not dangerous. For example, " Scripture is insufficient," says Staple- 
ton; Scripture is a V dead judge," says Melchior Can us. Ludovicus, a 
canon of the Lateran, in a speech at the Council of Trent, " Scripture 
is only lifeless ink: " and Pighius, in his third book of Controversies, 
calls it a mute judge, a " nose of wax, which allows itself to be pulled 
this way and that, and to be molded into any form you please; " and 
the Church of Rome, so far from regarding the reading of Scripture as 
necessary, has declared in her last council, " that if any one presumes 
to read or possess the Bible without a license, he cannot receive 
absolution." — " Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D„ p 81. 
London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Bible, Knowledge of, Not Encoubaged by Rome. — It cannot be 
claimed for the medieval church that she ever encouraged a knowl- 
edge of the vernacular Scriptures even for her priests. The utmost 
she did was to tolerate a knowledge of the psalter, of service books, and, 
in the fifteenth century, of the Plenarla, which were made up of 
paragraphs from the Gospels and Epistles along with legends and 
popular tales. Increasingly, too, as Romanism developed on the lines 
it still follows, and sacerdotalism was casting its baleful shadow all 
over Europe, a knowledge of the vernacular Scriptures was regarded 
with suspicion by the ecclesiastical authorities. As mutterings of 
dissatisfaction began to be heard among the awakening nations, the 
influence of the Bible was rightly felt to be hostile at once to the op- 
pressor and the priest. — " The Arrested Reformation," Rev. William 
Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 37, 88. London: Morgan and Scott, 1912. 

Bible, Gbeek Chuech on. — III. Everything necessary to salvation 
is stated in the Holy Scriptures with such clearness, that every one, 
reading it with a sincere desire to be enlightened, can understand it. — 
"Russia: or, Miscellaneous Observations on the Past and Present State 
of That Country and Its Inhabitants," Robert Pinkerton, D. D., pp. 42. 
43; chap. 3, section on " Comparison of the Differences in the Doctrines 
of Faith Betwixt the Eastern and Western Churches," by Philaret, 
Metropolitan of Moscow. London: Seeley & Sons, 1833. 

Bible, The Westminsteb Confession of Faith (1647) on. — VI. 
The whole counsel of God, concerning all things necessary for his own 
glory, man's salvation, faith, and life, is either expressly set down in 
Scripture, or by good and necessary consequence may be deduced from 
Scripture: unto which nothing at any time is to be added, whether by 
new revelations of the Spirit, or traditions of men. — " The Creeds of 
the Evangelical Protestant Churches," Philip Schaff, p. 603 (American 
Revision, 1801). London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1877. 

IX. The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture 
itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and full 
sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must be 
searched and known by other places that speak more clearly. — Id., p. 605. 

Bible, St. Chbysostom (a. d. 347-407) on Ignobance of. — And so 
ye also, if ye be willing to apply to the reading of him with a ready 
mind, will need no other aid. For the word of Christ is true which 
saith, " Seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you " 
(Matt. 7: 7). . . . From this it is that our countless evils have arisen 
— from ignorance of the Scriptures; from this it is that the plague 



BIBLE, RULE OF FAITH 89 

of heresies has broken out. — "Homilies on Romans,'" Preface; " Nicene 
and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. XI, p. 335. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1899. 

Bible, Pope Gregory the Great on Study of. — What is Sacred 
Scripture but a kind of epistle of Almighty God to his creature? And 
surely, if Your Glory were resident in any other place, and were to 
receive letters from an earthly emperor, you would not loiter, you would 
not rest, you would not give sleep to your eyes, till you had learned what 
the earthly emperor had written. 

The Emperor of heaven, the Lord of men and angels, has sent thee 
his epistles for thy life's behoof; and yet, glorious son, thou neglectest 
to read these epistles ardently. Study them, I beseech thee, and daily 
meditate on the words of thy Creator. Learn the heart of God in the 
words of God, that thou mayest sigh more ardently for the things that 
are eternal. — Epistle of St. Gregory the Great to Theodorus, book 4, 
epistle 31; "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. XII, p. 156. Neiv 
York: The Christian Literature Company, 1895. 

Note. — This extract shows that in the time of Gregory the Great [590-604] 
the Roman Catholic Church had not hedged about the reading of the Bible with 
such rules as to discourage any real study of the Scriptures. — Eds. 

Bible, St. Chrysostom on Rule of Doctrine. — " For doctrine." For 
thence [from the Scriptures] we shall know whether we ought to learn 
or to be ignorant of anything. And thence we may disprove what is 
false. . . . 

" That the man of God may be perfect." For this is the exhorta- 
tion of the Scripture given, that the man of God may be rendered perfect 
by it; without this therefore he cannot be perfect. — "Homilies on Tim- 
othy," Homily 9, on 2 Tim. 3:16, 17; " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," 
Vol. XIII, p. 510. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

Bible, Declared Rule of Faith in the " Protest of the Princes," 
at Spires (1529). — Moreover, ... as the new edict declares that the 
ministers shall preach the gospel, explaining it according to the writ- 
ings accepted by the holy Christian church; we think that, for this reg- 
ulation to have any value, we should first agree on what is meant by 
the true and holy church. Now, seeing that there is great diversity of 
opinion in this respect; that there is no sure doctrine but such as is 
conformable to the Word of God; that the Lord forbids the teaching of 
any other doctrine; that each text of the Holy Scriptures ought to be 
explained by other and clearer texts; and that this Holy Book is in all 
things necessary for the Christian, easy of understanding, and calcu- 
lated to scatter the darkness: we are resolved, with the grace of God, 
to maintain the pure and exclusive preaching of his only Word, such 
as it is contained in the Biblical books of the Old and New Testament, 
without adding anything thereto that may be contrary to it. . . . 

For these reasons, most dear lords, uncles, cousins, and friends, we 
earnestly entreat you to weigh carefully our grievances and our motives. 
If you do not yield to our request, we Protest by these presents, before 
God, our only Creator, Preserver, Redeemer, and Saviour, and who will 
one day be our Judge, as well as before all men and all creatures, that 
we, for us and for our people, neither consent nor adhere in any man- 
ner whatsoever to the proposed decree, in anything that is contrary to 
God, to his Holy Word, to our right conscience, to the salvation of our 
souls, and to the last decree of Spires. — " History of the Reformation," 
J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 13, chap. 6, pars. 13, 14. 



90 BIBLE, OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 

Bible, Chillingworth's Famous Statement Concerning. — The 
Bible, I say, the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants ! ... I for my 
part, after a long and (as I verily believe and hope) impartial search 
of " the true way to eternal happiness," do profess plainly that I cannot 
find any rest for the sole of my foot but upon this rock only. 

I see plainly and with mine own eyes that there are popes against 
popes, councils against councils, some Fathers against others, the same 
Fathers against themselves, a consent of the Fathers of one age against 
a consent of the Fathers of another age. . . . 

There is no sufficient certainty but of Scripture only for any con- 
sidering man to build upon. This, therefore, and this only, I have rea- 
son to believe: this I will profess; according to this I will live, and 
for this, if there be occasion, I will not only willingly, but even gladly, 
lose my life, though I should be sorry that Christians should take it 
from me. Propose me anything out of this Book, and require whether 
I believe it or no, and seem it never so incomprehensible to human 
reason, I will subscribe it with hand and heart, as knowing no demon- 
stration can be stronger than this: God hath said so, therefore it is 
true. — " The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation," William 
Ghillingworth, M. A., p. 463. London: Bell and Daldy, 1870. 

Bible, Reform and Revival Synchronize with Its Study. — History 
showed that the periods of reform and revival synchronized with the 
increase of attention to the Word of God. — Sir George Smith, in London 
Times, March 8, 1904; quoted in "All About the Bible," Sidney Collett, 
p. 44, 9th edition. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, Old Testament Contains the Same Message as the New. — 
The Old Testament is not contrary to the New; for both in the Old and 
New Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, who is 
the only Mediator between God and man. — Article VII of the Thirty- 
nine Articles of the Church of England; quoted in " The Creeds of tiie 
Evangelical Protestant Churches," Philip Schaff, p. 491 (American Re- 
vision, 1801). London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1877. 

It is a very strange thing that there are not a few who, professing 
to believe in the Scriptures of the New Testament, regard the Old Tes- 
tament with a feeling of perplexity and doubt, not to say of antipathy; 
and the objections which are brought forward by them against the Old 
Testament, I endeavored to show, were rooted in their insufficient under- 
standing of the teaching of the New Testament. — " The Divine Unity of 
Scripture" Rev. Adolph Saphir, D. D., pp. 160, 161. London: Hodd&r 
and Stoughton, 1909. 

There is a persistent attempt in some quarters to depreciate the Old 
Testament, with the lamentable result that it is comparatively neglected. 
Yet the New Testament itself unmistakably teaches the organic unity of 
the two Testaments, and in various ways exhibits their mutual relations. 
— " Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pier son, D. D., p. 53. New York : 
Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, Testimonies of Men Concerning. — 

John Quincy Adams: So great is my veneration for the Bible that 
the earlier my children begin to read it, the more confident will be my 
hope that they will prove useful citizens to their country and respectable 
members of society. — Quoted in " Biblical Authenticity," L. L. Shearer, 
p. 68. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899. 



BIBLE, TESTIMONIES CONCERNING 91 

Dr. Adam Clarke: This Bible, or the Scriptures of the Old and New 
Testaments, are the only complete guide to everlasting blessedness : men 
may err, but the Scripture cannot; for it is the word of God himself, 
who can neither mistake, deceive, nor be deceived. 2 Tim. 3: 16, 17. 

Prom this word all doctrines must be derived and proved; and from 
it every man must learn his duty to God, to his neighbor, and to him- 
self. Isa. 8: 20. — " Glavis Biblica" ("The Preacher's Manual"), Adam 
Clarke, p. 64. New York: Carlton and Lanahan, 



Samuel Taylor Coleridge: For more than a thousand years the Bible, 
collectively taken, has gone hand in hand with civilization, science, law, 
— in short, with the moral and intellectual cultivation of the species, 
always supporting, and often leading the way. — " Confessions of an In- 
quiring Spirit," Letter VI, p. 100. Boston: James Munroe & Co., 1841. 

Benjamin Franklin: Young man, my advice to you is that you cul- 
tivate an acquaintance with and firm belief in the Holy Scriptures, for 
this is your certain interest. I think Christ's system of morals and 
religion, as he left them with us, the best the world ever saw or is 
likely to see. — Quoted in " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 120. Chicago: 
Testimony Publishing Company. 

W. E. Gladstone: Revelation [the Scripture] not only illuminates, 
but binds. Like the credentials of an earthly ambassador, it is just and 
necessary that the credentials of that revelation should be tested. But 
if it be found genuine, if we have proofs of its being genuine, equal to 
those of which, in the ordinary concerns of life, reason acknowledges the 
obligatory character, then we find ourselves to be not independent beings 
engaged in an optional inquiry, but the servants of a Master, the pupils 
of a Teacher, the children of a Father. — " The Impregnable Rock of 
Holy Scripture," William E. Gladstone, pp. 293, 294. London: Wm-. 
Isbister, 1890. 

J. R. Green, English Historian: As a mere literary monument the 
English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the Eng- 
lish tongue, while its perpetual use made it, from the instant of its ap- 
pearance, the standard of our language^ — " Short History of the English 
People," book 7, chap. 1, par. 6. 

St. Gregory: The Bible changes the heart of him who reads, draw- 
ing him from worldly desires, to embrace the things of God. — Mag. 
Moral. 1, 20, c. 1; quoted in "The Catholic Church and the Bible" 
(pamphlet), p. 4. Brooklyn: The International Catholic Truth Society. 

Patrick Henry: There is a Book worth all other books that were 
ever published. — Quoted in " Biblical Authenticity," L. L. Shearer, p. 68. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899. 

Sir John Herschel: All human discoveries seem to be made only for 
the purpose of confirming more and more strongly the truths contained 
in the Sacred Scriptures. — Quoted in ? Bible Criticism and the Aver- 
age Man," Howard Agnew Johnston, p. 26. New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company, 1902. 

Thomas Jefferson: I have said and always will say that the studious 
perusal of the Sacred Volume will make better citizens, better fathers, 
and better husbands. — Quoted in " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 120, 
Chicago:. Testimony Publishing Company, 



92 BIBLE, TESTIMONIES CONCERNING 

Dr. Howard A. Kelly: I believe the Bible to be God's Word, be- 
cause, as I use it day by day as spiritual food, I discover in my own 
life, as well as in the lives of those who likewise use it, a transforma- 
tion correcting evil tendencies, purifying affections, giving pure desires, 
and teaching that concerning the righteousness of God which those who 
do not so use it can know nothing of. . . . 

Perhaps one of my strongest reasons for believing the Bible is that 
it reveals to me, as no other book in the world could do, that which 
appeals to me as a physician, a diagnosis of my spiritual condition. It 
shows me clearly what I am by nature — one lost in sin and alienated 
from the life that is in God. I find in it a consistent and wonderful 
revelation, from Genesis to Revelation, of the character of God, a God 
far removed from any of my natural imaginings. 

It also reveals a tenderness and nearness of God in Christ which 
satisfies the heart's longings, and shows me that the infinite God, Cre- 
ator of the world, took our very nature upon him that he might in 
infinite love be one with his people to redeem them. I believe in it 
because it reveals a religion adapted to all classes and races, and it is 
intellectual suicide knowing it not to believe it. — Quotett in " The Funda- 
mentals," Vol. I, p. 125. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Abraham Lincoln: In regard to the Great Book, I have only this to 
say: It is the best gift which God has given to man. All the good from 
the Saviour of the world is communicated through this Book. But for 
this Book we could not know right from wrong. All those things de- 
sirable to man are contained in it. — Quoted in " Biblical Authenticity" 
L. L. Shearer, p. 71. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1899. 

Sir Isaac Newton: I account the Scriptures of God to be the most 
sublime philosophy. — Id., p. 67. 

Daniel Webster: If we abide by the principles taught in the Bible, 
our country will go on prospering and to prosper; but if we and our 
posterity neglect its instructions and authority, no man can tell how 
sudden a catastrophe may overwhelm us and bury all our glory in pro- 
found obscurity. — Quoted in ** The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 120. Chi- 
cago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Woodrow Wilson: I have a very simple thing to ask of you. I ask 
of every man and woman in this audience that from this night on they 
will realize that part of the destiny of America lies in their daily pe- 
rusal of this great book of revelations — that if they would see America 
free and pure, they will make their own spirits free and pure by this 
baptism of the Holy Scripture. — Address of Hon. Woodrow Wilson, 
Governor of New Jersey, at the Tercentenary Celebration of the Trans- 
lation of the Bible into English, Denver, Colo., May 7, 1911; quoted in 
the Congressional Record, Aug. 13, 1912. 

Bible, Methods of Studying. — No investigation of Scripture, in its 
various parts and separate texts, however important, must impair the 
sense of the supreme value of its united witness. There is not a form 
of evil doctrine or practice that may not claim apparent sanction and 
support from isolated passages; but nothing erroneous or vicious can 
even find countenance from the Word of God when the whole united 
testimony of Scripture is weighed against it. Partial examination will 
result in partial views of truth which are necessarily imperfect; only 
careful comparison will show the complete mind of God. — "Knowing 
the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., p. 214. New York; Gospel 
Publishing House, 1910.. 



BIBLE, USE OF 93 

Bible, Not to Be Studied as Other Books. — So there never was or 
will be another book that combines the human and divine elements as 
this Book does. When therefore we are told that it must be studied 
just as other books are, that is exactly what we deny. It must be studied 
as no other book is, because it constitutes a class by itself, and can be 
classed with no others. — " The Bible and Spiritual Criticism" Arthur 
T. Pierson, D. D., p. 14. New York: The Baker and Taylor Co., 1905. 

Bible, What to Look for In. — Look not into the Bible for what 
God never put in it — look not there for mathematics or mechan- 
ics, for metaphysical distinctions or the abstruse sciences; but look 
there simply for the way of spiritual life and salvation, and you will 
find enough, an abundance for all your spiritual needs. — " Origin and 
History of the Books of the Bible," Prof. C. E. Stowe. D. D.. pp. 88, 8S. 
Hartford Publishing Company, 1867. 

Bible, Not an Arsenal, but a Temple. — I use the Scripture, not as 
an arsenal to be resorted to only for arms and weapons to defend this 
party or defeat its enemies, but as a matchless temple, where I delight 
to be, to contemplate the beauty, the symmetry, and the magnificence of 
the structure, and to increase my awe and excite my devotion to the 
Deity there preached and adored. — " The Works of the Hon. Robert 
Boyle " (6 vol. edition, Vol. II, p. 877), art. " Some Considerations Touch- 
ing the Style of the Holy Scriptures," 3d Obj., 8. London: Johnson & 
Others, 1778. 

Bible, Safety Where It Is Found. — Years ago, a young infidel was 
traveling in the West with his uncle, a banker, and they were not a 
little anxious for their safety when they were forced to stop for a night 
in a rough wayside cabin. There were two rooms in the house; and 
when they retired for the night, they agreed that the young man should 
sit with his pistols and watch until midnight, and then awaken his 
uncle, who should watch until morning. Presently they peeped through 
the crack, and saw their host, a rough-looking old man, in his bearskin 
suit, reach up and take down a book — a Bible; and after reading it 
awhile, he knelt and began to pray; and then the young infidel began 
to pull off his coat and get ready for bed. The uncle said, "' I thought 
you were going to sit up and watch." But the young man knew there 
was no need of sitting up, pistol in hand, to watch all night long in a 
cabin that was hallowed by the Word of God and consecrated by the 
voice of prayer. Would a pack of cards, a rum bottle, or a copy of the 
"Age of Reason," have thus quieted this young infidel's fears? — "Will 
the Old Book Stand? " H. L. Hastings, pp. 8-10. Boston: H. L. Hastings 
& Sons, 1916. 

Bible, The Reading of It Makes for Liberty. — Up to the time of 
the translation of the Bible into English, it was a book for long ages 
withheld from the perusal of the peoples of other languages and of other 
tongues, and not a little of the history of liberty lies in the circum- 
stance that the moving sentences of this book were made familiar to 
the ears and the understanding of those peoples who have led mankind 
in exhibiting the forms of government and the impulses of reform 
which have made for freedom and for self-government among mankind. 

For this is a book which reveals men unto themselves, not as crea- 
tures in bondage, not as men under human authority, not as those 
bidden to take counsel and command of any human source. It reveals 
every man to himself as a distinct moral agent, responsible not to men, 
not even to those men whom be has put over him in authority, but 



94 BIBLE, USE OF 

responsible through his own conscience to his Lord and Maker. When- 
ever a man sees this vision, he stands up a free man, whatever may be 
the government under which he lives, if he sees beyond the circum- 
stances of his own life. — Address of Hon. Woodrow Wilson, at the Ter- 
centenary Celebration of the Translation of the Bible into English, Den- 
ver, Colo., May 7, 1911; quoted in Congressional Record, Aug. 13, 1912. 

Bible, To Be Understood by All. — VII. All things in Scripture are 
not alike plain in themselves, nor alike clear unto all; yet those things 
which are necessary to be known, believed, and observed, for salvation, 
are so clearly propounded and opened in some place of Scripture or 
other, that not only the learned, but the unlearned, in a due use of the 
ordinary means, may attain unto a sufficient understanding of them. — 
Westminster Confession of Faith, 1647, chap. 1, "Of Holy Scripture;" 
cited in " The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches" Philip 
Schaff, p. 604 (American Revision, 1801). London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1877. 

IX. The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scrip- 
ture itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and 
full sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must 
be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly. — Id., 
p. 605. 

Bible, Its Own Interpreter. — To know in what specific sense words 
and terms are employed by any writer, is to have, so far, keys to unlock 
his meaning. It pleases the author of Holy Scripture to provide, in the 
Bible itself, the helps to its understanding and interpretation. If all 
doors to its secret chambers are not left open, the keys are to be found; 
and part of the object of leaving some things obscure, instead of obvious, 
is to incite and invite investigation, to prompt us to patient and 
prayerful search. Its obscurities awaken curiosity and inquiry, and 
study is rewarded by finding the clew to what was before a maze of 
perplexity. — " Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., p. 106. 
New York: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, Roman Catholic Church Claims Sole Right to Interpret. 
— No one, relying on his own skill, shall, in matters of faith, and of 
morals pertaining to the edification of Christian doctrine, wresting the 
sacred Scripture to his own senses, presume to interpret the said Sacred 
Scripture contrary to that sense which holy mother church, to whom 
it belongs to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Holy 
Scriptures, hath held and doth hold; or even contrary to the unani- 
mous consent of the Fathers. — The Council of Trent, Session TV, April 
8, 1546, in the " Decree Concerning the Edition and the Use of the 
Sacred Books;" "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees" p. 11. New York: 
The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

If any one has the interpretation of the Church of Rome concerning 
any text of Scripture, although he does not understand how the inter- 
pretation suits the text, yet he possesses the identical word of God. — 
Cardinal Hosius, " De Expresso Verbo Dei," p. 623, edition 1584; quoted 
in " The Novelties of Romanism," Charles Hastings Collette, p. 22. Lon- 
don: William Penny, 1860. 

Bible, Best Understood Now. — The apostle Paul declares in his 
epistle to the Corinthians that all these things happened for our example, 
&nd were written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world 



BIBLE AS ORIGINALLY WRITTEN 95 

have come. Seeing, therefore, that we have the fulness of the gospel 
light, and that there have been manifested to us these histories, it is 
for us to enter into the consideration of Moses and the prophets, in the 
full assurance and expectation that the Holy Ghost has there treasured 
up for us all that is profitable and needful for our instruction and guid- 
ance, in connection with that fuller development of history and teaching 
which we now possess. — " The Divine Unity of Scripture,'" Rev. Adolph 
Saphir, D. D., p. 200. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1909. 

Bible, Era of Composition of the Pentateuch. — About the close of 
the first two thousand years, God called Abram out from the idolatrous 
surroundings of his native home (Gen. 12: 1; Joshua 24: 2, 15), changed 
his name to Abraham (Gen. 17: 5; Neh. 9:7), and constituted him the 
head of a people (Gen. 12: 2; 15: 5), known as the Hebrews or Jews, 
whom he was pleased to call his own peculiar possession (Deut. 14: 2), 
and whom he specially fitted and prepared during many generations, 
that they might in due time become the depositaries of a revelation 
committed to writing (Rom. 3: 2), which would at once be more perma- 
nent in its nature and less liable to be either forgotten or corrupted. . . . 

Accordingly, about five hundred years after the call of Abram — 
i. e., about 1500 b. c. — the time came to have this written revelation 
accomplished, which was to embody a history of the preceding 2,500 
years, including an account of the creation, together with God's laws, 
precepts, promises, prophecies, etc. — "All About the Bible," Sidney Goh 
lett, p. 6, 9th edition. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Bible, Original Languages of the Old Testament. — The Old Tes- 
tament — at least, almost the whole of it — was written in Hebrew. 
The following three small sections, however, were written in Chaldean, 
viz., Jer. 10: 11; Dan. 2: 4 to 7: 28; and Ezra 4: 8 to 6: 18.— Id., p. 22. 

Bible, How the Hebrew Language was Written. — The Hebrew 
language was originally written, not only entirely in consonants, without 
any vowels at all (thus Jehovah was simply written JHVH), but there 
was no spacing to divide one word from another, as if we should write 
the Lord's prayer thus : 

RFTHRWHCHRTNHVNHLLWDBTHNM, etc.i 

It was not until after the return of the Jews from the Babylonish 
captivity that words were divided from one another, and the Hebrew 
Old Testament generally was arranged into verses and paragraphs. . . . 
The vowel points were introduced very much later — about a. d. 500 or 
600.— Id., p. 16. 

Bible, How the English of Luke 23: 42-44 Would Look Without 
Spacing.— " ANDHESAIDTOJESUSREMEMBERMELORDWHENTHOU 
SHALTCOMEINTHYDOMINIONANDSAIDTOHIMJESUSVERILYISAY 
TOTHEETODAYWITHMETHOUSHALTBEINPARADISENOWITWASA 
BOUTTHETHIRDHOUR." — Triglott Evangelist's Interlinear Transla- 
tion of the Bible. 

Bible, Quotations from the Old Testament in the New. — A con- 
siderable difference of opinion exists among some learned men, whether 
evangelists and other writers of the New Testament quoted the Old 
Testament from the Hebrew, or from the venerable Greek version, usu- 



1 Aside from the omission of the vowels, the same might be said of the New 
Testament as originally written. — Eds. 



96 BIBLE, RELIABILITY OF 

ally called the Septuagint. Others, however, are of opinion that they 
did not confine themselves exclusively to either; and this appears most 
probable. The only way by which to determine this important question, 
is to compare and arrange the texts actually quoted. — "An Introduction 
to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,'" Thomas 
Hartwell Home, B. D., Vol. I, p. 293. London: T. Cadell, 1839. 

Westcott and Hort, in their edition of the Greek N?w Testament. 
have done a great service by indicating in capitals the . . . sentences 
and phrases from the Old Testament in the New. They have traced 
more than fifteen hundred such in the twenty-seven New Testament 
books. It is both a curious and significant fact that frequently these 
citations are in the very center of some paragraph, and are a sort 
of turning point of the whole argument or mark the heart of the treat- 
ment, as in Paul's great portrait of charity, in 1 Corinthians 13, where 
the phrase, " Thinketh no evil," from Zechariah 8: 17, marks the central 
feature in the portrait. — " Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur T. Pierson, 
D. D., pp. 54, 55. New York: Gospel Publishing House, 1910. 

Bible, No Vital Doctrine Rests on Disputed Readings. — No fun- 
damental doctrine of the Christian faith rests on a disputed reading. 
Constant references to mistakes and divergencies of reading, such as 
the plan of this book necessitates, might give rise to the doubt whether 
the substance, as well as the language, of the Bible is not open to ques- 
tion. It cannot be too strongly asserted that in substance the text, of 
the Bible is certain. — " Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts," Fred- 
eric G. Kenyon, M. A., Litt. D., p. 10. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 
1903. 

Bible, The Living Word. — The Bible is a book which has been 
refuted, demolished, overthrown, and exploded more times than any 
other book you ever 1 heard of. . . . They overthrew the Bible a century 
ago, in Voltaire's time — entirely demolished the whole thing. In less 
than a hundred years, said Voltaire, Christianity will have been swept 
from existence, and will have passed into history. . . . But the Word of 
God " liveth and abideth forever." — "Will the Old Book Stand?" H. L. 
Hastings, p. 5. Boston: H. L. Hastings & Sons, 1916. 

Bible, Unity of. — The Bible is characterized by the unity of its 
theme. It unfolds a series of acts, all contributing to one design or end. 
This is the more remarkable on account of the variety in its authorship. 
Had the Bible been written in one age, or by one person, its unity might 
not so much surprise us. But the Bible is a collection of books which 
were written by different persons, in different languages, in different 
lands, and at different times. Seventeen centuries were employed in its 
composition. The subjects it embraces are so numerous as to give it a 
cyclopedic character. Yet from first to last that marvelous collection of 
books is occupied with one subject, animated by one Spirit, directed to 
one object or end. — " Creation Centred in Christ," H. Grattan Guin- 
ness, D. D., p. 84. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

On the whole, the unity of Scripture has been universally recog- 
nized. Moreover, this unity is obviously not designed and artificial; it 
is not even conscious; the writers of the several parts had no intention 
to contribute nor any idea that they were contributing to one whole. 
. . . And yet when these various writings are drawn together, their 
unity becomes apparent. — " The Bible: Its Origin and Nature" Marcus 
Dods, D. D., p. 18. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 



BIBLE, HEBREW CANON 97 

Here is a book coming from all quarters, written by men of all 
classes, scattered through a period of fifteen hundred years; and yet this 
book is fitted together as a wondrous and harmonious whole. How was 
it done? " Holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost." One mind inspired the whole book, one voice speaks in it all, 
and it is the voice of God speaking with resurrection power. — " Will the 
Old Book Stand?''' H. L. Hastings, p. 20. Boston: H. L. Hastings & 
Sons, 1916. 

Bible, Signification of " the Scripture." — In more than fifty 
places in the New Testament an appeal is made to " the Scripture " or 
" the Scriptures " in such a way as to show that those words were as 
definite in their meaning then as they are now among evangelical Prot- 
estants. Indeed, the words ij ypa<pr) fhee graphee) and al ypacpai fhai 
graphai) are used in the New Testament with all the varied shades of 
meaning in which we now employ the words " Scripture " and " Scrip- 
tures." The etymology of the word has ceased to define its meaning, 
and it signifies not any writing or writings in general, but a specific 
class of writings possessing divine authority. — " The Divine Authority 
of the Bible" G. Frederick Wright, p. 37. Boston: Congregational Sun- 
day-School and Publishing Society, copyright 1884. 

Bible, Order of Books According to the Hebrew Canon. — The ar- 
rangement of the books in the Hebrew Bible is as follows: 

Genesis 
Exodus 

I. The Law { Leviticus 

Numbers 
Deuteronomy 

/Joshua 

Former I Judges 

J 1 and 2 Samuel 
^1 and 2 Kings 

II. The Prophets { ( f Isaiah 

i Major . . J Jeremiah 

Latter . . / [Ezekiel 

Minor. . . j The twelve minor 
i ( prophets 

( Psalms 

< Proverbs 

/Job 
The Song of Songs 
Ruth 
/ 7j ( Lamentations 

-.[. The Writings^ ' ' ) Ecclesiastes 

Esther 
Daniel 
Ezra 

c j Nehemiah 

( 1 and 2 Chronicles 
The Divine Authority of the Bible," G. Frederick Wright, p. 57. 
Boston: Congregational Sunday-School and Publishing Society, 
copyright 1884. 
7 



98 



BIBLE, DATES ON BOOKS 



Bible, In Contrast with Other Sacred Books. — The one keynote, 
the one diapason, the one refrain which is found running through all 
those sacred hooks, is salvation by works. They all declare that sal- 
vation must be purchased, must be bought with a price, and that the 
sole price, the sole purchase-money, must be our own works and de- 
servings. — Sir M. M onier -Williams ; quoted in "All About the Bible" 
Sidney Collett, p. 313, 9th edition. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company. 

Bible, Divisions, Dates of Old Testament Books. — Our Lord's 
Bible was the Old Testament; in the writings concerning him it is 
called "the Scriptures" (Luke 24: 27; Rom. 15: 4), and also from his 
own lips, " Search the Scriptures " (John 5: 39). It is also called " Moses 
and the prophets" (Luke 16: 29), and "the law and the prophets" 
(Acts 24: 14), "the law" (Gal. 4: 21). "And he said unto them, These 
are the words which I spake unto you, while I was yet with you, that 
all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of Moses and 
in the prophets and in the psalms concerning me " (Jesus: Luke 24: 44). 
This latter is the full division according to the Old Testament Hebrew, 
which was Jesus' Bible and Jesus' divisions. 

1. The Pentateuch, or the law of Moses — Genesis, Exodus, Leviti- 
cus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. 

2. The Prophets = Former (Zech. 1: 4; 7: 7, 12): Joshua, Judges, 
1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings; Latter: Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. 

3. The Psalms, Holy Writings, or Hagiographa = Psalms, Proverbs, 
Job, Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, 
Nehemiah, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles. 

The Law, the Prophets, and the Holy Writings, is the ordinary Jew- 
ish title of the Old Testament. 

As nearly as can be ascertained, the chronological order is — 



When Written History Extends 

B. c. from to 

Genesis 1491 4004-1635 

Job 1520 (?) ? 

Exodus 1490 1635-1490 

Leviticus 1490 1490-1490 

Numbers 1451 1490-1452 

Deuteronomy 1451 1451-1451 

Joshua 1420 (?) 1451-1421 ( ? 

Judges 1406 1426-1117 

Ruth 1312 ? 

1 Samuel 1055 1155-1055 

2 Samuel . 1016 1055-1017 

1 Chronicles 1015 4004-1016 

Psalms ? ? 

Song of Solomon 1013 ( ?) 

Ecclesiastes 1013 (?) 

Proverbs 1013 (?) 

1 Kings 889 1015-889 

Prophets 
I. BEFORE THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY 

Amos 785 810-785 

Jonah 784 856-784 

Hosea 725 810-725 

Micah 699 758-699 



Duration 
2,369 yrs. 
? 

145 yrs. 
1 mo. 

38 yrs. 

2 mos. 

30 yrs. 
309 yrs. 

? 

100 yrs. 

40 yrs. 

2,988 yrs. 

9 



126 yrs. 



25 yrs. 
72 yrs. 
85 yrs. 
59 yrs. 



BISHOP, UNIVERSAL 99 

Isaiah 698 810-698 112 yrs. 

Nahum 698 720-698 22 yrs. 

Joel (?) 660 (?) 810-660 150 yrs. 

Zephaniah 609 640-609 31 yrs. 

Jeremiah (and Lamenta- 
tions) 586 640-586 54 yrs. 

2 Kings 589 889-589 300 yrs. 

2 Chronicles 536 1016-536 480 yrs. 

II. DURING THE CAPTIVITY 

Habakkuk 598 612-598 14 yrs. 

Daniel 534 606-534 72 yrs. 

Obadiah 583 588-583 5 yrs. 

Ezekiel 536 595-536 59 yrs. 

III. AFTER THE CAPTIVITY 

Haggai 518 520-518 2 yrs. 

Zechariah 518 520-518 2 yrs. 

Malachi 420 436-420 16 yrs. 

Ezra 457 536-457 79 yrs. 

7 Esther (chaps. 6 and 7).. 440 460-440 20 yrs. 

■ Nehemiah 420 446-420 26 yrs. 

— - " Notes on the Books of the Bible," Br. W. P. Mackay, M. A., pp. 4-7. 
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1887. 

Bible.— Pages 144, 146, 147, 428, 430, 431, 490, 606. 

Bible Societies.— Pages 84, 87, 255, 616. 

Bishop, Universal, Views of Gregory I. — Writing to the patriarchs 
of Alexandria and Antioch, St. Gregory says : " This name ' Universal ' 
was offered during the Council of Chalcedon to the Pontiff of the 
Apostolic See. . . . But no one of my predecessors ever consented to 
use so profane a title, plainly because if a single patriarch be called 
Universal, the name of patriarch is taken from the rest. . . . Where- 
fore presume not ever to give or receive letters with this title 
Universal." (Ep. v. 43.) 

To the Patriarch of Alexandria he writes again : " You are my 
brother in rank, my father in character, and I said that you were 
not to write any such thing to me or to any one else; . . . and behold, 
in the very heading of your letter, directed to me, the very person 
who forbade it, you set that haughty title, calling me Universal Bishop, 
which I beg Your Holiness to do no more." (Ep. viii. 30.) 

To the Patriarch of Antioch he says that this title is " profane, 
superstitious, haughty, and invented by the first apostate; . . . and 
that if one bishop be called Universal, the whole church falls if he 
fall." (Ep. vii. 27.) 

To the emperor Maurice he writes twice: "St. Peter is not called 
Universal Apostle. . . . The whole church falls from its place when 
he who is called Universal falls. . . . But far from Christian hearts 
be that blasphemous name. ... I confidently affirm that whoso calls 
himself, or desires to be called, Universal Priest, in his pride goes 
before Antichrist." (Ep. v. 20; vii. 33.) 

It is important to add that the offer of this title during the Council 
of Chalcedon was not made by that synod itself, nor with its authority, 
though often cited as if such were the case. It was the private and 
unofficial act of certain Alexandrian petitioners (one priest and two 



100 BLUE LAWS 

deacons) against Dioscorus, who endeavored thus to conciliate the 
favor of the Roman legates. (See Baron. "Ann." [The Annals of 
Baronius], 451, lxxxi.) — " Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of 
Rome" Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 176, 177. 
London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Bishop of Rome.— Pages 30, 35, 68, 149, 367, 368, 380. 

Blue Laws. — In early colonial days the Puritans paid special atten- 
tion to the regulation of personal conduct and Sunday observance, and 
many severe enactments were sanctioned, especially in Connecticut and 
New Haven. Hence the phrase means usually any laws for regulating 
the observance of Sunday and personal conduct. Such laws are to he 
found in the statute books of the New England colonies. The Rev. 
Samuel A. Peters, who was forced to flee for his royalist sympathies 
during the War of Independence, published afterward in England his 
"General History of Connecticut" (1781), in which he gives many 
such laws in an exaggerated form. He has been charged with deliberate 
invention in some cases, and it is now proved that the more extreme 
laws cited by him never existed in their entirety. (See J. H. Trumbull, 
" True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New Haven, and the False Blue 
Laws Invented by Rev. Samuel Peters" (1876). — Standard Encyclo- 
pedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Blue Laws," p. 196. 

Most famous among these earlier codes, if not the most important, 
were the blue laws of Connecticut, first given public prominence by the 
Rev. Samuel Peters in his " General History of Connecticut," originally 
published in London in 1781. 

The Rev. Mr. Peters was a clergyman of the Church of England who 
went out to the Connecticut colony in the middle of the eighteenth 
century. As a Loyalist he found himself unpopular in the troublous 
times preceding the American Revolution, and in 1774 he fled the colony 
and returned to England. When his book appeared, seven years later, 
it was greeted with a storm of denunciation in America. Patriotism and 
state pride have led so many commentators to deny the existence of the 
blue laws cited by Mr. Peters, that it has become the current belief that 
his catalogue of statutory offenses alleged to prevail in the colony of 
Connecticut was a satirical fabrication out of whole cloth. But while 
it is literally true that none of the blue laws ever stood on the Con- 
necticut statute books in the precise form in which the reverend his- 
torian quotes them, — he acknowledged that he had never seen them 
in print and was setting them down from memory, — extensive re- 
search by Walter F. Prince and other historians bears out the state- 
ment that laws substantially to the same effect were in existence and 
enforced, either in Connecticut or in the neighboring theistic com- 
monwealth of Massachusetts. Hearing of the punishment meted out 
under these laws, and so having them fixed in his memory, it does 
not discredit Mr. Peters to point out that some of the laws he attributes 
to Connecticut were actually the laws of Massachusetts. — Frank Parker 
Stockbridge, in an article, " Blue Laws in America," in Current His- 
tory for March, 1921, New York Times Company. 

Blue Laws, Transplanted from England. — The colonists of New 
England — call them fanatics, bigots, persecutors, or what you will — 
did no more than repeat, in their new home, a few of the lessons they 
had been taught in the mother country and by the mother church. They 
believed it to be the duty of civil magistrates to maintain the order and 



BLUE LAWS 101 

discipline of the churches and " the liberty and purity of the gospel." — 
" The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New Haven, and the False 
Blue Laws," edited by J. Hammond Trumbull, p. 16. Hartford, Conn. : 
American Publishing Company, 1876. 

Blue Laws, Mosaic Code Adopted as Civil Statutes. — The freemen 
of Massachusetts resolved to model their Body of Liberties from the code 
of Moses; and the early laws of Connecticut and New Haven were in 
great part copied from those of Massachusetts. The first planters of 
New Haven resolved " that, as in matters that concern the gathering and 
ordering of a church, so likewise in all public offices which concern 
civil order, as choice of magistrates and officers, making and repealing 
of laws, dividing allotments of inheritance, and all things of like nature, 
we would all of us be ordered by those rules which the Scripture holds 
forth to us." — Id., pp. 9, 10. 

Blue Laws, Capital Laws of Connecticut, 1642. — 1. If any man 
after legal conviction shall have or worship any other God but the Lord 
God, he shall be put to death. Deut. 13: 6; 17: 2; Ex. 22: 20. 

2. If any man or woman be a witch (that is, hath or consulteth 
with a familiar spirit), they shall be put to death. Ex. 22: 18; Lev. 
20: 27; Deut. 18: 10, 11. 

3. If any person shall blaspheme the name of God, the Father, Son, 
or Holy Ghost, with direct, express, presumptuous, or high-handed blas- 
phemy, or shall curse God in the like manner, he shall be put to death. 
Lev. 24: 15, 16. — Id., pp. 59, 60. 

Blue Laws, Laws of New Haven Colony, 1648-60. — And it is fur- 
ther ordered, that wheresoever the ministry of the word is established 
within this jurisdiction, according to the order of the gospel, every 
person according to the mind of God shall duly resort and attend there- 
unto, upon the Lord's days at least, and also upon days of public fast- 
ing, or thanksgiving, ordered to be generally kept and observed. And 
if any person within this jurisdiction, shall without just and necessary 
cause, absent or withdraw from the same, he shall, after due means of 
conviction used, for every such sinfull miscarriage, forfeit five shillings 
to the plantation, to be levied as other fines. — Id., p. 220. 

Although no creature be Lord, or have power over the faith and 
consciences of men, nor may constreyn them to believe, or professe, 
against their consciences, yet to restreyn, or provide against such as 
may bring in dangerous errours or heresies, tending to corrupt and 
destroy the soules of men, it is ordered, etc., That if any Christian 
within this jurisdiction shall goe about to subvert or destroy the Chris- 
tian faith, or Religion, by broaching, publishing, or maintaining any 
dangerous errour or heresie, or shall endeavour to draw, or seduce 
others thereunto, every such person so offending, and continuing ob- 
stinate therein, after due means of conviction, shall be fined, banished, 
or otherwise severely punished, as the court of magistrates duly con- 
sidering the offence, with the aggravating circumstances, and danger 
like to ensue, shall judge meet. — Id., pp. 224, 225. 

Whosoever shall prophane the Lord's day, or any part of it, either by 
sinful servile work or by unlawful sport, recreation, or otherwise, 
whether wilfully or in a careless neglect, shal be duly punished by fine, 
imprisonment, or corporally, according to the nature and measure of 
the sinn and offence. But if the court, upon examination, by clear and 
satisfying evidence, find that the sin was proudly, presumptuously, and 



102 BLUE LAWS 

with a high hand committed against the known command and authority 
of the blessed God, such a person therein despising and reproaching the 
Lord, shal be put to death, that all others may feare and shun such 
provoking rebellious courses. Num. 15: 30-36. — " The True Blue Laws of 
Connecticut and Neiv Haven, and the False Blue Laws," edited by 
J. Hammond Trumbull, pp. 252, 253. Hartford, Conn.: American Pub- 
lishing Company, 1876. 

It was propounded to the court to consider whether it were not 
meet to make a law for restraining of persons from their ordinary out- 
ward employments upon any part of the Sabbath, and the rather because 
some have of late taken too much liberty that way, and have been called 
to answer for it in the particular court. The court considering that it 
is their duty to do the best they can that the law of God may be strictly 
observed, did therefore order that whosoever shall, within this planta- 
tion, break the Sabbath by doing any of their ordinary outward occa- 
sions, from sunset to sunset, either upon the land or upon the water, 
extraordinary cases, works of mercy and necessity being excepted, he 
shall be counted an offender, and shall suffer such punishment as the 
particular court shall judge meet, according to the nature of his of- 
fence. — Id., p. 286. 

It is ordered that no Quaker, Ranter, or other heretic of that na- 
ture, be suffered to come into nor abide in this jurisdiction; and if any 
such arise up among ourselves, that they be speedily suppressed and 
secured, for the better prevention of such dangerous errors. — Id., 
p. 295. 

Blue Laws, Laws or Virginia, 1610-11. — That no man blaspheme 
God's holy name, upon pain of death; or use unlawful oaths, taking the 
name of God in vain, curse, or ban, upon pain of severe punishment for 
the first offence so committed, and for the second, to have a bodkin 
thrust through his tongue; and if he continue the blaspheming of God's 
holy name, for the third time so offending he shall be brought to a mar- 
tial court, and there receive censure of death for his offence. — Id., p. 321. 

1663. If Quakers, or other Separatists whatsoever, in this colony 
assemble themselves together to the number of five or more, of the 
age of sixteen years or upwards, under the pretence of joining in a re- 
ligions worship not authorized in England or this country, the parties 
so offending being thereof lawfully convict by verdict, confessions, or 
notorious evidence, shall for the first offence forfeit 200 lbs. of tobacco; 
for the second, 500 lbs. of tobacco; and for the third offence, the offender 
being convict as aforesaid shall be banished the colony of Virginia. — 
Id., pp. 327, 328. 

Blue Laws, Law of Maryland, 1649. — If any person whatsoever 
inhabiting this Province shall blaspheme, that is, curse God, deny our 
Saviour to be the Son of God, or deny the Holy Trinity, or the Godhead 
of any of the three Persons, or the unity of the Godhead, or shall utter 
any reproachful words or language concerning the Holy Trinity, or any 
of the three Persons thereof, he or she shall for the first offence be bored 
through the tongue, and fined 20£ sterling, to the king; or if the party 
hath not an estate sufficient to answer the sum, then to suffer six 
months' imprisonment. For the second offence, he or she shall be 
stigmatized in the forehead with the letter B, and fined 40£ sterling 
(&c), or be imprisoned for one year. And for the third offence, he or 
she so offending and thereof legally convicted, shall suffer death, with 
confiscation of all their goods and chattels to the king. — Id., p. 321. 



BLUE LAWS 103 

Blue Laws, Laws of Massachusetts, 1636, 1637. — October, 1636. 
That no person, after one month, shall make or sell any bone lace, or 
other lace, to bee worne upon any garment or linnen, upon paine of 5s. 
the yard for every yard of such lace so made or sould, or set on; neither 
shall any taylor set any lace upon any garment, upon payne of 10s. for 
every offence; provided that binding or small edging laces may bee used 
upon garments or linnen. — " The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and 
New Haven, and the False Blue Laws," edited by J. Hammond Trumbull, 
p. 344. Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1876. 

It is ordered, also, that no person shall sell any cakes or buns, either 
in the markets or victualing houses, or elsewhere, upon paine of 10s. 
fine; providing that this order shall not extend to such cakes as shal- 
bee made for any buriall, or marriage, or such like spetiall occasion. — 
Id., pp. 345, 346. 

Blue Laws, First Code of Connecticut, 1650. — It is ordered and 
by this court decreed, that if any person within this jurisdiction shall 
swear rashly and vainly, either by the holy name of God or any other 
oath, [or] shall sinfully and wickedly curse any, he shall forfeit to the 
common treasure, for every such several offence, ten shillings; and it 
shall be in the power of any magistrate, by warrant to the constable, to 
call such persons before him, and upon just proof to pass a sentence, and 
levy the said penalty according to the usual order of justice. And if 
such persons be not able, or shall utterly refuse to pay the aforesaid 
fine, he shall be committed to the stocks, there to continue not exceed- 
ing three hours and not less than one hour. — Id., p. 118. 

Blue Laws, False. — No one shall run on the Sabbath day [Sunday], 
or walk in the garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from 
meeting. 

No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep the house, cut 
hair, or shave on the Sabbath day [Sunday]. 

No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath [Sunday] or fasting- 
day. ... 

No one shall read Common Prayer, keep Christmas or saints' days, 
make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of 
music except the drum, trumpet, and jew's-harp. — Id., pp. 303-306. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon.— Pages 154-156, 194-196, 199, 267, 288, 364, 
390, 391, 393. 

Boniface VIII.— Pages 114, 257, 366, 373, 374, 376, 402, 404, 608. 

Borgias, The.— Pages 374-376. 

Bottomless Pit.— Pages 613, 614. 

Bridegroom, The Friend of. — Among those whose hearts are 
thrilled with gladness by the welcome intelligence that the bridegroom 
is made happy in the possession of his bride, no one can be more keenly 
grateful for the announcement than " the friend of the bridegroom," 
who has conducted the negotiations which led to this event. Then, and 
not till then, can he be sure that he has planned wisely and well, and 
that his principal is made happy through his efforts in his behalf. 

Herein is an explanation of a passage in the New Testament which 
has lacked explanation from commentators. When John the Baptist was 



104 CALENDAR, THE HEBREW 

told that Jesus of Nazareth, whom he had baptized, and so ushered into 
the ministry, was now himself a recognized teacher, and that the 
multitudes were nocking to him, even to the eclipsing of John's popu- 
larity and prominence, the record stands, that " John answered and 
said: ... Ye yourselves bear me witness, that I said, I am not the 
Christ, but that I am sent before him. He that hath the bride is the 
bridegroom: but the friend of the bridegroom, which standeth [outside] 
and heareth him [expressing his satisfaction with the union arranged 
for], rejoiceth greatly because of the bridegroom's voice [of approval]: 
this my joy [as the friend of the bridegroom, Christ] is fulfilled [in 
his union with his bride the church]. He must increase, but I must 
decrease." The friend of the bridegroom has no longer a mission when 
the bridegroom's true mission is fairly entered upon. John's work was 
done when the work of Jesus was begun. — " Studies in Oriental Social 
Life," H. Clay Trumbull, pp. 59-61. Philadelphia: John D. Wattles & 
Co., 1894. 

Buddha.— Page 571. 
Burgundians. — Pages 476, 594. 

Calendar, Day, The Hebrew. — The civil day was reckoned by the 
Hebrews from sunset to sunset, so that the day began at that time both 
on ordinary occasions and on Sabbaths and feasts. . . . Excepting only 
the seventh day, the days of the week had no proper names, that system 
of designation which gave the days the names of the sun, moon, and 
planets being rejected because of heathen associations. 

For the divisions of the day, besides the ordinary terms of dawn, 
morning,' midday, and evening, there were in use such expressions as 
"the heat of the day" (Gen. 18: 1), "the height of the day," or "the 
perfect day" (Prov. 4: 18), and "the cool of the evening" (Gen. 3: 
8). The reckoning by hours does not appear in the Old Testament until 
the book of Daniel, when the word used is Aramaic. In the New Testa- 
ment the reckoning by hours is customary, the first hour is sunrise and 
the sixth is midday (cf. Matt. 20: 1, sqq.), though it is debatable whether 
the Gospel of John does not follow the Roman civil mode by reckoning 
the hours from midnight (cf. John 19: 14 and 18: 28 with Matthew 27: 
45; Mark 15: 25, 33; Luke 23: 44). The hour, dependent upon the sun 
and the seasons, varies in the latitude of Palestine from forty-nine to 
seventy-one minutes in length. A sundial (doubtless an obelisk with 
steps), which marked the hours as the shadow passed, was used by 
Hezekiah (2 Kings 20: 9, 10). The night was divided by the Hebrews 
into three watches (Lam. 2: 19; Judges 7: 19; Ex. 14: 24). In New 
Testament times the Roman division of the night into four watches was 
employed (Mark 13:35), though the Talmudists retained the earlier 
division into three watches. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of 
Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. "Day, the Hebrew," p. 367. 

Calendar, Bible Day from Sunset to Sunset. — The Jews reckoned 
their days from evening to evening, according to the order which is 
mentioned in the first chapter of Genesis, in the account of the work 
of creation : " The evening and the morning were the first day." Their 
Sabbath, therefore, or seventh day, began at sunset on the day we 
call Friday, and lasted till the same time on the day following. — "A 
Summary of Biblical Antiquities," John W. Nevin, D. D., Assistant 
Teacher in the Theological Seminary of Princeton, chap. 8, sec. 4 (Vol. 
I, p. 171). Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union, 1849. 



CALENDAR, DAYS 105 

According to the Jewish computation of time, the day commences 
at sunset. On Friday evening, and about one hour before sunset on this 
evening, all business transactions and secular occupations cease, and 
the twenty-four hours following are devoted to the celebration of the 
holy Sabbath. — " The History of the Jews," Matthew A. Berk, Appendix, 
p. 481. Boston: M. A. Berk, 1849. 

One of the priests stood of course, and gave a signal beforehand, 
with a trumpet, at the beginning of every seventh day, in the evening 
twilight, as also at the evening when that day was finished, as giving 
notice to the people when they were to leave off work, and when they 
were to go to work again. — Josephus, "Wars of the Jews," Whiston's 
translation, book 4, chap. 9, par. 12. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Calendar, Day, The Roman Midnight Plan. — The only trace of 
the ancient manner of dating a festival from the eve, or vesper, of the 
previous day, — a practice discontinued since the twelfth century, when 
the old Roman way of counting the day from midnight to midnight 
was reintroduced, — survives in the " ringing in " of certain days of 
special solemnity on the night before, and in the fasts of the vigils. — 
Chambers' Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, art. "Festivals," p. 596. 

Calendar, Days as Designated in Scripture. — The Jews had not 
particular names for the first six days of the week, but distinguished 
them merely by their order; thus, what we now call Sunday was 
termed the first day of the week, Monday was the second, Tuesday the 
third, and so of the rest. The seventh day, which we name Saturday, 
was styled among them the Sabbath, that is, the day of rest. And 
because this was the most important day of all in the week, the whole 
week came to be called, from its name, a Sabbath; whence the other days 
were called also the first day of the Sabbath, the second day of the 
Sabbath, and so on in their order. — "A Summary of Biblical Antiqui- 
ties," John W. Nevin, Assistant Teacher in the Theological Seminary of 
Princeton, chap. 8, sec. 4 (Vol. I, p. 174). Philadelphia: American Sun- 
day School Union, 1849. 

Calendar, English Names of Days. — The English names of the 
days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient Saxons had borrowed the 
week from some Eastern nation, and substituted the names of their 
own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In legislative and 
justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained. 

Latin English Saxon 

Dies Solis Sunday Sun's day 

Dies Lunae Monday Moon's day 

Dies Martis Tuesday Tiw's day 

Dies Mercurii Wednesday Woden's day 

Dies Jovis Thursday Thor's day 

Dies Veneris Friday Frigg's day 

Dies Saturni Saturday Seterne's day 

— The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. IV, art. " Calendar," p. 988, 11th 
edition. 

Calendar, The Week of Creation. — The week, another primeval 
measure, is not a natural measure of time, as some astronomers and 
chronologers have supposed indicated by the phases or quarters of the 
moon. It was originated by divine appointment at the creation six 



106 CALENDAR, THE WEEK 

days of labor and one of rest being wisely appointed for man's physical 
and spiritual well-being. — "Analysis of Sacred Chronology" S. Bliss, 
p. 10. Oakland, Calif.: Pacific Press Publishing House, 1887. 

Calendar, Antiquity of the Week. — There can be no doubt about 
the great antiquity of measuring time by a period of seven days (Gen. 
8: 10; 29: 27). The origin of this division of time is a matter which 
has given birth to much speculation. Its antiquity is so great, its 
observance so widespread, and it occupies so important a place in 
sacred things, that it must probably be thrown back as far as the crea- 
tion of man. The week and the Sabbath are thus as old as man himself. 
— "A Dictionary of the Bible," edited by William Smith, LL. D., art. 
" Week," p. 745 (1 vol. ed.J. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Calendar, The Week Primeval. — This primeval measure of time 
[was] instituted as a memorial of the work of creation in six days, 
and of the ensuing Sabbath. ... It was therefore universally observed 
by Noah's descendants during the prevalence of the patriarchal reli 
gion; but when mankind degenerated, and sunk into idolatry, the prim- 
itive institution was neglected, and at length lost. And the days of the 
week were dedicated by the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Syrians, etc., to the 
heavenly host, the sun, moon, and planets. — " A New Analysis of Chro- 
nology and Geography," William Hales, D. D., Vol. I, p. 18. London: 
C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Calendar, The Week Fixed by the Sabbath Institution.- — This is 
evident from the word Sabbat, or Sabbata, denoting a week among the 
Syrians, Arabians, Christian Persians, and Ethiopians; as in the follow 
ing ancient Syriac calendar, expressed in the Chaldee alphabet: 

XrOT-*"in One of the Sabbath, or week Sunday 

NnaETpn Two of the Sabbath Monday 

NrOttrrnn Three of the Sabbath Tuesday 

NrQETKJQnK Four of the Sabbath Wednesday 

NnaSTKBftn Five of the Sabbath Thursday 

XnDEny Eve of the Sabbath Friday 

NrOtt? The Sabbath Saturday 

The high antiquity of this calendar is evinced by the use of the 
cardinal numbers, one, two, three, etc., instead of the ordinals first, 
second, third, etc., following the Hebrew idiom; as in the account of 
the creation, where we read in the original, " One day," which the Sep- 
tuagint retains, calling it ijixipa fila [hemera mia\. It is remarkable that 
all the evangelists follow the Syriac calendar, both in the word <ra'jS/3ara 
[sabbata], used for " a week," and also in retaining the cardinal number 
ixla aapp&Twv \_mia sabbaton], "one of the week," to express the day of 
the resurrection. Matt. 28: 1; Mark 16: 2; Luke 24: 1; John 20: 1 — 
Id., Vol. I, pp. 19, 20. 

Calendar, The Astrological or Egyptian Week Not Identical with 
the Semitic or Jewish Week. — The way in which the allotment of 
the planets to the days of the week was arrived at was the following: 
The Greek astronomers and mathematicians concluded that the planet 
Saturn was the most distant from the earth and that the others followed 
in the descending order of Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon. 
In the progress of astrology there came a time when it was found neces- 
sary to assign a planet to every hour so as to increase the number of 
omens it could afford. Starting then with Saturn as presiding over 
the first hour of the day, each planet was used three times over on that 



CALENDAR, THE WEEK 107 

day, and three planets were used a fourth time. The sun, the fourth 
planet, took therefore the first hour of the second day, and gave it its 
name, so that Sunday followed Saturday. In like manner the third day 
became the moon's day, and so on with the other planets which followed 
in the order Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and again Saturn. This 
idea of the relative distances of the planets was that arrived at by the 
astronomers of Alexandria, and was necessarily subsequent to the re- 
duction of the planetary motions to a mathematical system by Eudoxus 
and his successors. The division of the day implied was one of twenty- 
four hours, not of twelve; the Egyptian division, not the Babylonian. 
But the Egyptian week was one of ten days, the seven-day week was 
Semitic, and the week implied in the system is the free week, running 
on continuously, the Jewish week, not the Babylonian. For the Baby- 
lonians, though they paid some attention to the seventh day, began their 
reckoning fresh at the beginning of each month. This particular astro- 
logical system therefore owed its origin to four distinct nationalities. 
The conception of the influence of the planets was Babylonian; the 
mathematical working out of the order of the planets was exclusively 
Grecian; the division of the day into twenty-four hours was Egyptian; 
the free continuous seven-day week was particularly Jewish. — The In- 
ternational Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., 
D. D., Vol. I, art. "Astrology," p. 299. 

Calendar, Week Not Astronomical. — The week is a period of 
seven days, having no reference whatever to the celestial motions, — a 
circumstance to which it owes its unalterable uniformity. Although it 
did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks, and was not introduced 
at Rome till after the reign of Theodosius, it has been employed from 
time immemorial in almost all Eastern countries; and as it forms 
neither an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those who 
reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delambre remarks, to as- 
sign to it an origin having much semblance of probability. — The En- 
clopedia Britannica, Vol. IV, art. " Calendar," p. 988, 11th edition. 

Calendar, Week, Consecration of All Days or. — The Egyptians, 
we are told by Dio Cassius, led the way in consecrating the days of the 
week to the seven planets, and they were followed by the Greeks, Ro- 
mans, Hindus, Goths, Germans, and Saxons. And the following Pythian 
oracle, prescribing the worship of these false gods on their respective 
days, is preserved by Eusebius: 

"Invoke Mercury; and the Sun in like manner, 
On Sunday; and the Moon, when her day comes; 
And Saturn also; and Venus, in succession." 
Hence the Gentiles dropped the observance of a seventh day of rest. 
The Greeks observed the decades, or tenth days; the Romans, nundinae, 
the ninth days, etc.— "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," 
Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. I, p. 19. 

Calendar, Five Forms of Weeks. — Five forms of weeks were em- 
ployed under the law of Moses, adjusted to individual and national 
interests : 

1. The week of days (Exodus 20). 

2. The week of weeks (Leviticus 23). 

3. The week of months (Leviticus 23). 

4. The week of years (Leviticus 25). 

5. The week of weeks of years (Leviticus 25). — "Creation Centred 
in Christ," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., p. 272. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1896. 



108 CALENDAR, MONTHS 

Calendar, The Months in the Old Testament. — Moses named the 
first month of the year Abib (Ex. 12: 2; 13: 4), signifying "green" from 
the green ears of corn at that season; for it began about the vernal 
equinox. The second month was named Zif, signifying in Chaldee, 
" Glory," or " splendor," in which the foundation of Solomon's temple 
was laid. 1 Kings 6: 1. The seventh month was styled Ethanim, which 
is interpreted " Harvests " by the Syriac Version. 1 Kings 8 : 2. The 
eighth month, Bui, from " the fall " of the leaf. 1 Kings 8: 2. 

Besides these names, given before the Babylonian captivity, there 
were others after. The first month was also called Nisan, signifying 
"flight" [Esther 3: 7; Neh. 2: 1]; because in that month the Israelites 
were thrust out of Egypt. Ex. 12: 39. The third month, Sivan, signify- 
ing "a bramble." [Esther 8: 9.] The sixth montji, ^Elul, signifying 
" mourning; " probably because it was the time of preparation for the 
great day of atonement, on the tenth day of the seventh month. Neh. 
6: 15. The ninth month was called Chisleu, signifying " chilled; " when 
the cold weather sets in, and fires are lighted. Zech. 7: 1; Jer. 36: 22. 
The tenth month was called Tebeth, signifying "miry." Esther 2: 16. 
The eleventh, Bhebet, signifying a "staff," or a "scepter." Zech. 1: 7. 
And the twelfth, Adar, signifying a "magnificent mantle," probably from 
the profusion of flowers and plants with which the earth then begins to 
be clothed in warm climates. Ezra 6: 15; Esther 3:7. It is said to be a 
Syriac term. 2 Mac. 16: 36. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geog- 
raphy," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. I, p. 26. London: C. J. G. & F. 
Rivington, 1830. 

Note. — Previous to the Babylonish captivity, the Hebrews gave all the months 
Jewish names, only four of which have come down to us, namely, Abib or Nisan, 
the 1st ; Zif of Ivar, the 2nd ; Ethanim or Tisri, the 7th ; Bui or Marcheshvan, the 
8th. In the Bible the months are usually designated by numbers, but during 
the exile Babylonian names were introduced, and these are still in use among 
the Jews. The names now generally used, with their approximate corresponding 
months, are as follows : 

Abib, or Nisan April Tisri, or Ethanim October 

Zif, or Iyar May Bui, or Marcheshvan November 

Sivan June Chisleu December 

Thammuz July Tebeth January 

Ab August Shebat February 

Elul September Adar March 

Ve Adar Intercalary 

— Table compiled from the Oxford Bible, Cyclopedic Concordance, art. " Months: 
Jewish Calendar." — Eds. 

Calendar, Year, The Hebeew. — As the year of the Hebrews was 
lunar, not solar, it consisted of only 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 38 
seconds. This, distributed among twelve months, would in the course 
of years have completely disordered the months, so that the first month, 
or Nisan (corresponding to the end of March or the beginning of April), 
in the middle of which the first ripe barley was to be presented to the 
Lord, might have fallen in the middle of winter. Accordingly, the San- 
hedrin appointed a committee of three, of which tjie chief of the San- 
hedrin was always president, and which, if not unanimous, might be 
increased to seven, when a majority of voices would suffice to deter- 
mine which year was to be made a leap year by the insertion of a thir- 
teenth month. Their resolution was generally taken in the twelfth 
month (Adar), the additional, or thirteenth month (Ve-Adar), being in- 
serted between the twelfth and the first. A sabbatical year could not 
be a leap year, but that preceding it was always such. Sometimes two, 
but never three, leap years succeeded each other. Commonly^ every 
third year required the addition of a month. The mean duration of the 
Jewish month being 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3£ seconds, it re- 
quired, during a period of nineteen years, the insertion of seven months 
to bring the lunar era in accordance with the Julian, 



CALENDAR, REFORM IN 109 

And this brings up yet another difficulty. The Jews calculated the 
month according to the phases of the moon, each month consisting of 
either twenty-nine or thirty days, and beginning with the appearance 
of the new moon. But this opened a fresh field of uncertainty. It is 
quite true that every one might observe for himself the appearance of a 
new moon. But this would again partly depend on the state of the 
weather. Besides, it left an authoritative declaration of the commence- 
ment of a month unsupplied. And yet not only was the first of every 
month to be observed as " New Moon's Day," but the feasts took place 
on the 10th, 15th, or other day of the month, which could not be ac- 
curately determined without a certain knowledge of its beginning. To 
supply this want the Sanhedrin sat in the " Hall of Polished Stones " 
to receive the testimony of credible witnesses that they had seen the 
new moon. 

To encourage as many as possible' to come forward on so important 
a testimony, these witnesses were handsomely entertained at the public 
expense. If the new moon had appeared at the commencement of the 
30th day — which would correspond to our evening of the 29th, as the 
Jews reckoned the day from evening to evening — the Sanhedrin de- 
clared the previous month to have been one of twenty-nine days, or 
" imperfect." Immediately thereon men were sent to a signal station 
on the Mount of Olives, where beacon fires were lit and torches waved, 
till a kindling flame on a hill in the distance indicated that the signal 
had been perceived. Thus the tidings that this was the new moon 
would be carried from hill to hill, far beyond the boundaries of Pales- 
tine, to those of the dispersion, " beyond the river." 

Again, if credible witnesses had not appeared to testify to the ap- 
pearance of the new moon on the evening of the 29th, the next evening, 
or that of the 30th, according to our reckoning, was taken as the com- 
mencement of the new month, in which case the previous month was 
declared to have been one of thirty days, or " full." It was ruled that 
a year should neither have less than four nor more than eight such full 
months of thirty days. — " The Temple, Its Ministry and Services, -as 
They Were at the Time of Jesus Christ," Rev. Br. Edersheim, pp. 169- 
171. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

Calendar, Reform in, by Gregory XIII. — The Julian calendar as- 
sumes the length of the solar year to be 365 % days, whereas it is 11 
minutes and a few seconds less. This annual error accumulated as years 
rolled on. Some proposals, such as that of Stoffler in 1518 and of Pita- 
tus of Verona in 1537, were made to rectify the error, but the matter 
was not taken up in earnest till 1577, by Pope Gregory XIII. As in 
1582 the vernal equinox occurred at a date (March 11) ten days earlier 
than it did at the time of the Council of Nice in 325 a. d., Gregory pub- 
lished a bull, dated March 1, 1582, annulling ten days, so that what would 
have been reckoned the 5th October, 1582, was to be reckoned the 15th 
October. In order also that the displacement might not recur, it was 
further ordained that three of the leap years which occur in 400 years 
should be considered common years. The three leap years selected to 
be reduced to common years were those which close the centuries (i. e., 
which end with 00) and are not divisible by 400. Thus, 1600 was leap 
year, 1700, 1800, and 1900 were common years, 2000 will be leap year, 
and so on. This method of adjusting the days to the year is called the 
Gregorian Calendar, or the New Style. 

The New Style was adopted exactly according to the mandate of the 
Pope, in Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy; in France and some of the 
provinces of the Low Countries it was adopted in the same year by call- 
ing the 10th of December the 20th, and the 15th of December the 25th; 



110 CALENDAR, REFORM IN 

and by Catholic Europe generally before the end of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Scotland adopted the modern New Year's Day in 1600. The 
change was carried out in England in 1752 by suppressing the 3d to the 
13th of September. The enactment, however, was not carried out with- 
out provoking discontent among uneducated people, many of whom 
imagined that they were defrauded of the omitted days, and assailed 
unpopular statesmen with the cry, "Give us back our eleven days." 
The reason for the omission of the additional day is that, according to 
the Old Style, 1600 and 1700 were both considered leap years; according 
to the New Style, 1700 was a common year. 

At present, since 1800 and 1900 were leap years by the Old Style, 
and common years by the New Style, there is a difference of thirteen 
days between the styles. Russia, Greece, and the smaller states belong- 
ing to the Greek Church, are now the only countries which still adhere 
to the Old Style. The same act which introduced the new reckoning in 
1752 shortened by nearly three months the year 1751. For it had been 
the practice to commence the year with March 25, the Feast of the 
Annunciation, and the year 1751 so commenced, but the year 1752 and 
all subsequent years began with January 1. — Standard Encyclopedia of 
the World's Knowledge, Vol. V, art. " Calendar," pp. 360, 361. 

Calendar, No Interruption in Order of Days of the Week. — It is 

to be noted that in the Christian period the order of days of the week 
has never been interrupted. Thus, when Gregory XIII reformed the 
calendar, in 1582, Thursday, 4 October, was followed by Friday, 15 Octo- 
ber. So in England, in 1752, Wednesday, 2 September, was followed by 
Thursday, 14 September. What we style 14 August, 1907, the Russians 
style 1 August, but both call it Wednesday. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, 
Vol. Ill, art. " Chronology," p. 740. 

Note. — As stated in the next article, the Russians have adopted the New 
Style, so that not only their days of the week, but also their days of the month 
now correspond with those of other nations. — Eds. 

Calendar, Adoption of the New Style. — The New Style, as the 
Gregorian system was called, was adopted in most of the Roman Catholic 
countries, and in Denmark and the Netherlands, in the year of its pro- 
mulgation, 1582; by the Protestants of Germany and Switzerland in 
1700 (Prussia in 1778); in Great Britain in 1752, when the eleven days 
between September 2 and 14 were omitted, and the beginning of the 
year moved from March 25 to January 1; and, lastly, in Ireland in 1782. 
The Dionysian calendar is still retained in the Balkan States and in 
Greece, while in Russia the New Style was adopted in 1902. 

During the French Revolution a new calendar was introduced. 
The first year, commencing on Sept. 22, 1792, was styled the first year 
of the republic. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, 
and the five days over (September 17-21) were celebrated as festivals 
dedicated to Virtue, Genius, Labor, Opinion, and Rewards, respectively. 
The calendar, first used on Nov. 26, 1793, was discontinued on Dec. 31, 
1805. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. "Calendar," p. 445. 

Calendar.— Pages 503, 629. 

Calvin, John.— Pages 12, 75, 77, 237, 305, 430, 444, 528. 

Capital and Labor, War Between. — The greatest of all wars be- 
tween organized labor and capital seems to have begun. It is described 
as a " fight to the finish," but there is no such thing as a fight to the 
finish between these two contestants; and if there were, the world would 



CARDINAL 111 

swing back a thousand years. They have been waging such fights for 
generations, and each side has continued to grow more and more titanic. 
Organized labor, in the United States, was never as powerful as it is 
today, and organized capital never as gigantic. After this pending 
battle is fought out, each will continue to grow in power; for the finish 
of one means the finish of the other, and each side knows that. 

The battleground today is the " open " or " closed " shop. Lined up 
behind the " open " shop are 23 national associations of industry, 540 
employers' organizations in 247 cities of 44 States, and 1,665 local cham- 
bers of commerce. At the head are such giant corporations as the Penn- 
sylvania Railroad, the U. S. Steel Corporation, and the Bethlehem Steel 
Company, the Erectors Association, the National Fabricators Associa- 
tion, the National Founders Association, and the National Association 
of Manufacturers. Lined up behind the " closed " shop are the 109 na- 
tional and international labor unions forming the Federation of Labor, 
with a membership running into the millions, who have started to 
raise a fund of $20,000,000 for their war chest. They contemplate not 
a defensive campaign only, but an offensive campaign as well, and part 
of it will be a new attempt to unionize the U. S. Steel Corporation. — 
Editorial, "A Battle of Titans" in Current Opinion, March, 1921, 
p. 295. 

Cardinal. — The word was first used of any cleric regularly settled 
fincardinatus, "hinged into") in a church; but it soon became the 
peculiar designation of a counselor of the Pope. . . . After many fluc- 
tuations, the number of cardinals was fixed at seventy by Sixtus V in 
1586. Of these, six are cardinal bishops, fifty are cardinal priests, and 
fourteen are cardinal deacons. In 1907 the SaCred College consisted of 
fifty-four members, sixteen short of the plenum, which has not been 
reached for one hundred and fifty years. 

The appointment (creatio) of cardinals rests with the Pope, who 
generally consults the existing cardinals, and often receives proposals 
from secular governments. . . . The cardinals in conclave elect the new 
Pope, have constant access to him, and form his chief council. . . . 
They have had since Urban VIII the title of " Eminence." The body of 
cardinals is called the Sacred College. . . . We must add that the chief 
affairs of the Roman Catholic Church are in the hands of the cardinals. 
But the cardinals possess no constitutional rights under the absolute 
government of the Papacy. They cannot even meet together without 
the Pope's leave. — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge, 
Vol. VI, art. " Cardinal," p. 71. 

Carey, William.— Pages 254, 334. 

Catholic Church. — Page 459. 

Ceremonial Law, Contrasted with Moral Law. — Pages 299, 305- 
307, 501-503. 

Chalmers, James. — Page 338. 

Charlemagne.— Pages 486, 487, 589, 590. 

Christ, Date of Crucifixion of. — Page 526. 

Christian Church. — Page 137. 

Christian Science. — Page 138. 



112 CHRISTMAS 



Christmas. — The supposed anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ, 
occurring on December 25. No sufficient data, however, exist for the 
determination of the month or the day of the event. ... There is no 
historical evidence that our Lord's birthday was celebrated during the 
apostolic or early post-apostolic times. The uncertainty that existed 
at the beginning of the third century in the minds of Hippolytus and 
others — Hippolytus earlier favored January 2, Clement of Alexandria 
(Strom., i. 21) "the 25th day of Pachon " (—May 20), while others, ac- 
cording to Clement, fixed upon April 18 or 19 and March 28 — proves 
that no Christmas festival had been established much before the middle 
of the century. January 6 was earlier fixed upon as the date of the 
baptism or spiritual birth of Christ, and the feast of Epiphany was cele- 
brated by the Basilidian Gnostics in the second century, and by catholic 
Christians by about the beginning of the fourth century. 

The earliest record of the recognition of December 25 as a church 
festival is in the Philocalian Calendar (copied 354 but representing 
Roman practice in 336). — The New Schajf-Herzog Encyclopedia of Re- 
ligious Knoioledge, Vol. Ill, art. " Christmas" p. 47. 

Christmas, Heathen Origin of. — The celebration of Christmas was 
not introduced in the church till after the middle of the fourth century. 
It originated in Rome, and was probably a Christian transformation or 
regeneration of a series of kindred heathen festivals, the Saturnalia, 
Sigillaria, Juvenalia, and Brumalia, which were celebrated in the month 
of December in commemoration of the golden age of universal freedom 
and equality, and in honor of the unconquered sun, and which were 
great holidays, especially for slaves and children. (See my Church 
History, N. Y., vol. ii, p. 395 ff.) In the primitive church there was no 
agreement as to the time of Christ's birth. In the East the 6th of Jan- 
uary was observed as the day of his baptism and birth. In the third 
century, as Clement of Alexandria relates, some regarded the 20th of 
May, others the 20th of April, as the birthday of our Saviour. Among 
modern chronologists and biographers of Jesus there is still greater dif- 
ference of opinion, and every month, even June and July (when the 
fields are parched from want of rain), have been named as the time 
when the great event took place. Lightfoot assigns the nativity to Sep- 
tember, Lardner and Newcome to October, Wieseler to February, Paulus 
to March, Greswell and Alford to the 5th of April, just after the spring 
rains, when there is a abundance of pasture, Lichtenstein places it in 
July or December, Strong in August, Robinson in autumn, Clinton in 
spring, Andrews between the middle of December, 749, to the middle of 
January, 750 a. u. On the other hand, Roman Catholic historians and 
biographers of Jesus, as Sepp, Friedlieb, Bucher, Patritius, also some 
Protestant writers, defend the popular tradition, or the 25th of Decem- 
ber. — " A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," John Peter Lange, 
D. D., on Luke 2, p. 36. New York: Charles Scribner & Co., 1870. 

Christmas, Historical Notes Concerning. — The great church 
adopted Christmas much later than Epiphany; and before the fifth 
century there was no general consensus of opinion as to when it should 
come in the calendar, whether on the 6th of January, or the 25th of 
March, or the 25th of December. 

The earliest identification of the 25th of December with the birthday 
of Christ is in a passage, otherwise unknown and probably spurious, 
of Theophilus of Antioch (a. d. 171-183), preserved in Latin by the 
Magdeburg centuriators (i. 3, 118), to the effect that the Gauls con- 
tended that as they celebrated the birth of the Lord on the 25th of 
December, whatever day of the week it might be, so they ought to 



CHRISTMAS 113 

celebrate the Pascha on the 23th of March when the resurrection befell. 
The next mention of the 25th of December is in Hippolytus' (c. 202) 
commentary on Daniel 4: 23. Jesus, he says, was born at Bethlehem 
on the 25th of December, a Wednesday, in the forty-second year of 
Augustus. This passage also is almost certainly interpolated. In any 
case he mentions no feast, nor was such a feast congruous with the 
orthodox ideas of that age. As late as 245, Origen, in his eighth homily 
on Leviticus, repudiates as sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday 
of Christ " as if he were a king Pharaoh." The first certain mention 
of December 25 is in a Latin chronographer of a. d. 354, first published 
entire by Mommsen. It runs thus in English: "Year 1 after Christ, in 
the consulate of Caesar and Paulus, the Lord Jesus Christ was born on 
the 25th of December, a Friday and 15th day of the new moon." Here 
again no festal celebration of the day is attested. 

There were, however, many speculations in the second century 
about the date of Christ's birth. Clement of Alexandria, toward its 
close, mentions several such, and condemns them as superstitions. 
Some chronologists, he says, alleged the birth to have occurred in the 
twenty-eighth year of Augustus, on the 25th of Pachon, the Egyptian 
month, i. e. the 20th of May. These were probably the Basilidian Gnos- 
tics. Others set it on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi, i. e. the 19th or 
20th of April. Clement himself sets it on the 17th of November, 3 b. c. 
The author of a Latin tract, called the De Pascha! computus, written in 
Africa in 243, sets it by private revelation, ab ipso deo inspirati, on 
the 28th of March. He argues that the world was created perfect, 
flowers in bloom, and trees in leaf, therefore in spring; also at the 
equinox, and when the moon just created was full. Now the moon and 
sun were created on a Wednesday. The 28th of March suits all these 
considerations. Christ, therefore, being the Sun of Righteousness, was 
born on the 28th of March. The same symbolical reasoning led Poly- 
carp (before 160) to set his birth on Sunday, when the world's creation 
began, but his baptism on Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the 
sun's creation. On such grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may 
have transferred the human birthday from the 6th of January to the 
25th of December, which was then a Mithraic feast and is by the chro- 
nographer above referred to, but in another part of his compilation, 
termed Natalis invicti soils, or birthday of the unconquered Sun. Cy- 
prian (de orat. dom. 35) calls Christ Sol verus, Ambrose Sol novus nosier 
(Sermo vii. 13), and such rhetoric was widespread. The Syrians and 
Armenians, who clung to the 6th of January, accused the Romans of 
sun worship and idolatry, contending with great probability that the 
feast of the 25th of December had been invented by disciples of Cerin- 
thus and its lections by Artemon to commemorate the natural birth of 
Jesus. . . . 

In Britain the 25th of December was a festival long before the con- 
version to Christianity, for Bede (De temp, rat., ch. 13) relates that 
" the ancient peoples of the Angli began the year on the 25th of De- 
cember when we now celebrate the birthday of the Lord; and the 
very night which is now so holy to us, they called in their tongue 
modranecht (modra niht), that is, the mothers' night, by reason we 
suspect of the ceremonies which in that night-long vigil they per- 
formed." With his usual reticence about matters pagan or not orthodox, 
Bede abstains from recording who the mothers were and what the cere- 
monies. In 1644 the English Puritans forbade any merriment or re- 
ligious services by act of Parliament, on the ground that it was a 
heathen festival, and ordered it to be kept as a fast. Charles II revived 
the feast, but the Scots adhered to the Puritan view. — The Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica, Vol. VI, art. " Christmas," pp. 293, 294, 11th edition. 
8 



114 CHURCH, DEFINED 



Christmas, When First Observed. — The first footsteps we find of 
the observation of this day are in the second century, about the time of 
the emperor Commodus. — "A Theological Dictionary," Rev. Charles 
Buck, art. "Christmas," p. 71. Philadelphia: Crissy and Markley, copy- 
right 1851. 

Christmas, Oriental and Occidental Observance of. — The Oriental 
Christians kept the memorial of the Saviour's birth and of his baptism, 
on one and the same day, namely, the sixth day of January; and this 
day they called Epiphany. But the Occidental Christians always con- 
secrated the 25th day of December to the memory of the Saviour's 
birth. For, what is reported of Julian I the Roman bishop's transfer- 
ring the memorial of Christ's birth from the 6th of January to the 25th 
of December, appears to me very questionable. — " Institutes of Ecclesi- 
astical History" John Laurence von Mosheim, D. D., book 2, cent. 4, 
part 2, chap. 4, sec. 5 (Vol. I, pp. 372, 373). London: Longman & Co., 
1841. 

Chronology.— Pages 126, 432-436, 554-562. 

Church, Meaning of. — The church of Christ, therefore, is a body 
of which the Spirit of Jesus is the soul. It is a company of Christlike 
men and women, whom the Holy Spirit has called, enlightened, and 
sanctified through the preaching of the word; who are encouraged to 
look forward to a glorious future prepared for the people of God; and 
who, meanwhile, manifest their faith in all manner of loving services 
done to their fellow believers. 

The church is therefore in some sense invisible. Its secret is its 
hidden fellowship with Jesus. Its roots penetrate the unseen, and draw 
from thence the nourishment needed to sustain its life. But it is a 
visible society, and can be seen wherever the word of God is faithfully 
proclaimed, and wherever faith is manifested in testimony and in 
bringing forth the fruits of the Spirit. 

This is the essential mode of describing the church which has found 
place in the Reformation creeds. — "A History of the Reformation," 
Thomas M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., p. 485. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1906. 

Church, Defined by Bellarmine. — A body of men united together 
by the profession of the same Christian faith, and by participation in 
the same sacraments, under the governance of lawful pastors, more 
especially of the Roman Pontiff, the sole vicar of Christ on earth. — 
" De Ecclesia Militante " (R. C), Tom. II, lib. 3, cap. 2 (On the Church 
Militant, Vol. II, book 3, chap. 2). 

Church, Defined in the Bull " Unam Sanctam." — That there is 
one holy catholic and apostolic church we are impelled by our faith to 
believe and to hold — this we do firmly believe and openly confess — and 
outside of this there is neither salvation nor remission of sins. . . . 
Therefore, in this one and only church there is one body and one head, 

— not two heads as if it were a monster, — namely, Christ and Christ's 
vicar, Peter and Peter's successor. — " Corpus Juris Canonici," Extrava- 
gantes Communes, book 1, title 8, ch. 1. 

Note. — This declaration in the bull of Boniface VIII had reference, not to 
the claims of a rival pope, nor to a temporary dual headship, such as occasionally 
existed, but to what Boniface regarded as usurpations of the papal prerogative 
by Philip the Fair of France, which, had they been admitted, would have con- 
stituted him, if not the head, at least another, or second, head of the church. 

— Eds. 



CHURCH, ROMAN CATHOLIC 115 



Church, Roman Catholic Idea of. — The Roman idea of a church 
was that it was a visible body in communion with the Roman see, and in 
which the ministers derived their whole authority through that see. For 
this conception the reformed principle substituted at once the idea which 
is expressed in the Augsburg Confession, . . . that the visible church is 
a congregation of faithful or believing men, " in which the pure word of 
God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to 
Christ's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to 
the same." It was also recognized in all Reformed Churches, including 
the English Church as represented even by such men as Laud and Cosin, 
that episcopal orders, however desirable, were not essential for that 
due ministration. On all hands, therefore, within the Reformed com- 
munions, whether in Germany, Switzerland, France, or England, it was 
acknowledged that a true church might subsist, although the immediate 
and regular connection of its ministry with the ancient episcopal suc- 
cession was broken. — "Principles of the Reformation" Rev. Henry 
Wace, D. D., pp. 103, 104. New York: American Tract Society. 

Church, Head of Roman. — We define . . . that the Roman Pontiff 
himself ... is the head of .the whole church. — Pope Eugenius IV 
(1431-1447) to the Roman Emperor, John Paleologus; cited in "History 
of the Councils," Labbe and Cossart (R. C.J, Vol. XIII, col. 1167. 

Church, Roman Catholic, Claims to Supply Means fob Union with 
Chbist. — Catholics believe that our Lord Jesus Christ is alone the great 
center of the Christian religion, the fountain of all grace, virtue, and 
merit, as in the natural world (if the comparison may be allowed) the 
sun is the center and enlivening source of light, heat, and growth. 

This grand truth they believe to be the vital, essential part of 
Christianity, " for other foundation no man can lay but that which is 
laid; which is Christ Jesus." 1 Cor. 3: 11. 

They believe that union with Jesus Christ is the highest and 
noblest aim of man, and that only the Holy Catholic Church supplies 
the means for this union with Jesus Christ. — " Catholic Belief," Joseph 
Fad di Bruno, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 33. New York: Benziger Brothers, 
copyright 1884. 

Church, Roman Catholic View of the Teaching Authority of. — 
The doctrinal contents of Scripture she [the church] designates in the 
general spirit of Scripture. Hence the earliest ecumenical councils did 
not even adduce any particular Scriptural texts in support of their 
dogmatic decrees; and Catholic theologians teach with general con- 
currence, and quite in the spirit of the church, that even a Scriptural 
proof in favor of a decree held to be infallible, is not itself infallible, 
but only the dogma as defined. The deepest reason for this conduct of 
the church lies in the indisputable truth that she was not founded by 
Holy Writ, but already existed before its several parts appeared. The 
certainty which she has of the truth of her own doctrines, is an im- 
mediate one, for she received her dogmas from the lips of Christ and 
the apostles; and by the power of the divine Spirit, they are indelibly 
stamped on her consciousness, or as Irenaeus expresses it, on her heart 
If the church were to endeavor, by learned investigation, to seek her 
doctrines, she would fall into the most absurd inconsistency, and anni- 
hilate her very self. — " Symbolism" John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C), 
p. 296. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Church, The Catholic, First Use of the Combination. — The com- 
bination " the Catholic Church " is found for the first time in the letter 
of St. Ignatius to the Smyrnseans, written about the year 110. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, art. " Catholic" p. 449. 



116 CHURCH AND STATE 

Church, in Union with Christ. — The story of Pentecost culmi- 
nates in the words, " And the same day there were added about three 
thousands souls." Acts 2: 41. Added to whom? we naturally ask. And 
the King James translators have answered our question by inserting in 
italics " to them." But not so speaks the Holy Ghost. And when, a 
few verses further on in the same chapter, we read: "And the Lord 
added to the church daily such as should be saved," we need to be re- 
minded that the words " to the church " are spurious. All such glosses 
and interpolations have only tended to mar the sublime teaching of 
this first chapter of the Holy Spirit's history. " And believers were the 
more added to the Lord." Acts 5: 14. "And much people were added 
unto the Lord" Acts 11: 24. This is the language of inspiration — 
not the mutual union of believers, but their divine co-uniting with 
Christ; not voluntary association of Christians, but their sovereign in- 
corporation into the Head, and this incorporation effected by the Head 
through the Holy Ghost. — i" The Ministry of the Spirit," A. J. Gordon, 
D. D., p. 6$. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1894. 

Church and State, Roman Catholic View of Relations Between. 
—Pius IX in 1851 censured the teaching of the canonist Nuytz in Turin, 
because he allowed only the power of spiritual punishment to the 
church. And in the Concordat made in 1863 with the republics of South 
America, it is laid down in Article 8 that the civil authorities are ab- 
solutely bound to execute every penalty decreed by the spiritual courts. 
In a statement addressed by Pius IX to Count Duval de Beaulieu, pub- 
lished in the Allgemeine Zeitung of Nov. 13, 1864, the power of the 
church over the government of civil society, and its direct jurisdiction 
in temporal matters, is expressly guarded. 

It follows that they are greatly mistaken who suppose that the 
Biblical and old Christian spirit has prevailed in the church over the 
medieval notion of her being an institution with coercive power to im- 
prison, hang, and burn. On the contrary, these doctrines are to re- 
ceive fresh sanction from a General Council [the Vatican], and that 
pet theory of the popes — that they could force kings and magistrates, 
by excommunication and its consequences, to carry out their sentences 
of confiscation, imprisonment, and death — 'is now to become an infal- 
lible dogma. It follows that not only is the old institution of the 
Inquisition justified, but it is recommended as an urgent necessity in 
view of the unbelief of the present age. — " The Pope and the Council" 
Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C), pp. 11, 12. London: 
Rivingtons, 1869. 

Church and State, Under Constantine. — It must be observed that 
a great change took place in the feelings and conduct of the Christians 
from the period that Constantine formed a political alliance with the 
church, and constituted the clergy into a corporate body. The great 
benefits which the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had previously 
derived from the connection of their bishops and presbyters with local 
national feelings, was then neutralized. The church became a political 
institution of the Roman Empire, dependent, like every other depart- 
ment of the public administration, on the emperor's authority; and 
henceforward, whenever the ministers and teachers of the Christian 
religion became closely connected with national feelings, they were ac- 
cused of heresy. — " Greece under the Romans," George Finlay, LL. D., 
p. H89. t London: J. M. Dent & Co.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Church and State, j Injurious Effect of State Power. — If the 
reign of Constantine bears witness that the state which seeks to ad- 



CHURCH AND STATE 117 

vance Christianity by the worldly means at its command, may be the 
occasion of more injury to this holy cause than the earthly power 
which opposes it with whatever virulence, this truth is still more clearly 
demonstrated by the reign of his successor, Constantius. — " General 
History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, 
translated by Joseph Torrey, Vol. Ill, p. 41. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 
1848. 

Church and State, Union of, in Roman Empire. — With the com- 
mencement of this period, the church entered into an entirely different 
relation to the state. It did not merely become a whole, recognize! 
as legal, and tolerated by the state, — which it had been already from 
the reign of Gallien down to the Diocletian persecution, — but the state 
itself declared its principles to be those to which everything must be 
subordinated. Christianity became, by degrees, the dominant state 
religion, though not entirely in the same sense as paganism had been 
before. Church and state constituted, henceforth, two wholes, one in- 
terpenetrating the other, and standing in a relation of mutual action 
and reaction. The advantageous influence of this was, that the church 
could now exert its transforming power also on the relations of the 
state; but the measure and the character of this power depended on the 
state of the inner life in the church itself. The healthful influence of 
the church is indeed to be perceived in many particular cases, though 
it was very far from being so mighty as it must have been, had every- 
thing proceeded from the spirit of genuine Christianity, and had the 
state actually subordinated itself to this spirit. But on the other hand, 
the church had now to struggle under a great disadvantage; for instead 
of being left free, as it was before, to pursue its own course of develop- 
ment, it was subjected to the influence of a foreign, secular power, 
which in various ways would operate to check and disturb it; and the 
danger in this case increased in the same proportion as the political life 
with which the church came in contact was corrupt, and a lawless, 
despotic will ruled supreme, — a will which acknowledged no restraints, 
and which, therefore, whenever it intermeddled with the church devel- 
opment, was prone to act after the same arbitrary manner as it did 
elsewhere. So it actually happened in the East Roman Empire. 

Without doubt, it belongs to the essential character of Christianity 
that it can propagate itself even under the most depressing of earthly 
relations, and by the surpassing energy of its spirit, break through 
every species of temporal bondage. This was seen under the empire of 
pagan Rome and in the Persian Empire. Despotism, arrayed in open 
hostility to Christianity, only served to call forth, in still greater 
strength, the Christian sense of freedom rising superior to all earthly 
constraint. But despotism in outward alliance with the church, proved 
a more dangerous enemy. It was now necessary that one of two things 
should happen, — either the' spirit of Christianity, as it became more 
widely diffused, must — not by a sudden and glaring revolution, but 
by its power in the heart, which is far mightier than any arm of flesh — 
gradually introduce the order of law in the place of arbitrary despotism; 
or the corruption of the state would introduce itself into the church, 
as it actually did in the Byzantine Empire. Furthermore, the church 
Was now exposed to the temptation of appropriating a foreign might for 
the prosecution of its ends; a temptation ever ready to assail man, 
the moment the spirit is no longer sovereign alone, but the flesh inter- 
meddles with its proper work. Looking only at the holy end which he 
fancies himself in pursuit of, any means that can subserve it seem 
good to him. He does not consider that the truth itself, forced on man 
otherwise than by its own inward power, becomes falsehood. 



118 CHURCH AND STATE 

How easily might the bishops, in their zeal, — more or less unwise, 
more or less directed by selfish views, — be tempted to invite those 
emperors who professed to belong to the Catholic Church, to assist in 
securing the victory for that which they deemed the pure doctrine, and 
in crushing its adversaries; when, in fact, the Syrian bishops, in the 
previous period, had already sought after the aid of a pagan emperor, 
Aurelian, in a similar case! And in cases of this sort, how invariably 
did the wrong proceeding bring along its own punishment! In for- 
getting and denying its own essential character, on the simple preserva- 
tion of which its true power depends, — in consenting to make use of a 
foreign might for the furtherance of its ends, the church succumbed to 
that might. Such is the lesson taught by the history of the church of 
the Roman Empire in the East. — " General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church,'" Dr. Augustus Neander, translated by Joseph 
Torrey, Vol. Ill, pp. 175, 176. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1848. 

Church and State, A Struggle Predicted. — If the authors of the 
movement [to reconstruct the world] are not deceived, the genera- 
tions that will come up after I am no more will witness a struggle on 
the widest scale, and of very long duration, during which will disappear 
all that to us is known as modern liberties, all that to Rome is known 
as the modern state, and at the close of which the ecclesiastical power 
will stand alone, presiding over the destinies of a reconstituted world. — 
" The Pope, the Kings, and the People,'' William Arthur, A. M., Preface, 
p. xvii. London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1903. 

Church and State, Roman Catholic View of. — Since the Council 
of Trent, the revolutions in France, Austria, and Italy have separated 
the civil powers from the unity of the church. The nations remain 
Catholic as before, but many public laws are at variance with the laws 
of the church. The old forms of usage and of arrangement need revi- 
sion, in order to bring into peaceful co-operation the two supreme 
authorities on which the welfare of society reposes. If the govern- 
ments of the world know their own highest interests, they will recog- 
nize the necessity of entering into loyal and honorable relations of 
confidence and co-operation with a power which pervades, sometimes 
a large proportion, sometimes the whole population, subject to their 
civil rule. The church pervades at least one fourth, if not a third, of 
the population of Great Britain and its colonies; about a fifth of the 
United States; nearly a half of the Prussian monarchy; and almost 
the entire population of other great kingdoms; and the influence of 
religion is that which most deeply affects the loyalty and fidelity of 
nations. It is of the highest moment to the civil powers of the world 
to readjust their relations with the Catholic Church; for so long as the 
public laws are at variance with its divine rights and liberties, internal 
peace and fidelity are hardly to be secured. — " Petri Privileging'' 
Henry Edward Manning (R. C), First Pastoral Letter, pp. 82, 83. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1871. 

Church and State, Authority of the Pope over Affairs of. — Abso- 
lute obedience, it is boldly declared, is due to the Pope, at the peril of 
salvation, not alone in faith, in morals, but in all things which concern 
the discipline and government of the church. Thus are swept into the 
papal net whole multitudes of facts, whole systems of government, pre- 
vailing, though in different degrees, in every country of the world. 
Even in the United States, where the severance between church and 
state is supposed to be complete, a long catalogue might be drawn of 



CHURCH AND STATE 119 



subjects belonging to the domain and competency of the state, but 
also undeniably affecting the government of the church; such as, by way 
of example, marriage, burial, education, prison discipline, blasphemy, 
poor-relief, incorporation, mortmain, religious endowments, vows of 
celibacy, and obedience. In Europe the circle is far wider, the points 
of contact and of interlacing [being] almost innumerable. But on all 
matters respecting which any pope may think proper to declare that they 
concern either faith or morals, or the government or discipline of the 
church, he claims, with the approval of a council undoubtedly ecumeni- 
cal in the Roman sense, the absolute obedience, at the peril of salva- 
tion, of every member of his communion. — " The Vatican Decrees in 
Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance,'" Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M. P., pp. 80, 
31. New York: Harper d Brothers, 1875. 

Church and State, Results of Union of. — Such was the compact 
that had been established between tire church and the state. As might 
be expected, the succeeding transactions exhibit an alternate preponder- 
ance of one and of the other, and the degradation of both in the end. — 
" History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William 
Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, pp. 374, 375. New York: Harper d 
Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Church and State, Effects of Union of. — We have now approached 
the close of a thousand years from the birth of Christ; the evil union of 
the church and state, their rivalries, their intrigues, their quarrels, had 
produced an inevitable result, doing the same in the "West that they had 
done in the East; disorganizing the political system, and ending in a 
universal social demoralization. — Id., p. 376. 

Such was the issue of the second attempt at the union of political 
and ecclesiastical power. In a former chapter we saw what it had been 
in the East, now we have found what it was in the West. Inaugurated 
in selfishness, it strengthens itself by violence, is perpetuated by igno- 
rance, and yields as its inevitable result, social ruin. — Id., p. 377. 

Church and State, Injurious Effect of Union of. — The greatest 
injury, however, did not arise from the inner relation of the contro- 
versies, but from a foreign influence, namely, the union of the state and 
its politics with the church. The free internal development of the latter 
was endangered. Disputes were to be settled by imperial decrees. 
Thus a variety of passions intermingled with and troubled the dogmatic 
interest. Hence results followed dogmatic controversies which could 
not be derived from the development of contrarieties. Before the con- 
trarieties had been fully expressed, one or the other party was put 
down by external influence. — " Lectures on the History of Christian 
Dogmas," Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. I, p. 259. London: George Bell 
d Sons, 1882. 

Church and State.— Pages 446, 447-450, 578, 580-582. 

Church of England. — Pages 140, 606. 

Church of Rome, Newman on. — We must take and deal with 
things as they are, not as they pretend to be. If we are induced to 
believe the professions of Rome, and make advances toward her as 
if a sister or a mother church, which in theory she is, we shall find 
too late that we are in the arms of a pitiless and unnatural relative. 
who will but triumph in the arts which have inveigled us within her 



120 CHURCH OF ROME 

reach. No; dismissing the dreams which the romance of early churcn 
history and the high theory of Catholicism will raise in the guileless 
and inexperienced mind, let us be sure that she is our enemy, and will 
do us a mischief when she can. In saying and acting on this con- 
viction, we need not depart from Christian charity toward her. We 
must deal with her as we would toward a friend who is visited by 
derangement; in great affliction, with all affectionate tender thoughts, 
with tearful regret and a broken heart, but still with a steady eye and 
a firm hand. For in truth she is a church beside herself, abounding in 
noble gifts and rightful titles, but unable to use them religiously; 
crafty, obstinate, wilful, malicious, cruel, unnatural, as madmen are. 
Or rather, she may be said to resemble a demoniac; possessed with 
principles, thoughts, and tendencies not her own, in outward form and 
in outward powers what God made her, but ruled within by an in- 
exorable spirit, who is sovereign in his management over her, and 
most subtle and most successful %. the use of her gifts. Thus she is 
her real self only in name, and, till God vouchsafe to restore her, we 
must treat her as if she were that evil one which governs her. — 
"Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the Church," John Henry 
Newman, B. D., pp. 100, 101. London: J. G. & F. Rivington, 1837. 

Note. — This was written before the author joined the Roman Catholic 
Church. — Eds. 

Church of Rome, Roman Catholic Teaching Concerning Salva- 
tion Outside of. — 

8. Who., then, will be saved? 

Christ has solemnly declared that only those will be saved, who 
have done God's will on earth as explained, not by private interpretation, 
but by the infallible teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. . . . 

10. Must, then, all who wish to be saved, die united to the Catholic 
Church? 

All those who wish to be saved, must die united to the Catholic 
Church; for out of her there is no salvation. . . . 

11. What did St. Augustine and the other bishops of Africa, at the 
Council of Zirta, in 412, say about the salvation of those who die out 
of the Roman Catholic Church? 

V Whosoever," they said, " is separated from the Catholic Church, 
however commendable in his own opinion his life may be, he shall for 
the very reason that he is separated from the union of Christ not see 
life, but the wrath of God abideth on him." John 3: 36. . . . 

13. Who are out of the pale of the Roman Catholic Church? 

Out of the pale of the Roman Catholic Church are all unbaptized 
and all excommunicated persons, all apostates, unbelievers, and here- 
tics. ... 

28. What is a heretic? 

A heretic is any baptized person, professing Christianity, and 
choosing for himself what to believe and what not to believe as he 
pleases, in obstinate opposition to any particular truth which he knows 
is taught by the Catholic Church as a truth revealed by God. [Accord- 
ing to this definition all intelligent Protestants are heretics, and this 
is asserted in question 30. — Eds.] . . . 

30. How many kinds of heretics (Protestants) are there? 

There are three kinds of heretics: 

(1) Those who are guilty of the sin of heresy; 

(2) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy, but commit 

other grievous sins; 

(3) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy and live up 

to the dictates of their conscience. . . . 



CHURCH OF ROME 121 

38. Can a Christian be saved, who has left the true church of 
Christ, the Holy Catholic Church? 

No; because the church of Christ is the kingdom of God on earth, 
and he who leaves that kingdom, shuts himself out from the kingdom 
of Christ in heaven. 

39. Have Protestants left the true church of Christ? 
Protestants left the true church of Christ, in their founders, who 

left the Catholic Church, either through pride, or through the passion 
of lust and covetousness. . . . 

46. But is it not a very uncharitable doctrine to say that no one can 
be saved out of the church? 

On the contrary, it is a very great act of charity to assert most em- 
phatically, that out of the Catholic Church there is no salvation possible; 
for Jesus Christ and his apostles have taught this doctrine in very plain 
language. He who sincerely seeks the truth, is glad to hear it and 
embrace it, in order to be saved. — "Familiar Explanation of Catholic 
Doctrine," Rev. M. Milller (R. C), pp. 163-179. New York: Benziger 
Brothers. 

Church of Rome, Two Kinds of Teaching. — The Church of Rome 
as an organization has never tolerated individualism among its mem- 
bers. It at once affirms and denies the individual conscience, inasmuch 
as that conscience must ever be sought in the dogmas and direction of 
the Institution. 

Now what are the teachings of the Institution? There are two 
distinct sets and headings. First: Those for the uninitiated, or the 
sheep. Second: Those for the initiated, or the shepherds. In other 
words, there is exoferic and esoteric Catholicism. 

With the exoteric doctrines it finds means to defend itself against 
attack, and retreats always behind the bulwarks of Christian ethics. 
It proclaims charity, sincerity, justice, altruism, professes from the 
pulpits the gospel of Jesus Christ, and thus deludes its adversaries, 
who fall back disheartened, and abandon a systematic attack. 

Members of the Roman communion who are the cause of recurring 
scandals, are declared lamentable exceptions to the universal virtuous 
living of the priesthood; they are acknowledged as the stray sheep, 
whom the ever-loving " mother church " would fain recover. 

The curious searcher, however, who is desirous of reconciling the 
history of the Roman Church with its avowed doctrine, cannot be satis- 
fied with such inconsistency, and it must, in time, become clear to him 
that only through the existence of an esoteric doctrine can such grave 
discrepancies be explained. — " The Double Doctrine of the Church of 
Rome'' Baroness von Zedtwitz, pp. 18-20. New York: Fleming H. 
Revell Company. 

Cigarettes.— Page 221. 

Clemens Romanus (Clement I). — Page 366. 

Clovis. — Pages 474, 478. 

Coffee.— Page 220. 

Columbus. — Page 247. 

Coming of Christ. — Pages 7 -26. 



122 CONFESSION 

Confession, Protestant View of. — Confession of sins is an ac- 
knowledgment of sin, which may he made hy a Christian either to God 
alone, to a fellow Christian, or to one who holds an ecclesiastical office. 
Confession as an act prescribed or recommended by the church is made 
in accordance with the free decision of the individual (voluntary pri- 
vate confession), in compliance with special rules of church training 
and discipline (confession of catechumens and penitents), and in con- 
formity with general regulations binding on all (a prescribed confes- 
sion, either of individuals or the congregation as a whole). The present 
article is confined to the last-named form; its end is to attain absolution. 

The New Testament knows nothing of confession as a formal in- 
stitution, James 5: 16 referring to the close association with the breth- 
ren, although the words of Jesus in Luke 5: 20; 7: 48, may be compared 
to ecclesiastical absolution. Individual confession as a part of eccle- 
siastical discipline was, of course, customary in ancient times, and also 
served as a voluntary act of a distressed sinner. The confession of sin 
and proclamation of pardon were likewise customary in the service of 
the ancient church. But that confession existed in the earliest time as 
an established ecclesiastical institution is not proved by such isolated 
instances as are occasionally met with. — The New Schaff-Herzog Ency- 
clopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, art. " Confession," p. 221. 

Confession, Roman Catholic View of. — Confession is the avowal 
of one's own sins made to a duly authorized priest for the purpose of 
obtaining their forgiveness through the power of the keys. . . . How 
firmly rooted in the Catholic mind is the belief in the efficacy and ne- 
cessity of confession, appears clearly from the fact that the sacrament 
of penance endures in the church after the countless attacks to which 
it has been subjected during the last four centuries. If at the Reforma- 
tion or since the church could have surrendered a doctrine or aban- 
doned a practice for the sake of peace and to soften a " hard saying," 
confession would have been the first to disappear. Yet it is precisely 
during this period that the church has defined in the most exact terms 
the nature of penance and most vigorously insisted on the necessity 
of confession. . . . 

As the Council of Trent affirms, " the church did not through the 
Lateran Council prescribe that the faithful of Christ should confess — 
a thing which it knew to be by divine right necessary and established 
— but that the precept of confessing at least once a year should be com- 
plied with by all and every one when they reached the age of discre- 
tion " (Session XIV, c. 5). The Lateran edict presupposed the necessity 
of confession as an article of Catholic belief, and laid down a law as to 
the minimum frequency of confession — at least once a year. . . . 

What Sins Are to Be Confessed. — Among the propositions con- 
demned by the Council of Trent is the following: " That to obtain for- 
giveness of sins in the sacrament of penance, it is not necessary by 
divine law to confess each and every mortal sin which is called to mind 
by due and careful examination, to confess even hidden sins and those 
that are against the last two precepts of the decalogue, together with 
the circumstances that change the specific nature of the sin; such con- 
fession is only useful for the instruction and consolation of the peni- 
tent, and of old was practised merely in order to impose canonical 
satisfaction" (Can. de pamit. [canon on penance], vii). . . . 

Satisfaction. — As stated above, the absolution given by the priest 
to a penitent who confesses his sins with the proper dispositions remits 
both the guilt and the eternal punishment (of mortal sin). There re- 
mains, however, some indebtedness to divine justice which must be 
canceled here or hereafter. In order to have it canceled here, the peni- 
tent receives from his confessor what is usually called his " penance," 



CONFESSION 123 

usually in the form of certain prayers which he is to say, or of certain 
actions which he is to perform, such as visits to a church, the stations 
of the cross, etc. Almsdeeds, fasting, and prayer are the chief means 
of satisfaction, but other penitential works may also be enjoined. — 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, art. " Penance," subdivision, " Con- 
fession; 9 pp. 625-628. 

Confession, Auricular, Established by Innocent III. — Not only 
did Innocent III thus provide himself with an ecclesiastical militia 
suited to meet the obviously impending insurrection, he increased his 
power greatly but insidiously by the formal introduction of auricular 
confession. It was by the fourth Lateran Council that the necessity of 
auricular confession was first formally established. Its aim was that 
no heretic should escape, and that the absent priest should be paramount . 
even in the domestic circle. In none but a most degraded and super- 
stitious society can such an infamous institution be tolerated. It in- 
vades the sacred privacy of life — makes a man's wife, children, and 
servants his spies and accusers. When any religious system stands 
in need of such a social immorality, we may be sure that it is irre- 
coverably diseased, and hastening to its end. 

Auricular confession led to an increasing necessity for casuistry, 
though that science was not fully developed until the time of the 
Jesuits, when it gave rise to an extensive literature, with a lax system 
and a false morality, guiding the penitent rather with a view to his 
usefulness to the church than to his own reformation, and not hesitat- 
ing at singular indecencies in its portion having reference to married 
life. — "History of the Intellectual Development of Europe; 1 John Wil- 
liam Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 65, 66. New York: Harper d 
Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Confession. — Page 298. 

Congregational Church. — Page 140. 

Constantine, Union of Church and State by. — The great change 
which makes the reign of Constantine an epoch in church history is the 
union between church and state, and the introduction of the personal in- 
terference of the emperor. The proximate cause of the great influence 
possessed by him, was the reaction of feeling which took place when the 
civil governor, from being himself a persecutor or an instrument of 
persecution, became a promoter of Christianity. Something, no doubt, 
too, was owing to the teaching of Christian moralists as to submission 
to the powers that be, and to the general tendency toward a system of 
official subordination, of which the political constitution of Constantine 
is the great example. His success in establishing that constitution with- 
out any serious opposition, seems to show the temper of men's minds at 
the time, and the absence of individual prominence or independence of 
thought among either followers or opponents. This was true as well 
of the church as of the state. The great men who have left their mark 
on church organization and policy had either passed away, like St. 
Cyprian, or had not yet attained their full powers, [p. 637] . . . 

With regard to his religious policy we have an expression of his 
own, in his letter to Alexander and Arius, which may help us in our 
judgment of its merits (Eus. V. C. ii. 65). Two principles, he said, 
had guided his actions; the first to unify the belief of all nations with 
regard to the divinity into one consistent form, the second to set in or- 
der the body of the world which was laboring as it were under a griev- 
ous sickness, Such, no doubt, were the rgal desires pf Constantine; 



124 CONSTANTINE 

but he was too impulsive, too rude in intellect, too credulous of his own 
strength, to carry them out with patience, wisdom, and justice. — "A 
Dictionary of Christian Biography," Smith and Wace, Vol. I, art. " Con- 
stantine the Great and His Sons," pp. 637, 638. London: John Murray, 
1877. 

Constantino, Paganism of. — Up to this period [a. d. 312], all that 
we know of Constantine's religion would imply that he was outwardly, 
and even zealously, pagan. In a public oration, his panegyrist extols 
the magnificence of his offerings to the gods. His victorious presence 
was not merely expected to restore more than their former splendor to 
the Gaulish cities, ruined by barbaric incursions, but sumptuous temples 
were to arise at his bidding, to propitiate the deities, particularly Apollo, 
his tutelary god. The medals struck for these victories are covered 
with the symbols of paganism. Eusebius himself admits that Constan- 
tine was at this time in doubt which religion he should embrace. — " The 
History of Christianity," Henry Hart Milman, D. D., book 3, chap. 1, 
(Vol. II, pp. 284, 285). London: Jonn Murray, 1867. 

Whatever symptoms of Christian piety might transpire in the dis- 
courses or actions of Constantine, he persevered till he was near forty 
years of age in the practice of the established religion; and the same 
conduct which in the court of Nicomedia might be imputed to his fear, 
could be ascribed only to the inclination or policy of the sovereign of 
Gaul. His liberality restored and enriched the temples of the gods; 
the medals which issued from his imperial mint are impressed with 
the figures and attributes of Jupiter and Apollo, of Mars and Hercules; 
and his filial piety increased the council of Olympus by the solemn 
apotheosis of his father Constantius. 

But the devotion of Constantine was more peculiarly directed to 
the genius of the sun, the Apollo of Greek and Roman mythology; and 
he was pleased to be represented with the symbols of the god of light 
and poetry. The unerring shafts of that deity, the brightness of his 
eyes, his laurel wreath, immortal beauty, and elegant accomplishments, 
seem to point him out as the patron of a young hero. The altars of 
Apollo were crowned with the votive offerings of Constantine; and the 
credulous multitude were taught to believe that the emperor was per- 
mitted to behold with mortal eyes the visible majesty of their tutelar 
deity; and that, either waking* or in a vision, he was blessed with the 
auspicious omens of a long and victorious reign. The sun was uni- 
versally celebrated as the invincible guide and protector of Constantine. 
— " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward 
Gibbon, chap. 20, par. 3 (Vol. II, pp. 250, 251). New York: Harper & 
Brothers. 

Constantine.— Pages 35, 37, 241, 354, 357, 410, 506, 579-581. 

Constantinople.— Pages 157, 166, 380, 542, 550, 552. 

Constitution of the United States.— Pages 449, 583. 

Coperniean Theory. — Page 200. 

Cavenant, Two Shades of Meaning.— In the Old Testament the 
word has an ordinary use when both parties are men, and a distinctly 
religious use between God and men-. There can be no doubt that the re- 



COVENANT 125 



ligious use has come from the ordinary, in harmony with the general 
custom in such cases, and not the reverse. There are also two shades 
of meaning, somewhat distinct, of the Hebrew word: one in which it 
is properly a covenant, i. e., a solemn mutual agreement; the other in 
which it is more a command, i. e., instead of an obligation voluntarily 
assumed, it is an obligation imposed by a superior upon an inferior. 
This latter meaning, however, has clearly been derived from the other. 
It is easy to see that an agreement including as the contracting parties 
those of unequal position, might readily include those agreements which 
tended to partake of the nature of a command; but the process could not 
readily be reversed. — 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 
edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Covenant in the Old 
Testament," p. 727. 

Covenant, Not Testament. — The alternative name " testament " — 
adopted into our English description through the Latin, as the equiva- 
lent of the Hebrew berith, and the Greek diatheke, which both mean a 
solemn disposition, compact, or contract — suggests the disposition of 
property in a last will or testament; but although the word diatheke 
may bear that meaning, the Hebrew berith does not, and as the Greek 
usage in the New Testament seems especially governed by the Old Tes- 
tament usage and the thought moves in a similar plane, it is better to 
keep to the term " covenant." The one passage which seems to favor 
the "testament" idea is Hebrews 9:16, 17 (the revisers who have 
changed the Authorized Version " testament " into " covenant " in every 
other place have left it in these two verses), but it is questionable 
whether even here the better rendering would not be " covenant." Cer- 
tainly in the immediate context " covenant " is the correct translation, 
and, confessedly, "testament," if allowed to stand, is an application by 
transition from the original thought of a solemn compact to the second- 
ary one of testamentary disposition. The theological terms " covenant 
of works " and " covenant of grace " do not occur in Scripture, though 
the ideas covered by the terms, especially the latter, may easily be found 
there. The " new covenant " here spoken of is practically equivalent 
to the covenant of grace established between God and his redeemed 
people, that again resting upon the eternal covenant of redemption made 
between the Father and the Son, which, though not so expressly desig- 
nated, is not obscurely indicated by many passages of Scripture. — Id., 
art. " Covenant, The New," p. 731. 

Covenant of Salt. — When men ate together, they became friends. 
Cf. the Arabic expression, "There is salt between us;" "He has eaten 
of my salt," which means partaking of hospitality which cemented 
friendship; cf. "eat the salt of the palace." Ezra 4: 14. Covenants 
were generally confirmed by sacrificial meals, and salt was always pres- 
ent. Since, too, salt is a preservative, it would easily become symbolic 
of an enduring covenant. So offerings to Jehovah were to be by a stat- 
ute forever, "a covenant of salt forever before Jehovah." Num. 18: 19. 
David received his kingdom forever from Jehovah by a " covenant of 
salt." 2 Chron. 13: 5. In the light of these conceptions the remark of 
our Lord becomes the more significant: "Have salt in yourselves, and 
be at peace one with another." Mark 9: 50. — Id., Vol. II, art. "Cove- 
nant of Salt," p. 729. 

Creeds.— Pages 136-149. 

Croesus.— Pages 324, 326, 327. 

Crucifixion of Christ, Date of.— Page 526. 



126 DANIEL, BOOK OF 

Daniel, Book of, Authenticity of. — With the exception of the neo 
Platonist Porphyry, a Greek non-Christian philosopher of the third cen 
tury a. d., the genuineness of the book of Daniel was denied by no one 
until the rise of the deistic movement in the seventeenth century. — 
The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr. 
M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. "Daniel, Book of," subdivision, " Genuineness," 
p. 784. 

The authenticity of the book [of Daniel] has been attacked in mod- 
ern times, and its composition ascribed to the times of the Maccabees: 
but in doctrine the book is closely connected with the writings of the 
exile, and forms a last step in the development of the ideas of Messiah 
(7: 13, etc.), of the resurrection (12: 2, 3), of the ministry of angels 
(8: 16; 12: 1, etc.), of personal devotion (6: 10, 11; 1: 8), which formed 
the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addition in the 
interval before the coming of our Lord. Generally it may be said that 
while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional 
character, yet it is far more difficult to explain its composition in the 
Maccabean period than to connect the peculiarities which it exhibits 
with the exigencies of the return. — "A Dictionary of the Bible." edited 
by William Smith, LL. D., art. " Daniel, The Book of," p. 132 (1 vol. 
edition). New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Daniel, Book of, Christ's Testimony Concerning. — Can we believe 
that Christ would have appealed to the writings of the prophets, and 
particularly to those of Daniel, had they not been authentic? Was the 
book of Daniel a forgery? And was Christ deceived thereby? If so, 
then Christ himself must have been an impostor! — " The Master of the 
Magicians," Lumen, pp. 6, 7. London: Elliot Stock, 1906. 

Daniel, Book of, Vindicated. — The book of Daniel . . . supplies 
the most startling evidences of fulfilled prophecy. No other book has 
been so much attacked as this great book. For about two thousand 
years wicked men, heathen philosophers, and infidels have tried to break 
down its authority. It has proven to be the anvil upon which the 
critics' hammers have been broken to pieces. The book of Daniel has 
survived all attacks. It has been denied that Daniel wrote the book 
during the Babylonian captivity. The critics claim that it was written 
during the time of the Maccabees. Kuenen, Wellhausen, Canon Farrar, 
Driver, and others but repeat the statements of the assailant of Chris- 
tianity of the third century, the heathen Porphyry, who contended that 
the book of Daniel was a forgery. Such is the company in which the 
higher critics are found. 

The book of Daniel has been completely vindicated. The prophet 
wrote the book and its magnificent prophecies in Babylon. All doubt 
as to that has been forever removed, and men who still repeat the infidel 
oppositions against the book, oppositions of a past generation, must be 
branded as ignorant, or considered the wilful enemies of the Bible. — 
Arno C. Gaebelein, editor of Our Hope, New York City, in " The Funda- 
mentals," Vol. XI, pp. 71, 72. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Daniel, Book of, Porphyry's Position. — Until a comparatively 
recent period, with some slight exceptions, the genuineness and authen- 
ticity of the book of Daniel have been regarded as settled, and its 
canonical authority was as little doubted as that of any other portion 
of the Bible. The ancient Hebrews never called its genuineness or au- 
thenticity in question, , , , 



DANIEL, BOOK OF 127 

The first open and avowed adversary to the genuineness and au- 
thenticity of the book of Daniel, was Porphyry, a learned adversary of 
the Christian faith in the third century. He wrote fifteen books against 
Christianity, all of which are lost, except some fragments preserved by 
Eusebius, Jerome, and others. His objections against Daniel were made 
in his twelfth book, and all that we have of these objections has been 
preserved by Jerome in his commentary on the book of Daniel. A full 
account of Porphyry, and of his objections against the Christians and 
the sacred books of the Old and New Testament, so far as can now be 
known, may be seen in Lardner, " Jewish and Heathen Testimonies," 
Vol. VII, pp. 390-470 of his works, ed. London, 1829. In regard to the 
book of Daniel, he maintained, according to Jerome (Pr. and Explan. 
in Daniel), " that the book was not written by him whose name it bears, 
but by another who lived in Judea in the time of Antiochus, surnamed 
Epiphanes; and that the book of Daniel does not foretell things to come, 
but relates what had already happened. In a word, whatever it con- 
tains to the time of Antiochus is true history; if there is anything 
relating to aftertimes it is falsehood; forasmuch as the writer could 
not see things future, but at the most only could make some conjectures 
about them. To him several of our authors have given answers of great 
labor and diligence, in particular Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in three 
volumes, the 18th, the 19th, and the 20th. Apollinarius, also, in one 
large book, that is the 26th, and before them, in part, Methodius. As it 
is not my design," says Jerome, " to confute the objections of the 
adversary, which would require a long discourse, but only to explain the 
prophet to our own people, that is, Christians, I shall just observe that 
none of the prophets have spoken so clearly of Christ as Daniel, for he 
not only foretells his coming, as do others likewise, but he also teaches 
the time when he will come, and mentions in order the princes of the 
intermediate space, and the number of the years, and the signs of his 
appearance. And because Porphyry saw all these things to have been 
fulfilled, and could not deny that they had actually come to pass, he 
was compelled to say as he did; and because of some similitude of 
circumstances, he asserted that the things foretold as to be fulfilled in 
Antichrist at the end of the world, happened in the time of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Which kind of opposition is a testimony of truth; for such 
is the plain interpretation of the words, that to incredulous men the 
prophet seems not to foretell things to come, but to relate things already 
past." — " Commentary" Rev. Albert Barnes, on the Boole of Daniel, 
Introduction, pp. xi, xii. New York: Leavitt and Allen, 1859. 

Daniel, Book of, Its Relation to the Book of Revelation. — He 
who would enter the temple of truth must be content to do so by the 
divinely given door. The Old Testament is certainly the entrance to 
the New, and in a special manner the book of Daniel in the Old Testa- 
ment is the porch or passage leading to the Apocalypse. In his " Obser- 
vations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John." 
Sir Isaac Newton says: "Among the old prophecies Daniel is most 
distinct in order of time and easiest to be understood, and therefore in 
those things which relate to the last times he must be made the key to 
the rest." 

On the connection of Daniel and Revelation he says: "The Apoca- 
lypse of John is written in the same style and language with the 
prophecies of Daniel, and hath the same relation to them which they 
have to one another, so that all of them together make but one com- 
plete prophecy." The Apocalypse should thus be regarded as the New 
Testament sequel to the book of Daniel. The books of Daniel and Rev- 
elation may be considered as parts one and two of a single prophecy 



128 DARK DAY 

— a prophecy relating to the same subject, and presenting that subject 
in the same symbolic form. They unfold earlier and later portions of 
the same great story. — " Key to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan Guinness, 
D. D., pp. 17-19. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Daniel.— Pages 61, 190, 317, 363, 425, 453, 460, 462, 554, 559, 
608, 609. 

Dark Day (1780), Described in a Boston Newspaper. — The obser- 
vations from the first coming on of the darkness, to four o'clock p. m., 
were made by several gentlemen of liberal education at the house of 
the Rev. Mr. Cutler, of Ipswich Hamlet [Massachusetts]. There are 
some things worth noticing before and after this time. 

The hemisphere for several days had been greatly obscured with 
smoke and vapor, so that the sun and moon appeared unusually red. 
On Thursday afternoon and in the evening, a thick cloud lay along 
at the south and southwest, the wind small. Friday morning early 
the sun appeared red, as it had done for several days before, the 
wind about southwest, a light breeze, and the clouds from the south- 
west came over between eight and nine o'clock. The sun was quite 
shut in and it began to shower, the clouds continuing to rise from the 
southwest and thicken. From the thickness of the clouds, and the 
confusion which attended their motions, we expected a violent gust of 
wind or rain; the wind, however, near the earth continued but small, 
and it rained but little. 

About eleven o'clock the darkness was such as to demand our at- 
tention, and put us upon making observations. At half past eleven, 
in a room with three windows, twenty-four panes each, all open toward 
the southeast and south, large print could not be read by persons of 
good eyes. 

About twelve o'clock, the windows being still open, a candle cast 
a shade so well defined on the wall, as that profiles were taken with 
as much ease as they could have been in the night. 

About one o'clock, a glint of light which had continued to this 
time in the east, shut in, and the darkness was greater than it had 
been for any time before. 

Between one and two o'clock the wind from the west freshened 
a little, and a glint appeared in that quarter. We dined about two, 
the windows all open, and two candles burning on the table. 

In the time of the greatest darkness some of the dunghill fowls 
went to their roost. Cocks crowed in answer to one another as they 
commonly do in the night. Woodcocks, which are night birds, whistled 
as they do only in the dark. Frogs peeped. In short, there was the 
appearance of midnight at noonday. 

About three o'clock the light in the west increased, the motion of 
the clouds more quick, their color higher and more brassy than at 
any time before. There appeared to be quick flashes or coruscations, 
not unlike the Aurora Borealis. 

Between three and four o'clock we were out and perceived a strong, 
sooty smell, some of the company were confident a chimney in the 
neighborhood must be burning, others conjectured that the smell was 
more like that of burnt leaves. 

About half-past four our company which had passed an unex- 
pected night very cheerfully together, broke up. 

I will now give you what I noticed afterward. 

I found the people at the tavern near by very much agitated; 
among other things that gave them surprise, they mentioned the 
strange appearance and smell of the rain water, which they had saved 



DARK DAY 129 

in tubs. Upon examining the water, I found a light scum over it, which 
rubbing between my thumb and finger, I found to be nothing but the 
black ashes of burnt leaves. The water gave the same strong sooty 
smell which we had observed in the air; and confirmed me in my 
opinion that the smell mentioned above was occasioned by the smoke, 
or very small particles of burnt leaves, which had obscured the hemi- 
sphere for several days past, and were now brought down by the rain. 

The appearance last mentioned served to corroborate the hypothesis 
on which we had endeavored to account for the unusual darkness. 
The vast body of smoke from the woods, which had been burning for 
many days, mixing with the common exhalations from the earth and 
water, and condensed by the action of winds from opposite points, 
may perhaps be sufficient causes to produce the surprising darkness. 

The wind in the evening passed round further north where a black 
cloud lay, and gave us reason to expect a sudden gust from that quar- 
ter. The wind brought that body of smoke and vapor over us in the 
evening (at Salem) and perhaps it never was darker since the chil- 
dren of Israel left the house of bondage. This gross darkness held till 
about one o'clock, although the moon had fulled but the day before. 
— Letter from " Viator," dated May 22, in the Boston Gazette and Coun- 
try Journal, May 29, 1780. 

Dark Day, As Observed by a Habvaed Professor. — The time of 
this extraordinary darkness was May 19, 1780. It came on between 
the hours of ten and eleven a. m., and continued until the middle of the 
next night, but with different appearance at different places. 

As to the manner of its approach, it seemed to appear first of all 
in the southwest. The wind came from that quarter, and the dark- 
ness appeared to come on with the clouds that came in that direction. 

The degree to which the darkness arose was different in different 
places. In most parts of the country it was so great that people were 
unable to read common print, determine the time of day by their 
clocks or watches, dine, or manage their domestic business, without 
the light of candles. In some places the darkness was so great that 
persons could not see to read common print in the open air, for sev- 
eral hours together; but I believe this was not generally the case. 

The extent of this darkness was very remarkable. Our intelli- 
gence in this respect is not so particular as I could wish; but from 
the accounts that have been received, it seems to have extended all 
over the New England States. It was observed as far east as Falmouth 
[Portland, Maine]. To the westward we hear of its reaching to the 
furthest parts of Connecticut, and Albany. To the southward it was 
observed all along the seacoasts, and to the north as far as our settle- 
ments extend. It is probable it extended much beyond these limits in 
some directions. ... 

With regard to its duration, it continued in this place at least 
fourteen hours; but it is probable this was not exactly the same in 
different parts of the country. 

The appearance and effects were such as tended to make the pros- 
pect extremely dull and gloomy. Candles were lighted up in the 
houses; the birds, having sung their evening songs, disappeared, and 
became silent; the fowls retired to roost; the cocks were crowing all 
around, as at break of day; objects could not be distinguished but 
at a very little distance; and everything bore the appearance and gloom 
of night.— Samuel Williams, A. M., Hollis Professor of Mathematics and 
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, Massachusetts, in "Mem- 
oirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sriennes" to the end of 
the year 1783. Vol. I, pp. 234, 235. Boston: Adams and Nourse, 1785. 
9 



130 DARK DAY 

Dark Day, Unpkecedented foe Its Geeat Daekness. — The 19th of 
May, 1780, was unprecedented in New England for its great darkness. 
. . . The darkness extended over several thousand square miles, though 
differing much in intensity in different places. Nowhere, perhaps, was 
it greater than in this vicinity. The day was appropriately called and 
is still known as The Dark Day. — " History of the Town of Hampton, 
New Hampshire," Joseph Dorr, Salem, Mass., Vol. I, p. 211. Salem Press 
and Printing Co., 1893. (Boston Public Library.) 

'Twas on a May day of the far old year 
Seventeen hundred eighty, that there fell 
Over the bloom and sweet life of the spring, 
Over the fresh earth and the heaven of noon, 
A horror of great darkness. . . . 

Men prayed, and women wept; all ears grew sharp 
To hear the doom blast of the trumpet shatter 
The black sky, that the dreadful face of Christ 
Might look from the rent clouds, not as he looked 
A loving guest at Bethany, but stern 
As Justice and inexorable Law. 

— J. G. Whittier's Poems, "Abraham Davenport." 

Dark Day, Desceibed by London Visitoe. — This day [May 19, 1780] 
has been rendered very remarkable by an extraordinary phenomenon, 
which demands a particular relation. An unusual darkness came on 
between the hours of ten and eleven in the morning, and continued 
to increase. Your friend, having been accustomed to dark days in 
London, and frequently observed from his study the bright shining sun 
gradually, and at length totally, eclipsed, as it descended behind the 
thick vapor which hung over the city, regarded it with no special at- 
tention till called to do it by his neighbors who were much alarmed. 
He dined by candlelight about one. After that it grew much lighter, 
and he walked about five o'clock to a tavern, a mile distant, on the 
road to Boston, to meet a select committee of Roxbury, on special busi- 
ness. When they had finished, about eight at night, he set out for 
home, not suspecting but that, being fully acquainted with every foot 
of the road, he should easily return, notwithstanding its being ex- 
tremely dark. 

There were houses all" the way, though at a considerable distance 
from each other. He marked the candlelight of one, and with that 
in his eye went forward till he got up to it; but remarked that the 
appearance of the place was so different, from what was usual, that 
he could not believe it to be what it was, had it not been from his 
certain knowledge of its situation. He caught the light of a second 
house, which he also reached; and thus on. At length, the light being 
removed from the last he had gained a sight of, ere he was up with it, 
he found himself in such profound darkness as to be incapable of pro- 
ceeding, and therefore returned to the house he had passed, and pro- 
cured a lantern. Several of the company, having farther to go, were 
on horseback. The horses could not see to direct themselves; and 
by the manner in which they took up and put down their feet on plain 
ground, appeared to be involved in total darkness, and to be afraid 
lest the next step should plunge them into an abyss. 

The gentlemen soon stopped at another tavern, and waited for the 
benefit of the moon; but after a while, finding that the air received 
no accession of light from it, when they were certain it was risen, 
they had recourse to candles to assist them in getting home. In some 



DARK DAY 131 

instances horses felt the forcible operation of the darkness so strongly 
that they could not be compelled by their masters to quit the stable at 
night, when wanted for a particular service. The shifting of the wind 
put an end to it, and at midnight it was succeeded by a bright moon 
and starlight. 

The degree to which it arose was different in different places. 
In most parts of the country it was so great in the daytime, that the 
people could not tell the hour by either watch or clock, nor dine, nor 
manage their domestic business, without the light of candles. The 
birds, having sung their evening songs, disappeared and were silent; 
pigeons and fowls retired to roost; the cocks crew as at daybreak; 
objects could not be distinguished but at a very little distance; and 
everything bore the appearance and gloom of night. 

The extent of the darkness was extraordinary. It was observed as 
far east as Falmouth. To the westward it reached to the farthest part 
of Connecticut, and to Albany. To the southward it was observed along 
the seacoasts; and to the north as far as the American settlements 
extend. We are told that a vessel at sea found herself inclosed for a 
while in a cloud of this darkness, and as she sailed, passed instantly 
from the verge of it into a clear light. — " The History of the Rise, Prog- 
ress, and Establishment of the Independence of the United States of 
America" (3 vol. ed.J, William R. Gordon, D. D., Vol. Ill, pp. 56, 57. 
New York, 1801. 

Dark Day, In the Connecticut Legislature. — It is related that 
the Connecticut legislature was in session at this time, and that so 
great was the darkness, the members became terrified, and thought 
that the day of judgment had come; a motion was consequently made 
to adjourn. At this, Mr. Davenport arose and said: "Mr. Speaker, it is 
either the day of judgment or it is not. If it is not, there is no need 
of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found doing my duty; I move 
that candles be brought, and that we proceed to business." — "Our First 
Century," R. M. Devens, chap. 4, " The Wonderful Dark Day — 1780," 
p. 90. Springfield, Mass.: G. A. Nichols & Go., 1876. 

Meanwhile in the old Statehouse, dim as ghosts, 
Sat the lawgivers of Connecticut, 
Trembling beneath their legislative robes. 
" It is the Lord's great day! Let us adjourn," 
Some said; and then, as if with one accord, 
All eyes were turned to Abraham Davenport. 
He rose, slow cleaving with his steady voice 
The intolerable hush. " This well may be 
The day of judgment which the world awaits; 
But be it so or not, I only know 
My present duty, and my Lord's command 
To occupy till he come. So at the post 
Where he hath set me in his providence 
I choose, for one, to meet him face to face, — 
No faithless servant frightened from my task, 
But ready when the Lord of the harvest calls; 
And therefore, with all reverence, I would say, 
Let God do his work, we will see to ours. 
Bring in the candles." 

— J. G. Whittier's Poems, "Abraham Davenport." 

Dark Day, Verbatim Account from a Diary. — May 19th, 1780 
Was a Thunder shower in the morning and was followed by an un- 



13 2 DARK DAY 

common darkness such as is not remembered it was so dark That one 
could not known a man but at a small distance, and Were obliged to 
keep a light in the chimney to see to go about and the night was Extraor- 
dinary dark until one oClock, that a person could not see their hand 
when held up nor even a white sheet of paper the day and night 
was cloudy the clouds in the day did not seem thick and was of a 
lightening up couler our almanack makers have given no account of 
the matter the cause unknown The works of the Lord are great and 
marvellous past finding out untill he Graciously pleases to Reveal 
them. — " The Diary of Matthew Patten, of Bedford'' New Hampshire, 
from 1754 to 1788, p. 414 (verbatim et literatim). Published by the 
town. Concord, N. H.: The Rumford Printing Company, 1903. (New 
Hampshire State Library.) 

Dark Day or 1780, As Seen at Sea. — I have also seen a very 
sensible captain of a vessel, who was that morning about forty leagues 
southeast of Boston. He says the cloud which appeared at the west 
was the blackest he ever saw. About eleven o'clock there was a little 
rain, and it grew dark. Between one and two he was obliged to 
light a large candle to steer by. 

There had been to this time a gleam, or glint, as he called it, in the 
east. It was now wholly shut in, and the greatest obscuration was 
between two and three. He further observes that the air was uncom- 
monly thick, and afforded an unusual smell. Between nine and ten 
at night, he ordered his men to take in some of the sails, but it was 
so dark they could not find the way from one mast to the other. 

Gentlemen from Connecticut tell me the smell which they observed 
was like that of burnt leaves or old stubble. 

Coasters from the eastward say the darkness was very inconsider- 
able farther than Cape Elizabeth. . . . 

Various have been the sentiments of people concerning the de- 
signs of Providence in spreading the unusual darkness over us. Some 
suppose it portentous of the last scene. I wish it may have some good 
effect on the minds of the wicked, and that they may be excited to 
prepare for that solemn day. Some suppose it emblematical of the 
moral darkness which has spread over these ends of the earth. But 
however bad we are, I cannot suppose we are so much worse than the 
rest of the world. — Letter in the Independent Chronicle. Boston. June 
15, 1780. 

Dark Day, Followed by Night of Dabkness. — During the whole 
time a sickly, melancholy gloom overcast the face of nature. Nor was 
the darkness of the night less uncommon and terrifying than that of 
the day; notwithstanding there was almost a full moon, no object 
was discernible, but by the help of some artificial light, which when 
seen from the neighboring houses and other places at a distance, ap- 
peared through a kind of Egyptian darkness, which seemed almost im- 
pervious to the rays. 

This unusual phenomenon excited the fears and apprehensions of 
many people. Some considered it as a portentous omen of the wrath 
of Heaven in vengeance denounced against the land, others as the im- 
mediate harbinger of the last day, when "the sun shall be darkened, 
and the moon shall not give her light." — Thomas's Massachusetts Spy; 
cited in the Independent Chronicle. Boston, June 8. 1780. 

The darkness of the following evening was probably as gross as 
ever has been observed since the Almighty fiat gave birth to light. 
It wanted only palpability to render it as extraordinary as that which 



DARK DAY 133 

overspread the land of Egypt in the days of Moses. And as darkness 
is not substantial, but a mere privation, the palpability ascribed to 
that by the sacred historian must have arisen from some peculiar af- 
fection of the atmosphere, perhaps an exceeding thick vapor, that ac- 
companied it. I could not help conceiving at the time, that if every 
luminous body in the universe had been shrouded in impenetrable 
shades, or struck out of existence, the darkness could not have been 
more complete. A sheet of white paper held within a few inches of the 
eyes was equally invisible with the blackest velvet. Considering the 
small quantity of light that was transmitted by the clouds by day, 
it is not surprising that by night a sufficient quantity of rays should 
not be able to penetrate the same strata, brought back by the shifting 
of the winds, to afford the most obscure prospect even of the best re- 
flecting bodies. — Letter of Dr. Samuel Tenney, dated Exeter, N. H., 
December, 1785; cited in ''Collections of Massachusetts Historical 
Society;' Vol. I, 1792. 

The darkness of the following night was so intense that many who 
were but a little way from home, on well-known roads, could not, 
without extreme difficulty, retrace the way to their own dwellings. — 
'■' Sketches of the History of New Hampshire," John W. Whiton, p. 144. 
1834. (New Hampshire State Library.) 

Dark Day, " True Cause . . . Not Known."— The Dark Day, May 
19, 1780 — so called on account of a remarkable darkness on that day 
extending over all New England. In some places, persons couid not see 
to read common print in the open air for several hours together. Birds 
sang their evening songs, disappeared, and became silent; fowls went 
to roost; cattle sought the barnyard; and candles were lighted in the 
houses. The obscuration began about ten o'clock in the morning, and 
continued till the middle of the next night, but with differences of 
degree and duration in different places. For ceveral days previous, 
the wind had been variable, but chiefly from the southwest and the 
northeast. The true cause of this remarkable phenomenon is not 
known. — Noah Webster's Dictionary (edition 1869), under Explanatory 
and Pronouncing Vocabulary of Noted Names of Fiction, etc. 

Dark Day, Cause Unknown. — On the 19th of May, 1780, an un- 
common darkness took place all over New England, and extended to 
Canada. It continued about fourteen hours, or from ten o'clock in the 
morning till midnight. The darkness was so great that people were 
unable to read common print, or tell the time of the day by their 
watches, or to dine, or transact their ordinary business without the 
light of candles. They became dull and gloomy, and some were ex- 
cessively frightened. The fowls retired to their roosts. Objects could 
not be distinguished but at a very little distance, and everything bore 
the appearance and gloom of night. 

The causes of these phenomena are unknown. They certainly were 
not the result of eclipses. — " The Guide to Knowledge, or Repertory of 
Facts," edited by Robert Sears, p. 428. New York, 1845. 

Dark Day, Not Caused by an Eclipse. — That this darkness was 
not caused by an eclipse, is manifest by the various positions of the 
planetary bodies at that time; for the moon was more than one hun- 
dred and fifty degrees from the sun all that day, and, according to the 
accurate calculations made by the most celebrated astronomers, there 
could not, in the order of nature, be any transit of the planet Venus or 
Mercury upon the disc of the sun that year; nor could it be a blazing 



134 DARK DAY 

star — much less a mountain — that darkened the atmosphere, for this 
would still leave unexplained the deep darkness of the following night. 
Nor would such excessive nocturnal darkness follow an eclipse of the 
sun; and as to the moon, she was at that time more than forty hours' 
motion past her opposition. — " Our First Century," 1776-1876, R. M. Dev- 
ens, chap. 4, " The Wonderful Dark Day — 1780," p. 95. Springfield, 
Mass.: C. A. Nichols & Co., 1876. 

Dark Day of 1780, Dr. Samuel Stearns on Cause of. — That the 
darkness was not caused by an eclipse is manifest by the various posi- 
tions of the planets of our system at that time; for the moon was more 
than one hundred fifty degrees from the sun all that day. . . . The heat 
of the sun causeth an ascension of numerous particles, which consist 
of different qualities, such as aqueous, sulphurous, bituminous, sali- 
nous, vitreous, etc. . . . Fat combustible, oily matter, from the various 
kinds of earths, the juice of trees, plants, and herbs . . . are exhaled 
into the regions of the air. . . . 

It was undoubtedly a vast collection of such particles that caused 
the late uncommon darkness. [Some process of wind currents, he sug- 
gests, condensing them.] ... 

The primary cause must be imputed to Him that walketh through 
the circuit of heaven, who stretcheth out the heaven like a curtain, 
who maketh the clouds his chariot, who walketh upon the wings of 
the wind. It was he, at whose voice the stormy winds arp obedient, 
that commanded these exhalations to be collected and condensed to- 
gether, that with them he might darken both the day and the night; 
which darkness was, perhaps, not only a token of his indignation 
against the crying iniquities and abominations of the people, but an 
omen of some future destruction. — Letter from Dr. Samuel Stearns, 
in Independent Chronicle, Boston, June 22, 1780. 

Dark Day, Not Caused by Forest Fires. — That the smoke of burn- 
ing forests cannot be the cause may be rendered very certain. . . . Had 
the woods from the 40th degree of latitude in America to the 50th 
been all consumed in a day, the smoke would not have been sufficient 
to cloud the sun over the territory covered by the darkness on the 
19th of May (1780). Any person can judge of this who has seen large 
tracts of forest fire. That thirty or forty miles of burning forest 
should cover five hundred miles with impenetrable darkness, is too 
absurd to deserve a serious refutation. — "A Brief History of Epidemic 
and Pestilential Diseases; with the Principal Phenomena of the Physical 
World, Which Precede and Accompany Them," Noah Weoster, (2 vol. 
ed.) Vol. II, pp. 91-93. Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1799. 

Note. — There was no agreement among the current writers as to the cause 
of this unparalleled darkness, but entire agreement as to the extraordinary char- 
acter of it. Any suggestion of a natural cause or causes for the darkness can in no 
wise militate against the significance of the event. Sixteen and a half centuries 
before it occurred, the Saviour had definitely foretold this twofold sign, saying, 
"In those days, after that tribulation, the sun shall be darkened, and the moon 
shall not give her light." Mark 13 : 24. . These signs occurred exactly as pre- 
dicted, and at the time indicated so long before their occurrence. It is this 
fact, and not the cause of the darkness, that is significant in this connection. 
When the Lord would open a path for his people through the sea, he did it by 
"a strong east wind." Ex. 14: 21. Was it for this reason any less miraculous? 
When the bitter waters were made sweet (Ex. 15: 23-25), was the divine inter- 
position any less real because certain natural means were used having appar- 
ently some part, under divine direction, in rendering the water fit for drinking V 
In like manner even though it were possible for science to account for the re- 
markable darkness of May 19, 1780, instead of merely speculating concerning it, 
the event would not be discredited thereby as a merciful sign of the approach- 
ing end of probationary time. — Eds. 



DARK DAY 135 

Dark Day, Pears of Judgment Day Awakened. — This strange dark- 
ness increased until by noon the people had to light candles to eat their 
dinners by! Lights were seen in every window, and out of doors, people 
carried torches to light their steps. Everything took a different color 
from what it had by sunlight, and consequently the strange reflections of 
the torchlights were in keeping with the marvelous and changed appear- 
ance of everything. 

Hosts of people believed the end of the world had begun to come; 
men dropped to their knees to pray in the field; many ran to their 
neighbors to confess wrongs and ask forgiveness; multitudes rushed 
into the meetinghouses in towns where they had such, where pious and 
aged ministers, pleading repentance, interceded with God in their be- 
half; and everywhere throughout this day of wonder and alarm, the 
once careless thought of their sins and their Maker! 

At this time the legislature of Connecticut was in session, and when 
the growing darkness became so deep that at midday they could not see 
each other, most of them were so alarmed as to be unfit for service. 
At this juncture, Mr. Davenport arose and said: 

" Mr. Speaker, it is either the day of judgment or it is not. If it 
is not, there is no need of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found 
doing my duty. I move that candles be brought, and that we proceed to 
business." 

The darkness somewhat increased all day, and before time of sun- 
set, was so intense that no object whatever could be distinguished. Anx- 
iously and tremblingly, people waited for the full moon to rise at nine 
o'clock, and even little children with strained eyes, sat silently watch- 
ing for its beautiful beams to appear. But they were disappointed, the 
darkness being unaffected by the moon. The most feeling prayers ever 
prayed in Antrim were at the family altars that night. Children never 
had more tender blessing than these mothers gave them that night. 
They slept soundly for the most part, but the parents chiefly sat up all 
night to wait and see if the glorious sun would rise again. Never 
dawned a lovelier morning than that 20th of May! Never were hearts 
more thankful on the earth! Even thoughtless people praised God! 

So much were the whole population affected by this event, that, at 
the succeeding March meeting, the town voted, March 9, 1781, to keep 
the next 19th of May as a day of fasting and prayer. — "History of the 
Town of Antrim, New Hampshire," Rev. W. R. Cochrane, pp. 58, 59. 
Published by the town. Manchester, N. H.: Mirror Steam Printing Press, 
1880. (New Hampshire State Library.) 

Dark Day, Men Filled with Awe and Alarm. — Dark Day: refers 
especially to May 19, 1780, which was very dark in Connecticut, New 
York, and New Jersey, causing great alarm. — The Universal Cyclopedia, 
art. " Bark Day." New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1900. 

" The dark day of New England," so familiar to old and young, 
came May 19, 1780. . . . Near eleven o'clock, it began to grow dark, as 
if night were coming. Men ceased their work; the lowing cattle came 
to the barns, the bleating sheep huddled by the fences, the wild birds 
screamed and flew to their nests, the fowls went to their roosts. . . . 

Men, ordinarily cool, were filled with awe and alarm. Excitable 
people believed the end of the world had come; some ran about saying 
the day of judgment was at hand; the wicked hurried to their neigh- 
bors to confess wrongs and ask forgiveness; the superstitious dropped 
on their knees to pray in the fields, or rushed into meeting houses to call 
on God to preserve them. . . . 



136 DECALOGUE 

At night it was so inky dark that a person could not see his hand 
when held up, nor even a white sheet of paper. — " History of Weave, 
]\ew H amp shire.'" 1735-1888, Wm. Little. Loiuell, Mass., p. 276. Printed 
by S. W. Huse d Co., 1888. (Boston Public Library.) 

Dark Day, Deep Impression Made by. — Friday, May 19, 1780, 
will go down in history as " the dark day." . . . Fear, anxiety, and 
awe gradually filled the minds of the people. Women stood at the door 
looking out upon the dark landscape; men returned from their labor in 
the fields; the carpenter left his tools, the blacksmith his forge, the 
tradesman his counter. Schools were dismissed, and tremblingly the 
children fled homeward. Travelers put up at the nearest farmhouse. 
" What is coming? " queried every lip and heart. It seemed as if a 
hurricane was about to dash across the land, or as if it was the day of 
the consummation of all things. . . . 

Dr. Nathanael Whittaker, pastor of the Tabernacle church in Salem, 
held religious services in the meeting house, and preached a sermon in 
which he maintained that the darkness was supernatural. Congrega- 
tions came together in many other places. The texts for the extempo- 
raneous sermons were invariably those that seemed to indicate that the 
darkness was consonant with Scriptural prophecy. Such texts as these 
were used: Isa. 13: 10; Eze. 32: 7, 8; Joel 2: 31; Matt. 24: 29, 30; 
Rev. 6: 12. 

Devout fathers gathered their families around them in their homes, 
and conducted religious services; and for a few hours Christians were 
stirred to activity, and non-professors earnestly sought for salvation, 
expecting " to hear the thunder of the wrath of God break from the 
hollow trumpet of the cloud." — " The Essex Antiquarian" Vol. Ill, No. 4. 
pp. 53, 54, Salem, Mass., April, 1899. (Boston Public Library.) 

Day, the Bible. — Pages 104, 105. 

Decalogue, Facts Concerning. — The decalogue differs from all the 
other legislation of Moses: (1) It was proclaimed by God himself in a 
most public and solemn manner. (2) It was given under circumstances 
of most appalling majesty and sublimity. (3) It was written by the 
finger of God on two tables of stone. Deut. 5: 22. (4) It differed from 
any and all other laws given to Israel in that it was comprehensive and 
general rather than specific and particular. (5) It was complete, being 
one finished whole, to which nothing was to be added, from which 
nothing was ever taken away. (6) The law of the ten commandments 
was honored by Jesus Christ as embodying the substance of the law 
of God enjoined upon man. (7) It can scarcely be doubted that Jesus 
had his eye specially if not exclusively on this law (Matt. 5: 18), as one 
never to be repealed, from which not one jot or tittle should ever pass 
away. (8) It is marked by wonderful simplicity and brevity. — • "A Dic- 
tionary of the Bible," William Smith, LL. D., art. " Ten Command- 
ments," p. 685, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter and Goates, copy- 
right 1884. 

Demonism. — Pages 567-571. 

Denominations, Principles of Belief of. — 
Baptist Church 

In what, then, do the Baptist churches of today differ from other 
ecclesiastical bodies? Only in retaining certain peculiarities of the 
New Testament churches which others have laid aside. And in what 
do Baptist peculiarities consist? The fundamental difference between 
them and others lies much deeper than the question of baptism, either 



DENOMINATIONS 137 

as regards the act itself or its subjects. The distinction is much broader, 
deeper, and more radical. There was no need for serious protest against 
the Romish hierarchy, for example, on the subject of immersion, down 
to the thirteenth century, for that was her settled custom to that time; 
while it is still the custom of the Greek Church. The living and under- 
lying principles of Baptist churches relate to the sovereign and abso- 
lute headship of Christ in his churches; to the exclusive authority of 
the Scriptures, as containing his law for their direction in all things; 
to the supernatural regeneration of each Christian forming the 
churches; and to the liberty and responsibility to God, of each individ- 
ual conscience. Here we find the great staple of Baptist life and history, 
and all other questions are subordinate, growing out of these. Aside 
from these peculiarities, Baptists stand side by side with many denomi- 
nations of Christians in the present age, and heartily hail the present 
state of divinity, as set forth in the clear and vigorous teachings of the 
Reformed churches. These are our precious treasure, in common with 
the holy inheritance of other God-fearing men, and we cling to them 
with gratitude, as in the main the embodiment of New Testament truth. 
It must ever be kept in mind, that the whole body of Baptists have 
never put forth an authorized expression of their principles and prac- 
tices in the form of a creed. Some few of their churches have never 
made a formal declaration of their faith aside from the Bible; while 
in the main, each separate church expresses what it thinks the Scrip- 
tures require of it as a church, in a " Declaration of Faith." There is 
a substantial agreement in the entire fraternity of our churches, which 
it is not difficult to set forth. In common with other orthodox Chris- 
tians, so called, we believe the doctrines of the divine unity and trin- 
ity; of Christ's incarnation and proper deity; of man's fall and help- 
lessness, and his redemption by the vicarious sacrifice of our Lord Jesus 
Christ; of the personality and deity of the Holy Spirit, and his plenary 
inspiration of the Holy Scriptures; of free justification by Christ's 
mediatorial work; of sanctification by the inwrought agency of the Holy 
Spirit; of holy living on earth after God's commandments; of a future 
resurrection of the body, and the day of judgment; and of a state of 
eternal rewards and punishments in another world. Of course, as in 
all other bodies of Christians, controversies exist among ourselves touch- 
ing the various modifications of these doctrines; enough, at least, to 
show that there is and must be diversity of view, where the divine right 
of interpretation is exercised among thoughtful men. — " A History of 
the Baptists" Thomas Armitage, D. D., LL. D., pp. 150, 151. New York: 
Bryan, Taylor & Co., 1887. 

Christian Church 

Christ, Disciples of, or Christians (sometimes called Campbellites). 
An American religious organization that had its beginnings in October, 
1809, when Thomas Campbell, a Scotch minister living in western Penn- 
sylvania, published " A Declaration and Address," pleading for the re- 
jection of human creeds and formulas, and for a union of all Chris- 
tians on the basis of the apostolic teachings. The Christian Association 
of Washington, Pa., was thereupon formed to carry out the principles 
enunciated in the declaration, and the first church was established at 
Brush Run, Pa., in 1811. Thomas Campbell was joined by his son, 
Alexander, a graduate of Glasgow University, whose learning and ability 
were a powerful aid to the new movement. Great numbers accepted 
their creed, and were formed into communities. 

As a forerunner to the Campbellite movement, in 1804 the Rev. 
Barton W. Stone, a former Presbyterian minister, had organized in 
Kentucky a church whose creed was the Bible and its name Christian. 



138 DENOMINATIONS 

This church expanded into several others, which eventually joined 
(in 1832) with the Campbellites to form the Disciples of Christ, and 
the following principles were adopted: (1) Unity of the church of 
Christ; (2) the Bible the only creed; (3) baptism of believers only; 
(4) weekly celebration of the Lord's Supper. The polity is congrega- 
tional. 

The Disciples of Christ have grown with the nation, and now rank 
sixth, numerically, anions Frotestant bodies. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. Ill, art. " Christ, Disciples of," p. 111. 

Christian Science 

Though Christian Science repudiates all creeds or articles of faith, 
the Manual contains a statement of Six Tenets, whose subscription is 
obligatory on all candidates for membership, and which therefore in 
effect as well as in form constitute a Confession. They are a revision 
of Five Tenets submitted by Mrs. Eddy to the World's Parliament of 
Religions in Chicago in 1893. The Six Tenets are as follows: 

" 1. As adherents of Truths, we take the inspired Word of the 
Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal life. 

" 2. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite God. We 
acknowledge his Son, one Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; 
and man in God's image and likeness. 

" 3. We acknowledge God's forgiveness of sin in the destruction of 
sin and the spiritual understanding that casts out evil as unreal. But 
the belief in sin is punished so long as the belief lasts. 

" 4. We acknowledge Jesus' atonement as the evidence of divine, 
efficacious Love, unfolding man's unity with God through Christ Jesus 
the Way-shower; and we acknowledge that man is saved through Christ, 
through Truth, Life, and Love as demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet 
in healing the sick and overcoming sin and death. 

" 5. We acknowledge that the Crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrec- 
tion served to uplift faith to understand eternal Life, the allness of 
Soul, Spirit, and the nothingness of matter. 

" 6. And we solemnly promise to watch, and pray for that Mind to 
be in us which was also in Christ Jesus; to do unto others as we would 
have them do unto us; and to be merciful, just, and pure." ("Church 
Manual," p. 15, 1st ed., 1895.) — "A History of Creeds and Confessions of 
Faith," William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 393, 394. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

The Bible, together with " Science and Health " and other works 

by Mrs. Eddy, shall be his only textbooks for self-instruction in Chris- 
tian Science, and for teaching and practising metaphysical healing. — 
" Science and Health," Mrs. Mary B. G. Eddy, p. 34, edition of 1917. 

A personal God, a personal man, a personal devil . . . are theolog- 
ical mythoplasms, mere beliefs that must finally yield to the opposite 
science of God and man. — Id., p. 145, 2d edition. 

i 

Yearning to be understood, the Master repeated, "But whom say 
ye that I am? " This renewed inquiry meant: Who or what is it that 
is able to do the work, so mysterious to the popular mind? . . . With his 
usual impetuosity, Simon replied for his brethren, and his reply set 
forth a great fact: "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God! " 
That is: The Messiah is what thou hast declared, — Christ, the spirit 
of God, of Truth, Life, and Love, which heals mentally. — Id., p. 137, 
edition of 1918. 



DENOMINATIONS 139 

The atonement is a hard problem in theology, but its scientific 
explanation is, that suffering is an error of sinful sense which Truth 
destroys. — Id., p. 23, edition of 1904. 

The lonely precincts of the tomb gave Jesus a refuge from his foes, 
a place in which to solve the great problem of being. His three days' 
work in the sepulcher set the seal of eternity on time. He proved Life 
to be deathless and Love to be the master of hate. . . . His disciples 
believed Jesus to be dead while he was hidden in the sepulcher, whereas 
he was alive, demonstrating within the narrow tomb the power of Spirit 
to overrule mortal, material sense. . . . Our Master fully and finally 
demonstrated divine Science in his victory over death and the grave. — 
Id., pp. 349 r 350, edition of 1891. 

His [Christ's] students then received the Holy Ghost. By this is 
meant that by all they had witnessed and suffered, they were roused to 
an enlarged understanding of divine Science. . . . The influx of light 
was sudden. It was sometimes an overwhelming power, as on the day 
of Pentecost. — Id., pp. 46, 47. 

Note. — From the foregoing quotations from Mrs. Eddy's writings it appears 
that certain terms, such as " God," " atonement," and " resurrection," have an 
entirely different meaning in the Christian Science vocabulary than they have 
when used by theological writers generally. This should be remembered in read- 
ing and interpreting the Six Tenets quoted" from the Christian Science " Church 
Manual." The Bible as interpreted by Mrs. Eddy is not the Bible of the 
Christian world.— EDS. 

Mrs. Eddy denies the Bible utterly: 

1. By calling God a Principle. 

2. By denying the creation story of the heavens and the earth. 

3. By denying that God created man out of the dust of the earth. 

4. By denying that man was ever created at all; for she says man 
has always existed as a part of God. 

5. By denying Hebrews 9 : 27 : "It is appointed unto men once 
[apax — once for all] to die." She says, " Death occurs on the next 
plane of existence as on this." 

6. By denying the reality of sin. 

7. By making God the originator of sin, sickness, and death, 
since — according to her teaching — he alone is responsible for this 
" mortal mind " of ours. 

8. By saying it is impossible for Soul or Spirit to sin and be lost. 

9. By saying the only way to conquer sin is by denying its verity. 

10. By teaching that there is no personal devil. 

11. By saying man has no material body. 

12. By declaring there will be no judgment after death. 

13. By saying God is not influenced by man's prayers. 

14. By teaching that angels are only good thoughts. 

15. By calling the Holy Spirit Divine Science and not a person. 

16. By saying the Holy Spirit was not the Father of Jesus Christ. 

17. By saying that Jesus Christ did not exist from all eternity as 
a person, only as an idea. 

18. By declaring that Jesus was only the human part of the Christ, 
and that it was therefore Jesus and not Christ who died upon the cross. 

19. By teaching that Jesus was not God, only the Son of God; one 
with the Father only in quality, not in quantity. 

20. By denying that Jesus Christ died as an atonement for sin. — 
" Christian Science and Christianity Compared" Rev. Thomas J. Mc- 
Crossan, B. A., B. D., pp. 45, 46. New York: Charles C. Cook. 



140 DENOMINATIONS 

Church of England 

The Thirty-nine Articles have held their place throughout the whole 
Anglican Communion, in the missionary churches of Italy, Spain, Por- 
tugal, and Mexico derived from it, in the Scottish Episcopalian Church, 
as well as in the British colonies. In the Protestant Episcopal Church 
in the United States of America, however, changes became necessary 
alike in the prayer book and in the articles. In 1786 a provisional re- 
vised prayer book was published, known subsequently as the " Proposed 
Book," containing, inter alia, " Twenty Articles of Religion," in which 
the Thirty-nine appeared recast, with many alterations of a latitudi- 
narian type, the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds being omitted, as also 
the clause in the Apostolicum, " He descended into hell." The conven- 
tion of 1786 restored the Nicene Creed and the discretionary use of the 
omitted clause in the Apostles' Creed, in compliance with the demand 
of the English archbishops; but, while the House of Bishops was willing 
to restore the Athanasian Creed for permissory use, the House of Dep- 
uties " would not allow of the Creed in any shape." In 1799 a special 
convention considered, without sanctioning, a revision in seventeen 
articles. At last, in 1801, it was agreed to retain the Thirty-nine Ar- 
ticles revised, with the sole theological change of the omission of the 
Athanasian symbol, other changes being political. 

Article 21, " Of the Authority of General Councils," was omitted, 
but its place and title retained for an explanatory note: "The 21st of 
the former Articles is omitted, because it is partly of a local and civil 
nature, and is provided for as to the remaining parts of it in other 
Articles." 

To Article 35, "Of Homilies," a note is added: "This article is 
received in this church so far as it declares the books of homilies to be 
an explication of Christian doctrine and instructive in piety and morals. 
But all references to the constitution and laws of England are consid- 
ered as inapplicable to the circumstances of this church, which also sus- 
pends the order for the reading of said homilies in churches until a 
revision of them may conveniently be made, for the clearing of them 
as well from obsolete words and phrases, as from the local references." 

The 36th Article, " Of Consecration of Bishops and Ministers," 
reads thus: "The Book of Consecration of Bishops and Ordering of 
Priests and Deacons, as set forth by the General Convention of this 
Church in 1792, doth contain all things necessary to such consecration 
and ordering: neither hath it anything that of itself is superstitious 
and ungodly. And therefore whosoever are consecrated or ordered ac- 
cording to said form, we decree all such to be rightly, orderly, and 
lawfully consecrated and ordered." 

In place of the 37th Article, " Of the Civil Magistrates," there ap- 
pears " Of the Power of the Civil Magistrate: " " The power of the civil 
magistrate extendeth to all men, as well clergy as laity, in all things 
temporal; but hath no authority in things purely spiritual. And we 
hold it to be the duty of all men who are professors of, the gospel to 
pay respectful obedience to the civil authority regularly and legitimately 
constituted." — "A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith,'" Will- 
iam A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 188-190. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1912. 

Congregational Church 

Congregationalism in Britain and America, a product of the Eng- 
lish Puritanism of Elizabeth's reign, stands related historically to 
Calvinism very much as the Baptist movement, whose congregational 
form of polity and whose free attitude to confessions of faith it shares. 
Without confessional coercion, and without any reliance upon the ec- 



DENOMINATIONS 141 



clesiastical authority of high courts or assemblies, Congregationalism 
has grown up and flourished, like Baptist Calvinism, under the shadow 
and dominant influence of the Westminster Standards. It acknowledges 
no binding confession. The particular or local congregation is a doc- 
trinal law to itself, bound only by such doctrinal restrictions as may be 
embodied in its own constitution or charter or deed of trust. Particular 
congregations are bound to one another by the simple tie of fellow- 
ship, doctrinal sympathy, and affinity — a tie terminable at any time 
should egregious departure from type take place. 

Till recently, Congregationalists, like Baptists, have maintained a 
remarkable homogeneity in spite of their freedom — a testimony to 
their loyalty to the traditions not less than to the congregational char- 
ters of the body. They have steadfastly resisted all tendencies to ele- 
vate common doctrinal statements into obligatory confessions, prefer- 
ring to call them Declarations or " Platforms," and every temptation 
to form presbyterian federations with legislative and jurisdictive courts. 
Neither civil nor ecclesiastical authority or dignity is allowed to exer- 
cise power over a local congregation. For the rest, their history has 
run parallel with that of Presbyterianism, their re-adjustments of the 
Westminster type of doctrine proceeding on similar lines. — "A History 
of Greeds and Confessions of Faith," William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., 
pp. 317, 318. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Lutheran Church 

The Lutheran Church acknowledges the three ecumenical creeds (the 
Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian), which it holds in common 
with other orthodox churches, and, besides, six specific confessions 
which separate it -from other churches. These are: (1) The Augsburg 
Confession, drawn up by Melanchthon and presented to the Augsburg 
Diet in 1530, afterward altered by the author in the tenth article, on 
the Lord's Supper, 1540. This is the fundamental and most widely 
accepted confession of this church; some branches accept no other as 
binding. (2) The Apology of the Augsburg Confession, also by Me- 
lanchthon (1530). (3) and (4) Two catechisms of Luther (1529), a 
larger and a smaller; the latter, for children and catechumens, is, next 
to Luther's German version of the Bible, his most useful and best- 
known work. (5) The Schmalkald Articles by Luther (1529; strongly 
antipapal). (6) The Formula of Concord, prepared by six Lutheran 
divines for the settlement of the Melanchthonian or synergistic con- 
troversy, the Crypto-Calvinistic controversy, and other doctrinal dis- 
putes which agitated the Lutheran Church after the death of Luther 
and Melanchthon. These nine symbolical books, including the three ecu- 
menical creeds, were officially published by order of Elector Augustus 
of Saxony, in Latin and German, under the title " Concordia." — The 
New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VII, art. 
" Lutherans," p. 80. 

Methodist Church 

Originally a spiritual and ethical revival within the Church of 
England, Methodism grew up under the Thirty-nine Articles and never 
formally renounced its allegiance to them. But from the first, except 
in Whitefield's following, it objected resolutely to the distinctively Cal- 
vinistic elements in them, and avowed its acceptance of them as in 
harmony with the Five Points of Arminianism. . . . 

However the Methodist churches may differ from one another, in 
Britain and America, in reference to organization, government, and 
discipline, they are at one in regard to doctrine, maintaining unaltered 
Wesley's own position. They have no formally complete, distinctive 



142 DENOMINATIONS 

Confession, but, instead, a certain relation to the Anglican Articles de- 
fined by Wesley himself, and the basis of doctrine supplied by Wesley's 
notes on the New Testament which rest on Bengel's admirable Gnomon, 
or commentary, and by his fifty-eight published sermons down to 1771. 
The basis is thus threefold. 

I. METHODISM AND THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES 

In England, Wesley left the Articles formally undisturbed, in con- 
formity with his scrupulous loyalty to Anglican order, contenting him- 
self with disavowing their predestinarian and allied elements, and in- 
terpreting them in an Arminian sense. In America, however, in doc- 
trine as in polity and orders, he felt himself less fettered. He gave 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, which he founded there, a recension 
of the Thirty-nine Articles suited to its special circumstances, and so 
abbreviated as to eliminate their obnoxious Calvinism and, negatively 
at least, to conform to his views. The Twenty-five Articles, as they are 
called, were adopted by Conference in Baltimore in 1784, with the ex- 
ception of XXIII, recognizing the independence of the United States, 
which was not approved till 1804. They reveal Wesley's precise atti- 
tude to the Thirty-nine. He omitted the political articles applicable 
only to England, the strongly Augustinian articles (viz., XVII, " Of 
Predestination," as teaching unconditional election and the necessary 
perseverance of the elect; XIII, Of Works before Justification, as alleged 
to be of the nature of sin), and Article VIII, which reaffirms the three 
oecumenical creeds. Article X, " Of Freewill," he retained, though it 
teaches, with Augustine and Calvin, man's natural inability since the 
fall to do good works without the grace of God, inasmuch as it was his 
view that of God's free grace freewill is supernaturally restored to all 
men universally. From Article II he omitted the clauses " begotten 
from everlasting of the Father" and "of his substance;" from IX, the 
clauses which affirm the persistence of original sin in the regenerate, and 
so conflict with his doctrine of Christian perfection. In XVI, the words 
" sin after baptism " are altered to " sin after justification," to exclude 
the doctrine of baptismal regeneration; and in XXV, "Of the Sacra- 
ments," before " signs of grace " the words " sure witnesses and effec- 
tual " are omitted. But there is no positive addition of Arminian teach- 
ing to the Articles. 

II. METHODISM AND ARMINIANISM 

Wesley made no secret of his entire concurrence with the five car- 
dinal points of Arminianism. They are embodied in his discourses. . . . 
Thus Arminianism, which failed to maintain itself in Holland or to 
win a settlement in Scotland, found a home in England and among 
English settlers across the Atlantic. Indeed, it must be added that 
recent changes in the thought and standards of Calvinism have for 
the most part been in the direction of a tacit compromise with Arminian 
doctrine, if not of actual surrender to it. But Methodism does not 
share the Pelagian sympathies of Arminianism. It takes a darker 
view of original sin as more than a disease, as complete depravity. It 
attributes human freedom since the fall, not to any partial survival of 
original freedom, but to the direct prevenient grace of the Spirit of God 
in the individual soul. And it lays far greater stress upon definite 
conversion and regeneration as a necessary subjective experience for 
every man. 

III. THE ORIGINAL ELEMENT IN METHODISM 

The sermons bring to light three distinctive doctrines which are 
fundamental in the Methodist system: 

1. The Universality of the Offer of Saving Grace. — All men are 



DENOMINATIONS 143 



born into an order not only of sin through Adam, but of saving grace 
through Christ, by whose righteousness the free gift came upon all men 
unto justification. . . . 

2. The Present Assurance of Salvation. — The Spirit of God wit- 
nesses with our own spirits that we are children of grace, that we are 
accepted now and shall be saved hereafter if we persevere. 

3. The Attainableness of Christian Perfection. — If apostasy be al- 
ways possible, Christian perfection is also constantly in prospect as the 
grand incentive to effort, by which is meant, not a perfection beyond 
the reach either of enhancement or of loss, but thorough and all-pervad- 
ing sanctification, the state in which deliberate sin is left behind, love 
to God is supreme, and every true faculty of human life fully enjoyed. 
— "A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith,'" William A. Curtis, 
B. D., D. Litt., pp. 328-333. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

METHODIST SOCIETIES 

A great number of these societies were already formed exactly on 
the same principles, in various parts of the kingdom, though at a con- 
siderable distance one from another. But hitherto no general rules had 
been made to govern the whole. The two brothers [John and Charles 
Wesley], therefore, now drew up a set of rules which should be observed 
by the members of all their societies, and, as it were, unite them all 
into one body; so that a member at Newcastle knew the rules of the 
society in London, as well as at the place where he resided. They were 
printed under the title of " The Nature, Design, and General Rules of 
the United Societies, in London, Bristol, Newcastle-upon-Tyne," etc., 
and here it will be proper to insert them: 

I. They state the nature and design of a Methodist society in the 
following words: 

" Such a society is no other than a company of men, having the form 
and seeking the power of godliness; united in order to pray together, 
to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in 
love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation. 

" That it may the more easily be discerned whether they are indeed 
working out their own salvation, each society is divided into smaller 
companies, called classes, according to their respective places of abode. 
There are about twelve persons in every class, one of whom is styled 
the leader. It is his business: 1. To see each person in his class once 
a week at least, in order to inquire how their souls prosper. To advise, 
reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasions require; to receive what they 
are willing to give toward the relief of the poor. 2. To meet the min^ 
ister and the stewards of the society once a week, in order to inform the 
minister of any that are sick; or of any that walk disorderly, and will 
not be reproved; to pay to the stewards what they have received of their 
several classes the week preceding; and to show their account of what 
each person has contributed. 

II. " There is only one condition previously required in those who 
desire admission into these societies, a desire 'to flee from the wrath 
to come,' to be saved from their sins. But wherever this is really fixed 
in the soul, it will be shown by its fruits. It is therefore expected of 
all who continue therein that they should continue to evidence their 
desire of salvation: 

1. "By doing no harm, by avoiding evil in every kind; especially 
that which is most generally practised, such as — 

" The taking the name of God in vain; the profaning the day of the 
Lord, either by doing ordinary work thereon, or by buying or selling; 
drunkenness; buying or selling spirituous liquors, or drinking them, 
unless in cases of extreme necessity; fighting, quarreling, brawling; 



144 DENOMINATIONS 

brother going to law with brother; returning evil for evil, or railing for 
railing; the using many words in buying or selling; the buying or sell- 
ing uncustomed goods; the giving or taking things on usury, i. e., un- 
lawful interest; uncharitable or unprofitable conversation; particularly 
speaking evil of magistrates or ministers; doing to others as we would 
not they should do unto us; doing what we know is not for the glory 
of God: as' — 

" The putting on gold, or costly apparel; the taking such diversions 
as cannot be used in the name of the Lord Jesus; the singing those 
songs, or reading those books, which do not tend to the knowledge or 
love of God; softness, or needless self-indulgence; laying up treasures 
upon earth; borrowing without a probability of paying; or taking up 
goods without a probability of paying for them. 

" It is expected of all who continue in these societies, that they 
should continue to evidence their desire of salvation: 

2. " By doing good, by being in every kind merciful after their 
power; as they have opportunity, doing good of every possible sort, as 
far as is possible to all men; to their bodies, of the ability which God 
giveth; by giving food to the hungry, by clothing the naked, by visit- 
ing or helping them that are sick or in prison. To their souls, by in- 
structing, reproving, or exhorting all they have intercourse with; 
trampling under foot that enthusiastic doctrine of devils, that ' we are 
not to do good unless our hearts be free to it.' 

" By doing good especially to them that are of the household of 
faith, or groaning so to be; employing them preferably to others; buy- 
ing one of another; helping each other in business; and so much the 
more, because the world will love its own, and them only. 

" By all possible diligence and frugality, that the gospel be not 
blamed; by running with patience the race that is set before them, 
' denying themselves and taking up their cross daily; ' submitting to 
bear the reproach of Christ, to be as the filth and offscouring of the 
world; and looking that men should 'say all manner of evil of them 
falsely for the Lord's sake.' 

" It is expected of all who desire to continue in these societies, that 
they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation: 

3. ' By attending upon all the ordinances of God. Such are the 
public worship of God; the ministry of the word, either read or ex- 
pounded; the supper of the Lord; family and private prayer; search- 
ing the Scriptures; and fasting and abstinence. 

" These are the general rules of our societies; all of which we are 
taught of God to observe, even in his written Word, the only rule, and 
the sufficient rule, both of our faith and practice. And all these we 
know his Spirit writes on every truly awakened heart. If there be any 
among us who observe them not, who habitually break any of them, 
let it be made known unto them who watch over that soul, as they that 
must give an account. We will admonish him of the error of his ways: 
we will bear with him for a season. But if he repent not, he hath no 
more place with us. We have delivered our own soul. 

" John Wesley. 
"May 1, 1748V "Charles Wesley." 

— "The Library of Original Sources" edited by Oliver J. Thatcher, 
Vol. VI, pp. 365-367. Mihvaukee, Wis.: University Research Extension 
Co., copyright 1907. 

Summary of the False Doctrines of Millennial Dawn [The Russell Movement] 

1. Christ before his advent was not divine. 

2. When he was in the world he was still not divine. 

3. His atonement was exclusively human, a mere man's. 



DENOMINATIONS 145 

4. Since his resurrection he is divine only, no longer human at all. 

5. His body was not raised from the dead. 

6. His second advent took place in 1874. 

7. The saints were raised up in 1878. 

8. Both Christ and the saints are now on earth, and have been for 
thirty-seven and thirty-three years respectively. 

9. The professing Christian church was rejected of God in 1878. 

10. The final consummation and end will take place in 1914. 

11. Silence as to the person and work of the Holy Spirit. 

— Prof. William G. Moorehead, in "The Fundamentals," Vol. VII, pp. 
126, 127. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Note. — Professor Moorehead declares that in Mr. Russell's writings nothing 
is said " as to the distinct personality of the Spirit, or as to his supreme agency 
in the salvation of sinners." The teaching concerning the destiny of the wicked 
is that after a second probation the finally impenitent will be destroyed. — Eds. 

Mormon Church 

It may be of interest to quote, as a summary of primitive Mormon 
doctrine, a group of Thirteen Articles by Joseph Smith, written soon 
after the constitution of the church at New York in 1840: 

" 1. We believe in God the Eternal Father, and in his Son Jesus 
Christ, and in the Holy Ghost. 

" 2. We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and 
not for Adam's transgression. 

" 3. We believe that through the atonement of Christ, all man- 
kind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the 
gospel. 

"4. We believe that these ordinances are: (i) Faith in the Lord 
Jesus Christ; (ii) Repentance; (iii) Baptism by immersion for the re- 
mission of sins; (iv) Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost. 

" 5. We believe that a man must be called of God, by ' prophecy 
and by the laying on of hands,' by those who are in authority, to preach 
the gospel and administer in the ordinances thereof. 

" 6. We believe in the same organization that existed in the prim- 
itive church, viz., apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists, etc. 

" 7. We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, 
healing, interpretation of tongues, etc. 

" 8. We believe the Bible to be the word of God, as far as it is 
translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the 
word of God. 

" 9. We believe all that God has revealed, all that he does now 
reveal, and we believe that he will yet reveal many great and important 
things pertaining to the kingdom of God. 

" 10. We believe in the literal gathering of Israel, and in the res- 
toration of the ten tribes, that Zion will be built upon this continent; 
that Christ will reign personally upon the earth, and that the earth 
will be renewed and receive its paradisic glory. 

" 11. We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according 
to the dictates of our conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, 
let them worship how, where, or what they may. 

" 12. We believe in being subject to kings, presidents, rulers, magis- 
trates, in obeying, honoring, or sustaining the law. 

" 13. We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous, 
and in doing good to all men; indeed, we may say that we follow the 
admonition of Paul: 'We believe all things, we hope all things;' we 
have endured many things, and hope to be able to endure all things. 
If there is anything virtuous, lovely, or of good report, or praiseworthy, 
we seek after these things." — " A History of Creeds and Confessions of 
10 



146 DENOMINATIONS 

Faith," William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 398, 3$9. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Presbyterian Church 

In the Presbyterian Church in America, the Westminster Confes- 
sion, after being subscribed and accepted sim.pliciter for a time as in 
Britain, experienced similar modifications and qualifications. The 
Synod of Philadelphia in 1729 declared: " We do therefore agree that all 
the ministers of this Synod . . . shall declare their agreement in and ap- 
probation of the Confession of Faith, with the Larger and Shorter Cate- 
chisms, ... as being in all the essential and necessary articles good 
forms of sound words and systems of Christian doctrine, and do also 
adopt the said Confession and Catechisms as the Confession of our 
faith," adding later that some clauses in the twentieth and twenty-third 
chapters were not received " in any such sense as to suppose the civil 
magistrate hath a controlling power over synods with respect to the 
exercise of their ministerial authority, or power to persecute any for 
their religion." . . . The union of the synods of Philadelphia and New 
York in 1758 adopted a similar declaration. The United Synod in 1787 
amended the third section of ch. xxiii, " Of the Civil Magistrate," so as 
to exclude all interference with matters of faith, and to enjoin equal 
protection of all churches and of the liberty of all men; ch. xxxi, so as 
to set aside the right of the civil ruler to call councils or assemblies; 
the last sentence of ch. xx, sec. 4, so as to omit the words, " and by the 
power of the civil magistrate," in reference to church discipline and 
censures; and omitted "tolerating a false religion" from the enumera- 
tion of sins against the second commandment in the Larger Catechism. 
At the re-union in 1869 of the " Old School " and " New School " sec- 
tions of the church, divided since 1837, the basis affirmed consisted 
of the "common standards; the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- 
ments shall be acknowledged to be the inspired Word of God, and the 
only infallible rule of faith and practice; the Confession of Faith shall 
continue to be sincerely received and adopted, as containing the system 
of doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures." 

The same church, now " The Presbyterian Church in the United 
States of America," felt it necessary in 1902 to make four important 
changes, [pp. 286-288] . . . 

(d) It published a " Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith " in six- 
teen articles: Of God, Revelation, the Eternal Purpose, Creation, the Sin 
of Man, the Grace of God, Election, Our Lord Jesus Christ, Faith and 
Repentance, the Holy Spirit, the New Birth and the New Life, the 
Resurrection and the Life to Come, the Law of God, the Church and 
Sacraments, the Last Judgment, Christian Service and the Final Tri- 
umph, [p. 289] — ■ " A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith" 
William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 286-289. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Quakers 

The confessional attitude of the Quakers is in evident affinity with 
that of Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, and Salvationists, at 
many points; but it represents a more radical breach with Christian 
convention. They renounce all external authority in matters spiritual, 
the letter of Scripture not less than subordinate standards, in favor 
of the direct and inward guidance of the illuminant Spirit of God, the 
Inner Light. Ceremonies and sacraments, traditions and conventions, 
organizations and official teachers, are set aside. Yet history repeated 
itself in their experience, apologetic statements of their teaching being 



DENOMINATIONS 147 



necessitated by popular caricature and theological misrepresentation, 
[p. 350] . . . 

The nearest approach to an authoritative Confession is supplied by 
the works of Robert Barclay, the proprietor of Ury, in Kincardineshire, 
Scotland, the theologian of the movement, and an untiring propagator 
of its doctrine. He wrote a catechism in 1673, the answers consisting 
of judiciously selected passages of Scripture, and the questions contain- 
ing a good deal of polemical and didactic matter, a brief Confession of 
Faith of twenty-three articles in Scriptural language being added at 
the close. In 1675 appeared his magnum opus, the Apology, whose cen- 
tral Fifteen Theses have obtained a wide independent circulation as 
a reliable statement of Quaker principles, [p. 351] . . . 

Quakerism is thus a protest against ecclesiasticism, sacramenta- 
rianism, biblicism, sacerdotalism, traditionalism, and rationalism alike, 
a rigorous and consistent reaction against every element of dangerous 
formalism and literalism in Christianity; spiritual to the core, mystic 
and intuitional, individualistic. It subordinates, to the point of sacri- 
fice, the letter to the spirit, the form or symbol to the substance. It as- 
sumes a spiritual advancement or education possessed only by the few, 
and underestimates the use of letter and symbol because of their abuse, 
[p. 354] — "A History of Greeds and Confessions of Faith," William. A. 
Curtis, B. D„ D. Litt., pp. 350-354. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 



Reformed Episcopal Church 

In 1873 there was prepared by the Reformed Episcopal Church of 
America, which, in protest against Anglican ritualism and exclusive- 
ness, had seceded from the Protestant Episcopal Church, a Declaration 
of Principles: 

"I. The Reformed Episcopal Church, holding 'the faith once de- 
livered unto the saints,' declares its belief in the Holy Scriptures of the 
Old and New Testaments as the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith 
and practice: in the Creed 'commonly called the Apostles' Creed;' in 
the divine institution of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Sup- 
per; and in the doctrines of grace substantially as they are set forth 
in the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion. 

" II. This church recognizes and adheres to episcopacy, not as of 
divine right, but as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity. 

" III. This church, retaining a liturgy which shall not be imperative 
or repressive of freedom in prayer, accepts the Book of Common Prayer 
as it was revised, prepared, and recommended for use by the General 
Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church, a. d. 1785, reserving full 
liberty to alter, abridge, enlarge, and amend the same as may seem 
most conducive to the edification of the people, provided that the sub- 
stance of the faith be kept entire. 

" IV. This church condemns and rejects the following erroneous and 
strange doctrines as contrary to God's Word: .First, that the church of 
Christ exists only in one order or form of ecclesiastical polity; second, 
that Christian ministers are ' priests ' in another sense than that in 
which all believers are 'a royal priesthood;-' third, that the Lord's 
Table is an altar on which the oblation of the body and blood of Christ 
is offered anew to the Father; fourth, that the presence of Christ in the 
Lord's Supper is a presence in the elements of bread and wine; fifth, 
that regeneration is inseparably connected with baptism." 

These principles are obviously such as would form a basis of any 
reunion of Episcopal and Presbyterian and other evangelical churches. 
— Id., pp. 190, 191. 



148 DENOMINATIONS 

Roman. Catholic Church 

CREED OF POPE PIUS IV * 

I (N. Christian Name), with a firm faith, believe and profess all 
and every one of those things which are contained in that creed which 
the Holy Roman Church maketh use of. Namely: I believe in one God, 
the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible 
and invisible. And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son 
of God, born of the Father before all ages. God of God: Light of Light: 
true God of true God; begotten, not made, consubstantial to the Father; 
by whom all things were made. Who, for us men, and for our salva- 
tion, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost 
of the Virgin Mary, and was made man. He was crucified also for us, 
under Pontius Pilate, he suffered and was buried, and the third day he 
rose again according to the Scriptures. He ascended into heaven, and 
sitteth at the right hand of the Father, and he shall come again with 
glory to judge the living and the dead: of whose kingdom there shall be 
no end. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Life-giver who 
proceedeth from the Father and the Son, who, together with the Father 
and the Son, is adored and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. 

And I believe 'One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I confess 
one baptism for the remission of sins: and I look for the resurrection of 
the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. 

I most steadfastly admit and embrace the Apostolical and Eccle- 
siastical Traditions, 2 and all other observances and constitutions of the 
same church. 

I also admit the Holy Scriptures, according to that sense which 
our holy mother the church has held, and does hold, to which it belongs 
to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Scriptures: neither 
will I ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the 
unanimous consent of the Fathers. 

I also profess that there are truly and properly seven sacraments 
of the new law, instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and necessary for 
the salvation of mankind, although not all of them necessary for every 
one; namely, Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme 
Unction, Order, and Matrimony; and that they confer grace; and that 
of these, Baptism, Confirmation, and Order, cannot be repeated without 
the sin of sacrilege. I also receive and admit the received and approved 
ceremonies of the Catholic Church used in the solemn administration 
of the aforesaid sacraments. 

I embrace and receive all and every one of the things which have 
been defined and declared in the holy Council of Trent, concerning 
original sin and justification. 

I profess likewise, that in the mass there is offered to God a true, 
proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead. And 
that in the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist, there is truly, really, 



1 This Creed, an extension of the Nicene Creed, was composed at the con- 
clusion of the General Council of Trent (capital of the Austrian Tyrol), held 
from the year of our Lord 1545 to 1563, to meet the errors of the first Prot- 
estants, Luther, Calvin, and others, then spreading. 

2 That is, I admit as points of revealed truth what the church declares the 
apostles taught as such, whether clearly or not clearly expressed or not even 
mentioned in the written Word of God ; as, for instance, that baptism is to be 
conferred on infants, that Sunday instead of Saturday (called the Sabbath) is to 
be kept holy ; and moreover, I admit those points of discipline which the church 
holds as established by the apostles, or by their successors as lawful rulers of 
the church in the early centuries of Christianity, such as points of liturgy or of 
church government. 



DENOMINATIONS 149 

and substantially the body and blood, together with the soul and di- 
vinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and that there is made a conversion of 
the whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole sub- 
stance of the wine into the blood, which conversion the Catholic Church 
calls transubstantiation. I also confess that, under either kind alone, 
Christ is received whole and entire, and a true sacrament. 

I steadfastly hold that there is a purgatory, and that the souls 
therein detained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful. Likewise 
that the saints reigning together with Christ are to be honored and in- 
vocated, and that they offer prayers to God for us, and that their relics 
are to be held in veneration. 

I most firmly assert that the images of Christ, of the mother of 
God, ever Virgin, and also of other saints, ought to be had and re- 
tained, and that due honor and veneration are to be given them. 

I also affirm that the power of granting indulgences was left by 
Christ in the church, and that the use of them is most wholesome to 
Christian people. 

I acknowledge the Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, Roman Church for the 
mother and mistress of all churches, and I promise true obedience to 
the Bishop of Rome, successor of St. Peter, prince of the apostles, and 
vicar of Jesus Christ. 

I likewise undoubtingly receive and profess all other things which 
the sacred canons and general councils, and particularly the holy 
Council of Trent and the (Ecumenical Vatican Council, have delivered, 
defined, and declared, and in particular, about the supremacy and in- 
fallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff. And I condemn, reject, and 
anathematize all things contrary thereto, and all heresies which the 
church has condemned, rejected, and anathematized. 

I (Christian Name), do at this present freely profess and sincerely 
hold this true Catholic faith, out of which no one can be saved. And 
I promise most constantly to retain and confess the same entire and 
unstained, with God's assistance, to the end of my life. — " Catholic 
Belief," Joseph Fad Di Bruno, D. D. (R. C.J, pp. 250-254. New York: 
Benziger Brothers, copyright 1884. 

Unitarian Church 

Unitarianism is the name given to the tenets of those who maintain 
the unipersonality as opposed to the tripersonality of the Deity. Inas- 
much as the largest freedom in personal belief is freely conceded, the 
doctrines concerning Jesus range from a belief in his sheer humanity 
to faith in him as superhuman. Except in Hungary, the polity is con- 
gregational. . . . 

Unitarians of all shades of opinion are agreed in rejecting the entire 
orthodox scheme, including the doctrines of the trinity, the vicarious 
atonement, the deity of Christ, original sin, and everlasting punish- 
ment, as both unscriptural and irrational. They celebrate the Lord's 
Supper, not as a sacrament, but as commemorative of Christ's death, and 
expressive of spiritual communion with him. They adhere generally 
to the rite of infant baptism, though there are a few Unitarian Baptist 
churches. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. " Unitarianism, ,, pp. 
264, 265. 

Universalist Church 

In October, 1900, the General Convention at its session in Boston 
adopted a still briefer "Statement of Essential Principles," as follows: 

"1. The Universal Fatherhood of God; 2. The spiritual authority 
and leadership of his Son, Jesus Christ; 3. Tne trustworthiness of the 
Bible as containing a revelation from God; 4. The certainty of just 



150 DIET OF WORMS 

retribution for sin; 5. The final harmony of all souls with God." — 
Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. " Universalism and Universal- 
ists," p. 342. 

Dictates of Hildebrand — Page 243. 

Diet of Worms, Luther's Famous Statement. — The famous Diet 
of Worms was summoned to meet on Jan. 21, 1521. . . . There was a 
vast gathering — princes, prelates, barons, knights, representatives from 
all the free cities of Germany. A papal legate attended, with an array 
of theologians behind him, Aleander to prosecute and the divines to 
argue. Once more Caietano protested against the hearing of a con- 
demned heretic. The precedent of Constance was brought up, and the 
opinion of that council, that in such cases safe-conducts need not be 
observed, was again alleged in all seriousness, as if it was nothing to 
be ashamed of. The Elector of Saxony said peremptorily that he would 
allow no violence to one of his own subjects. Faith given should not 
be broken a second time, even to please the Pope. Luther himself ex- 
pected the worst. He was advised to fly. He refused. He would go 
to Worms, he said, in words that have never been forgotten, " if there 
were as many devils there as there were tiles upon the housetpps." — 
" Lectures on the Council of Trent," James Anthony Froude, pp. 45, 46. 
London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Dietetics.— Pages 228-231. 

Dositheus, A False Christ. — Page 270. 

Disciples of Christ.— Page 137. 

Drugs.— Pages 225-227. 

Earthquakes, When the Earth Reels To and Fro. — There is 
something preternaturally terrible in the earthquake, when the earth, 
which we think the emblem of solidity, trembles under our feet, and 
geological convulsions, the most destructive agents of the past, threaten 
us in the present. The sensation is so beyond experience, and the feel- 
ing of powerlessness so overwhelming, that, amid the crash, man looks 
hopelessly around, and can simply bow the head in silent, motionless 
despair, as if expecting every moment to be buried in the ruins. With 
the cries and groans of the terrified people in the houses and in the 
streets, are heard the dull sounds of falling buildings, and appalling 
subterranean rumblings, and the thoughts of all are turned, where they 
always are instinctively in times of unexpected, inexplicable disaster, 
Godward. When the earth is thus moved by invisible hands, each mo- 
ment seems a year, and, as when death appears suddenly imminent, the 
events of a lifetime pass in an instant before the eyes of the soul. 
It is a novel and a terrifying sight to behold houses reel like a 
drunken man, as the earth waves reach them; it is more like the dis- 
turbed dreams of fever, or the scenic display of the drama, than any 
conception of reality. — " Volcanoes and Earthquakes," Samuel Kneeland, 
A. M., M. D., p. 207. Boston: D. Lothrop Company, 1888. 

, Earthquakes, The Lisbon Earthquake, of 1755. — Among the earth 
movements which in historic times have affected the kingdom of Portu- 
gal, that of Nov. 1, 1755, takes first rank; as it does also, in some 
respects, among all recorded earthquakes. The first shocks of this 
earthquake came without other warning than a deep sound of rumbling 



EARTHQUAKES 151 

thunder, which appeared to proceed from beneath the ground, and it was 
immediately followed by a quaking which threw down almost the entire 
city. In six minutes sixty thousand persons perished. — "Earthquakes," 
William Herbert Hobbs, pp. 142, 143. New York: D. Appleton & Go., 
1907. 

The Lisbon earthquake of Nov. 1, 1755, appears to have put both 
the theologians and philosophers on the defensive. ... At twenty min- 
utes to ten that morning, Lisbon was firm and magnificent, on one of 
the most picturesque and commanding sites in the world, — a city of 
superb approach, placed precisely where every circumstance had con- 
curred to say to the founders, Build here! In six minutes the city was 
in ruins. . . . Half the world felt the convulsion. . . . For many weeks, 
as we see in the letters and memoirs of that time, people in distant parts 
of Europe went to bed in alarm, relieved in the morning to find that 
they had escaped the fate of Lisbon one night more. — " Life of Voltaire:' 
James Parton, (2 vol. ed.) Vol. II, pp. 208, 209. New York: Houghton 
Mifflin Company, 1909. 

Earthquakes, One Effect of Lisbon Quake, 1755. — The earthquake 
had made all men thoughtful. They mistrusted their love of the drama, 
and filled the churches instead. — "Life of Voltaire," 8. G. Tallentyre, p. 
319. London, 1903. 

The effects of the earthquake of the first of November, 1755, were 
distributed over very nearly four millions of square English miles of the 
earth's surface; a most astonishing space! and greatly surpassing any- 
thing of this kind ever recorded in history. — " The History and Phi- 
losophy of Earthquakes," J. Nourse, p. 334. London, 1757. 

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Recognized as Sign of End. — 
Who can with curious eyes this globe survey, 
And not behold it tottering with decay? 
All things created, God's designs fulfil, 
And natural causes work his destined will. 
And that eternal Word, which cannot lie, 
To mortals hath revealed in prophecy 
That in these latter days such signs should come, 
Preludes and prologues to the general doom. 
But not the Son of man can tell that day; 
Then, lest it find you sleeping, watch and pray. 
— "Poem on the Lisbon Earthquake," John Biddolf. London, 1765. 

Earthquakes, Lisbon Earthquake Described by Eyewitness. — Al- 
most all the palaces and large churches were rent down, or part fallen, 
and scarce one house of this vast city is left habitable. Everybody that 
was not crushed to death ran out into the large places, and those near 
the river ran down to save themselves by boats, or any other floating 
convenience, running, crying, and calling to the ships for assistance; 
but whilst the multitude were gathered near the riverside, the water 
rose to such a height that it overflowed the lower part of the city, which 
so terrified the miserable and already dismayed inhabitants, who ran to 
and fro with dreadful cries, which we heard plainly on board, that it 
made them believe the dissolution of the world was at hand, every one 
falling on his knees and entreating the Almighty for his assistance. . . . 
By two o'clock the ship's boats began to ply, and took multitudes on 
board. . . . The fear, the sorrow, the cries and lamentations of the poor 



152 



EASTER 



inhabitants are inexpressible; every one begging pardon, and embracing 
each other, crying, Forgive me, friend, brother, sister! Oh! what will 
become of us! neither water nor land will protect us, and the third ele- 
ment, fire, seems now to threaten our total destruction! as in effect it 
happened. The conflagration lasted a whole week. — Letter of ship cap- 
tain to ship's owners, in " Historical Account of Earthquakes," Thomas 
Hunter, pp. 72-74. Liverpool, 1756. 

Note. — The following table of earthquakes Is gathered from the reports of 
the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The list is of what are 
denominated " destructive earthquakes " only, as stated by the late Mr. .Tohu 
Milne, compiler of the statistics from which the subjoined table is made up. 

" Small earthquakes have been excluded, while the number of large earth 
quakes both for ancient and modern times, has been extended. As an illustra- 
tion of exclusion, I may mention that between 1800 and 1808, which are years 
taken at random, I find in Mallet's catalogue 407 entries. Only 37 of these, which 
were accompanied by structural damage, have been retained." 

Mr. Milne also states that recent researches " indicate that thirty thousand 
earthquakes may occur annually." 



Century No. 

First 15 

Second 11 

Third 18 

Fourth 14 

Fifth 15 

Sixth 13 

Seventh 17 

Eighth 35 

Ninth 59 

Tenth 32 

Eleventh 53 

Twelfth 84 

Thirteenth 115 

Fourteenth 137 

Fifteenth 174 

Sixteenth 253 

The distribution of more recent earthquakes is illustrated by the report for 
the first decade of the twentieth century, which is as follows (Report of tne Brit- 
ish Association for the Advancement of Science, 1911. p. 55) : 



Century No. 

Seventeenth 378 

Eighteenth 640 

Nineteenth 

First Decade 80 

Second Decade 87 

Third Decade 132 

Fourth Decade 106 

Fifth Decade 185 

Sixth Decade 313 

Seventh Decade 339 

Eighth Decade 297 

Ninth Decade 339 

Tenth Decade 241 

Twentieth 

First Decade 86 



Alaska 2 

Algeria 1 

Asia, Central 7 

Asia Minor 2 

Baluchistan 1 

Bolivia 1 

California 2 

Chile . 4 

China 3 

Colombia 1 

Costa Rica 2 

Crete 1 

East Indies 6 

Formosa 5 

France 1 

Greece 3 

Guam 2 

Earthquakes. — Page 271. 



Guatemala 1 

India 2 

Italy 3 

Japan 4 

Java 1 

Mexico 5 

New Zealand 1 

Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama 1 

Persia 3 

Peru 1 

Philippines 9 

Samos 1 

Siberia, East 3 

Spain 2 

Turkey in Europe 3 

West Indies 2 

— Eds. 



Easter. — The English word comes from the AS Eastre or Estera. 
a Teutonic goddess to whom sacrifice was offered in April, so the name 
was transferred to the paschal feast. The word does not properly 
occur in Scripture, although A. V. has it in Acts 12: 4 where it stands 
for Passover, as it is rightly rendered in R. V. [also in the A. R. V.]. 
There is no trace of Easter celebration in the New Testament, though 
some would see an intimation, of it in 1 Cor. 5: 7. The Jewish Chris- 
tians in the early church continued to celebrate the Passover, regarding 
Christ as the true paschal lamb, and this naturally passed over into a 
commemoration of the death and resurrection of our Lord, or an 



EASTER 153 

Easter feast. This was preceded by a fast, which was considered by 
one party as ending at the hour of the crucifixion, i. e., at 3 o'clock 
on Friday, by another as continuing until the hour of the resurrec- 
tion before dawn on Easter morning. Differences arose as to the time 
of the Easter celebration, the Jewish Christians naturally fixing it at 
the time of the Passover feast, which was regulated by the paschal 
moon. According to this reckoning it began on the evening of the 14th 
day of the moon of the month of Nisan without regard to the day of 
the week, while the Gentile Christians identified it with the first day of 
the week, i. e., the Sunday of the resurrection, irrespective of the dav 
of the month. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited 
by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Easter" p. 889. 

The Easter Day indeed was always kept by St. John on the 14th day 
of the lunar month, whatever the day of the week. So Irenaeus, quoted 
by Eusebius (H. E. v. 24), informs us. For he says that Polycarp 
could not be persuaded by Anicetus, the Roman bishop, not to keep it 
on that day, when not Sunday, " because he had always so kept it with 
John the disciple of the Lord, and other of the apostles." — " Horce 
Apocalyptic^," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 71, note 4, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts 12: 4, is chiefly 
noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. 
In the earlier English versions Easter had been frequently used as the 
translation of pascha (irdirxa) • At the last revision [of the A. V.] 
" Passover " was substituted in all passages but this. — " A Dictionary 
of the Bible" edited by William Smith, LL. D., art. "Easter," p. 156 
(1 vol. ed.). New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Note. — In the American Revised Version " Passover " has been substituted 
for " Easter." — Eds. 

Easter, Controversy over Time of. — All the churches of the East 
and among the rest that of Smyrna, kept Easter on the 14th day of 
the moon of the first month, in conformity to the custom of the Jews: 
on the other hand, Anicetus [Pope 154-165 a. d.] would neither conform 
to that custom himself, nor suffer any under his jurisdiction to conform 
to it, obliging them to celebrate that solemnity on the Sunday next 
following the 14th of the moon. — " The History of the Popes." Archi- 
bald Bower, Vol. I, art. " Anicetus, Tenth Bishop of Rome." p. 13. 
Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

What most of all distinguished the pontificate of Victor [Pope 189- 
198] was the famous controversy about the celebration of Easter, be- 
tween the Eastern and Western bishops; the former keeping that so- 
lemnity on the 14th day of the first moon, on what day soever of the 
week it happened to fall; and the latter putting it off till the Sunday 
following. . . . Victor, not satisfied with what his two immediate prede- 
cessors had done, took upon him to impose the Roman custom on all 
the churches that followed the contrary practice. But in this bold 
attempt, which we may call the first essay of papal usurpation, he met 
with a vigorous and truly Christian opposition from Polycrates, at that 
time bishop of Ephesus, and one of the most eminent men in the church, 
both for piety and learning. . . . Victor being thus baffled in his at- 
tempt, his successors took care not to revive the controversy; so that 
the Asiatics peaceably followed their ancient practice till the Council 
of Nice, which, out of complaisance to Constantine the Great, ordered 
the solemnity of Easter to be kept everywhere on the same day, after 



154 EASTERN QUESTION 

the custom of Rome. — " The History of the Popes," Archibald Bower, 
Vol. I, art. " Victor, Thirteenth Bishop of Rome" pp. 18, 19. Philadel- 
phia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

Easter, Time for the Celebration of. — The proper time for the 
celebration of Easter has occasioned no little controversy. In the second 
century a dispute arose on this point between the Eastern and Western 
Churches. Eastern Christians celebrated Easter on the 14th day of 
the first Jewish month or moon, considering it to be equivalent to 
the Jewish Passover. The Western Churches kept it on the Sunday 
after the 14th day, holding that it was the commemoration of the resur- 
rection of Jesus. The Council of Nice (325 a. d.) decided in favor of 
the Western usage, branding the Eastern with the name of the " quarto- 
deciman " heresy. This, however, only settled the point that Easter 
was to be held, not upon a certain day of the month or moon, but 
on a Sunday. — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. 
IX, art. " Easter," p. 326. 

Easter.— Page 367. 

Eastern Question. — " The Eastern Question " is one which the 
statesmen of Europe will probably wrangle over until the millennium. 
. . . When told that his once ally and sworn friend, the tsar Alexan- 
der of Russia, desired to gain it [Constantinople], Napoleon the Great 
excitedly sprang to his feet, saying, " Constantinople! Revert — it is the 
empire of the world." — " Decisive Battles of the World," Charles 
King, Brigadier-General, p. 243, edition 1895. 

Eastern Question, An Ancient Question. — Some countries seem 
destined from their origin to become the battlefields of the contending 
nations. . . . The nations around are eager for the possession of a country 
thus situated. . . . From remote antiquity Syria was in the condition 
just described. ... By its position it formed a kind of meeting place, 
where most of the military nations of the ancient world were bound 
sooner or later to come violently into collision. — " Struggle of the Na- 
tions," Sir Gaston Maspero, chap. 1, pp. 3, 4. 

The Eastern Question, which began with Constantine and The- 
odosius, stretches through the centuries. It is ever old and ever new, 
like a figure in mythology. . . . The interests at stake are so important 
and complicated that Europe and Asia, and even America, cannot stand 
by as unconcerned spectators of the struggle which recurs century 
after century for the possession of the Bosporus, the Hellespont, and 
the iEgean Sea. The East has been the goal of every ambition of the 
Christian and barbarian powers alike. — M. R. Ivanovitch, on " The 
Future of the Balkans," in Fortnightly Review (London), June,- 1909. 

Eastern Question, Revolutionary France and Egypt in Conflict. 
— Bonaparte's expedition, consisting of forty thousand land troops and 
ten thousand seamen, sailed from Toulon for Egypt on the nineteenth 
of May, 1798. — " Library of Universal History," Vol. VIII, p. 2637. New 
York and Chicago: Union Book Company, 1900. 

In spite of the desperate valor displayed by the Mamelukes, led by 
Murad Bey, the French gained a complete victory (July 21). This 
battle, called the Battle of the Pyramids, overthrew the government of 
the Mamelukes, and opened Cairo to the French, which capital they 
entered on the following day. — " The History of Modern Europe," 
Thomas Henry Dyer, book 7, chap. 19 (Vol. IV, p. 304). London: John 
Murray, 1864. 



EASTERN QUESTION 155 

Eastern Question, Napoleon's Aim — Constantinople and World 
Dominion.— If I succeed I shall find in the town [Acre] the pasha's 
treasure, and arms for 300,000 men. I stir up and arm all Syria. . . . 
I march on Damascus and Aleppo; as I advance in the country my army 
will increase with the discontented. ... I reach Constantinople with 
armed masses. I overthrow the Turkish Empire; I found in the East 
a new and grand empire, which fixes my place with posterity. — Napo- 
leon, before Acre; cited in " The Modern Regime," Hippolyte Adolphe 
Taine, D. G. L., book 1, chap. 1 (Vol. I, p. 35). New York: Henry Holt 
& Co., 1890. 

Eastern Question, Turkey's Attack and Defeat (1799) at Mt. 

Tabor. — Twelve thousand horsemen, decorated with the most gorgeous 
trappings of military show, and mounted on the fleetest Arabian 
chargers, were prancing and curvetting in all directions. A loud and 
exultant shout of vengeance and joy, rising like the roar of the 
ocean, burst from the Turkish ranks as soon as they perceived their 
victims enter the plain. . . . The whole cavalcade of horsemen, with 
gleaming sabers and hideous yells, and like the sweep of the wind, 
came rushing down upon them. Every man in the French squares 
knew that his life depended upon his immobility, and each one stood, 
shoulder to shoulder with his comrades, like a rock. . . . 

The victory was complete. The Turkish army was not merely con- 
quered — it was destroyed. . . . The whole majestic array, assembled 
for the invasion of Egypt, and who had boasted that they were "in- 
numerable as the sands of the sea, or the stars of heaven," had disap- 
peared to be seen no more. — " The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte," John 
S. G. Abbott, Vol. I, chap. 12, pp. 218-220. 

Note. — Napoleon returned from this victory to the siege of Acre, where 
he was repulsed again and again. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, " Many Ships " and Men Turn Napoleon's Ca- 
reer at Acre (1799). — On the evening of the 7th May, a few sails were 
seen from the towers of Acre, on the furthest verge of the horizon. All 
eyes were instantly turned in that direction, and the besiegers [French] 
and besieged equally flattered themselves that succor was at hand. The 
English cruisers in the bay hastily, and in doubt, stood out to recon- 
noiter this unknown fleet; but the hearts of the French sank within 
them when they beheld the two squadrons unite, and, the Ottoman 
crescent joined to the English pennant, approach the roads of Acre. 
Soon after a fleet of thirty sail [Turkish] entered the bay, with seven 
thousand men, and abundance of artillery and ammunition. — " History 
of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 26, par. 90 (Vol. 
IV, p. 207) 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

Eastern Question, A Turning Point in History. — Napoleon was 
not yet sufficiently subdued by misfortune [at Acre] to order a retreat. 
" The fate of the East," said he, " is in yonder fort." ... In vain other 
columns, and even the Guides of Napoleon, his last reserve, advanced 
to the attack; they were all repulsed with dreadful loss. . . . Meanwhile 
the baggage, sick, and field artillery were silently defiling to the rear, 
the heavy cannon were buried in the sand, and on the 20th May, Napo- 
leon, for the first time in his life, ordered a retreat. — Id., pars. 92, 93, 
p. 208. 

Many times during the deadly delays of this fatal siege, in which 
he experienced his first check, he was heard to inveigh against " this 
miserable little hole which came between him and his destiny." And 



156 EASTERN QUESTION 

many times later, when dwelling on the vicissitudes of his past life, 
and the different chances which had been open to him, he repeated 
" that if Saint Jean d'Acre had fallen, he would have changed the 
face of the world, and been emperor of the East." And he generally 
added, that it was a grain of sand that had undone all his projects. 
— " The History of Napoleon the First" Pierre Lanfrey, Vol. I, p. 296. 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1886. 

Eastern Question, Egypt and Its Treasures Not Escaping. — Mo- 
hammed Ali [the sultan's pasha of Egypt] not only ruled but pos- 
sessed Egypt; for in 1808-10 he successfully accomplished a repeti- 
tion of the tremendous acts of spoliation for which Suleiman II, son 
of the first Ottoman conqueror, had given him a precedent. By one 
means or another, in great measure by the deliberate confiscation and 
suppre c sion of title deeds, he possessed himself of almost the whole of 
the land in Egypt, and declared that henceforth he was the sole owner 
of the soil, and *all rights of possession or tenancy must be held from 
him. Prom every class in every town and province of Egypt came a 
passionate outcry against this wholesale robbery, but Mohammed Ali, 
with his terrible army of Arnouts at his back, stood firm. — " The Story 
of the Church of Egypt" E. L. Butcher, Vol. II, p. 863. London: Smith, 
Elder & Co., 1897. 

Eastern Question, Seventeenth Century Begins Turkish Decline. 
— For a hundred and fifty years after the conquest of Constantinople, 
the Ottoman Empire remained in the fulness of power and prosperity, 
and the population, both Mohammedan and Christian, steadily increased. 
. . . Civil dissensions rarely disturbed the peace of the provinces; the 
laboring classes, both in the agricultural districts and the towns, were 
industrious and prosperous; manufactures flourished; the trade of the 
empire, both foreign and domestic, was vast and lucrative. . . . But 
with the seventeenth century began the decline of the Ottoman power. 
— " Turkey," Edson L. Clark, pp. 148, 149. New York: Peter Fenelon 
Collier & Son, 1900. 

Eastern Question, Greece Detached. — In July, 1827, England, 

France, and Russia signed the Treaty of London, by which they bound 
themselves to compel the Turk, by force, if it should be needful, to 
acknowledge the freedom of Greece. — " The Ottoman Power in Europe," 
E. A. Freeman, D. C. L., LL. D., p. 183. London: Macmillan & Co., 1877. 

On May 7, 1832, more than a decade after the outbreak of the Greek 
revolt, the treaty was finally signed which added a new Christian king- 
dom to the states' system of Europe. — "Modern Europe," 1815-99, W. 
Alison Phillips, M. A., p. 167, 2d edition. London: Rivingtons, 



Eastern Question, The Balkan States Carved Out. — The Porte 
bowed to the inevitable [with the Russian army in the Balkans] and 
on Sept. 14, 1829, signed with Russia the treaty of Adrianople. True 
to his undertaking, the tsar stipulated for no territorial increase in 
Europe; but the Danubian principalities were erected into practically 
independent states. . . . 

The news of the peace of Adrianople . . . produced something like 
a panic among the powers. Wellington declared that the Turkish power 
in Europe no longer existed, and that, this being so, it was absurd to 
talk of bolstering it up. In any case, since the Russian occupation of 
the principalities made Turkey to all intents and purposes a province of 
Russia, the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was no longer of supreme 



EASTERN QUESTION 157 

importance to England. — "Modern Europe'' 1 1815-99, W. Alison Phil- 
lips, M. A., pp. 165, 166, 2d edition. London: Rivingtons, 1902. 

Note. — Out of this, in the course of years, particularly between 1878 and 
1885, came the independent Balkan States, carved from Turkish territory. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, Opening Passage of a Stirring Decade of 
Diplomacy. — On July 8, 1833, was signed the famous treaty of Unkiar 
Skelessi, which, under the form of an offensive and defensive alliance 
between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, virtually, in the words of 
Count Nesselrode himself, legalized for the future the armed intervention 
of Russia in Turkish affairs. ... In France and England the news 
of the conclusion of this treaty roused immense excitement. Palmerston 
declared that it placed Turkey under Russian vassalage, and that, as 
far as England was concerned, it had no existence. — Id., p. 216. 

Eastern Question, Constantinople Threatened in 1839. — On June 
24 [1839] Ibrahim [the general of Mehemet AH, the Sultan's rebellious 
governor of Egypt] met the Ottoman army at Nessib [Syria] and 
routed it. Once more the road to Constantinople lay open to him. 
Disaster followed disaster, heralding, as it seemed, the downfall of the 
Turkish rule. On June 30 the old Sultan Mahmoud died, leaving the 
throne to Abd-ul-Medjid, a lad of sixteen. And, finally, as though to 
crown the edifice of ruin, Achmet Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, sailed 
into the harbor of Alexandria, and handed over his fleet to Mehemet Ali. 

Obviously, if the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi were to be more than 
" an interesting historical relic," the time had come for its application. 
In common alarm, the majority of the powers, disunited on most points, 
combined to forestall any isolated action on the part of Russia, and by 
their ambassadors at Constantinople agreed to place the young sultan 
under the protection of Europe. At the same time they warned Me- 
hemet Ali that the matter was now not for him, but for Europe, to de- 
cide. But at this point their agreement ceased. France now openly 
championed Mehemet Ali, in whom she looked to find a valuable ally 
against the sea power of England in the Mediterranean. She proposed 
that the pasha of Egypt should be left in the enjoyment of his con- 
quests, and that France and England should come to an agreement as to 
common action in the event of the Russians' meeting Ibrahim on the 
Bosporus. The alliance, in fact, was to be directed, not against Egypt. 
but against Russia. — Id., pp. 225, 226. 

Eastern Question, When News of Defeat Reached Constanti- 
nople. — The divan, stricken with consternation, was about to yield un- 
conditionally to Mehemet's demand for the hereditary possession of all 
his dominions, when a note was received from the powers. This note, 
which bears date of July 27, 1839, informed the Porte that the five great 
powers — Austria, England, France, Prussia, and Russia — had agreed 
to act in concert on the Eastern Question, and requested the Turkish 
government not to come to any definite conclusion without their ad- 
vice. The Porte replied that it would await the action of Europe, and 
gratefully accepted the proffered mediation. — " The Eastern Question," 
8. P. H. Duggan, Ph. D., p. 87. New York: Columbia University Press. 
1902. 

Eastern Question, Collective Note of Five Powers, July 27, 1839. 
— Constantinople, July 27, 1839. The undersigned have received, this 
morning, from their respective Governments, instructions, in virtue 
whereof they have the honor to inform the Sublime Porte that agree- 
ment among the Five Great Powers on the Question of the East is se- 



158 EASTERN QUESTION 

cured, and to invite it to suspend any definitive resolution without their 
concurrence, waiting for the effect of the interest which those Powers 
feel for it. (Signed) Ponsonby, Ambassador of England; Baron de Stur- 
mer, Internuncio of Austria; Count Koenigsmarck, Minister of Prussia; 
Baron Roussin, Ambassador of France; A. Bouteneff, Minister of Rus- 
sia. — "Sessional Papers" (House of Commons), Vol. XXIX, 1841, 
"Affairs of the Levant," part 1, p. 293. London: T. R. Harrison. 

Eastern Question, Turkey Is Assured Its Allies Assume Respon- 
sibility. — The Mousteshar then said, " The Porte is without armies, 
the Ottoman fleet has deserted, what can the Porte do if Mehemet Ali 
should attack? Will the Great Powers defend the Porte? " 

It was replied, that the Great Powers had determined to prevent a 
collision between the belligerents, and therefore the Great Powers 
could not permit the Pasha to attack the Porte. . . . The Sublime Porte, 
having consented to the proposition made in the Collective Note of 
July 27, was under an obligation to the Five Great Powers not to at- 
tempt to have any secret understanding with Mehemet Ali. — Viscount 
Ponsonby (Therapia, Constantinople, July 30, 1839) to Viscount Palm- 
erston (London), reporting interview between Mousteshar Nouri Effendi 
and representatives of the Five Powers; Id., p. 311. 

Eastern Question, England Repeats Assurance to Turkey. — The 
Sublime Porte will perceive that this declaration engages the British 
Government to maintain the integrity and independence of the Turkish 
Empire under the present dynasty. — Viscount Ponsonby to Nouri Ef- 
fendi, Therapia, Aug. 21, 1839; Id., p. 372. 

Note. — In this letter, Lord Ponsonby inclosed a note stating that rumors 
were heard that the Porte was making overtures to Mehemet Ali, and repeats 
that " the Sublime Porte is bound by positive engagement to the Five Great 
Powers not to enter into negotiation, nor to make any arrangement with the 
Pasha Mehemet Ali. without the knowledge and consent of the Great Powers." — 
Id., p. 372. The next day the Porte addressed a note to the representatives of 
the Powers, reciting Mehemet Ali's demands and saying : " This being the case, 
it still belongs to the Five Powers to arrange this affair, and the Sublime Porte 
asks that measures may be taken to make Mehemet Ali consent to what follows." 
— Id., p. Sllf. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, Policy of Powers Proclaimed in Egypt. — I 
then proceeded to acquaint His Highness [Mehemet Ali] impressively, 
that it was England's firm determination to maintain the integrity of 
Turkey under its present dynasty. ... I remarked that Prince Metter- 
nich . . . had authorized me to state to His Highness, that the Austrian 
Government was determined to back the policy of England to its full- 
est extent. . . . Mehemet Ali here burst forth violently, that " much 
words were useless. I don't deny the power of England, nor can I tie 
her hands; but if they pretend to confine m© within the limits," mean- 
ing, I presume, of Egypt, " I swear that I will do anything before I 
submit to be thus sacrificed; as for supporting the Turkish dynasty, 
who can be more zealous than I am? The very people about me would 
rise against me, were I to attempt its overthrow." — Colonel G. Lloyd 
Hodges (British Consul-General, Egypt) to Viscount Palmerston (Lon- 
don), Jan. 4, 1840; Id., part 1, p. 575. 

I have further to instruct you to take every proper opportunity 
and means of endeavoring to explain to the officers of the Turkish fleet, 
that it is the intention and determination of Great Britain, and of the 
other powers in alliance with Turkey, to maintain the integrity and in- 
dependence of the Ottoman Empire under its present dynasty, and not 



EASTERN QUESTION 159 

to infringe in any way upon the dignity of the Sultan, nor to trench 
upon the territory of the Ottoman Empire. — Viscount Palmerston (Lon- 
don) to Colonel Hodges (Alexandria), Feb. 25, 1840; " Sessional Papers," 
(House of Commons), Vol. XXIX, 1841, "Affairs of the Levant," part 1, 
p. 592. London: T. R. Harrison. 

Eastern Question, Prance in Concert to Maintain Turkish In- 
dependence and World Peace. — Our flag, in concert with that of Great 
Britain, and faithful to the spirit of that union, always so advantageous 
to the interests of the two countries, has watched over the independence 
and the immediate safety of the Ottoman Empire. Our policy is ever 
to assure the preservation and the integrity of that empire, the exist- 
ence of which is so essential to the maintenance of the general peace. — 
Speech of the King of France, at the opening of the French Chamber, 
Dec. 23, 1839;- Id., p. 528. 

Note. — Early in 1840, however, France began to dissent from the policy of 
the Powers, wishing to see concessions made to Mehemet Ali. All the time 
Turkey was urging its allies to make haste according to agreement, to curb 
the Egyptian viceroy. Feeling in France ran so high that preparations for 
hostilities were begun, forecasting a possible break with the Powers and a 
defense of Mehemet Ali, whom some In France wanted to see strong in Egypt 
and Syria. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, Palmerston on Divergence of French View. — 
The position of the five governments was this: All five had declared 
their conviction that it is essential for the balance of power, and for the 
preservation of the peace of Europe, that the integrity and independence 
of the Turkish Empire under its present dynasty should be maintained; 
and all five had pledged themselves to employ ali their means of action 
and influence to maintain that integrity and independence. But France, 
on the one hand, contended that the best way to maintain the integrity 
and independence of the Turkish Empire was to leave the Sultan to 
submit to any terms which Mehemet Ali might determine to insist upon 
as a sine qua non of peace; while the four powers, on the other hand, 
considered that the further continuance of the present state of military 
occupation of the Sultan's provinces by Mehemet Ali would be destruc- 
tive of the integrity of the Turkish Empire, and fatal to its independ- 
ence. — Letter to M. Thiers, Aug. 31, 1840, in " Letter from. Lord Palmer- 
ston to M. Thiers — Reply of M. Thiers," pamphlet reprint, p. 13. Lon- 
don, 1840. 

Eastern Question, Palmerston (July 5, 1840) on Consequences if 
England Abandoned Policy. — England will, by her own voluntary and 
deliberate act, re-establish that separate protectorship of Russia over 
Turkey, the existence of which has long been the object of well-founded 
jealousy and apprehension to the other powers of Europe. 

The ultimate results of such a decision will be the practical di- 
vision of the Turkish Empire into two separate and independent states, 
whereof one will be the dependency of France, and the other a satellite 
of Russia; and in both of which our political influence will be annulled, 
and our commercial interests will be sacrificed. — Letter to Viscount Mel- 
bourne, July 5, 1840, in " The Life of Viscount Palmerston," Sir Henry 
Lytton Bulwer, Vol. II, pp. 359, 360. London: Richard Bentley, 1870. 

Eastern Question, Convention of July 15, 1840. — The discovery 
of what seemed an underhand intrigue on the part of France produced 
upon the powers exactly the effect that Thiers had foreseen and depre- 
cated. . . . Their countermove was to sign at London on the 15th of 
July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with the Porte 



160 EASTERN QUESTION 

for the settlement of the affairs of the Levant. By this instrument it 
was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet Ali having been con- 
certed with the Porte, the signatory powers would unite their forces 
in order to compel the pasha to accept the settlement. As to the terms 
to be offered, it was arranged that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yield- 
ing within ten days, he should receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt 
and the administration for life of southern Syria, with the title of 
Pasha of Acre and the possession of the fortress of St. Jean d'Acre. 
At the end of ten days, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria 
and Acre would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days 
he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at liberty to withdraw 
the whole offer and to take such measures as his own interests and the 
counsels of his allies might suggest to him. — The Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica, Vol. XVIII, art. "Mehemet Ali," p. 81, 11th edition. 

Eastern Question, The Agreement Signed by the Pow t ebs, Con- 
cerning the Independence of the Ottoman Empire. — 

CONVENTION 

Concluded oetween the courts of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and 
Russia on the one part, and the Suolime Ottoman Porte on the other, for 
the pacification of the Levant, signed at London, July 15, 1840. 

In the name of the most merciful God, His Highness the Sultan 
having addressed himself to their Majesties the Queen of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King 
of Hungary and Bohemia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all 
the Russias, to ask their support and assistance in the difficulties in 
which he finds himself placed by reason of the hostile proceedings of 
Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, — difficulties which threaten with danger 
the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and the independence of the Sal- 
tan's throne, — their said Majesties, moved by the sincere friendship 
which subsists between them and the sultan; animated by the desire of 
maintaining the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire as 
a security for the peace of Europe; faithful to the engagement which 
they contracted by the collective note presented to the Porte by their 
representatives at Constantinople, on the 27th of July, 1839; and de- 
sirous, moreover, to prevent the effusion of blood which would be occa- 
sioned by a continuance of the hostilities which have recently broken 
out in Syria between the authority of the Pasha of Egypt and the sub- 
jects of the Sultan; their said Majesties and his Highness the Sultan 
have resolved, for the aforesaid purpose, to conclude together a Con- 
vention, and they have therefore named as their plenipotentiaries. . . . 

Article I. — His Highness the Sultan having come to an agreement 
with their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of all the Russias, as to the 
condition of the arrangement which it is the intention of His Highness to 
grant to Mehemet Ali, conditions which are specified in the separate 
act hereunto annexed; their Majesties engaged to act in perfect accord, 
and to unite their efforts in order to determine Mehemet Ali to conform 
to that arrangement; each of the high contracting parties reserving to 
itself to co-operate for that purpose, according to the means of action 
which each may have at its disposal. 

Art. II. — If the Pasha of Egypt should refuse to accept the above- 
mentioned arrangement, which will be communicated to him by the 
Sultan, with the concurrence of their aforesaid Majesties; their Majes- 
ties engage to take, at the request of the Sultan, measures concerted and 
settled between them, in order to carry that arrangement into effect. 



EASTERN QUESTION 161 

In the meanwhile, the Sultan having requested the said allies to unite 
with him in order to assist him to cut off the communication by sea 
between Egypt and Syria, and to prevent the transport of troops, horses, 
arms, and warlike stores of all kinds from the one province to the 
other; their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, and the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and 
Bohemia, engage to give immediately to that effect, the necessary orders 
to their naval commanders in the Mediterranean. Their said Majesties 
further engage that the naval commanders of their squadrons shall, 
according to the means at their command, afford, in the name of the 
alliance, all the support and assistance in their power to those subjects 
of the Sultan who may manifest their fidelity and allegiance to their 
sovereign. 

Art. III. — If Mehemet Ali, after having refused to submit to the 
conditions of the arrangement above mentioned, should direct his land 
or sea forces against Constantinople, the high contracting parties, upon 
the express demand of the Sultan, addressed to their representatives at 
Constantinople, agree, in such case, to comply with the request of that 
sovereign, and to provide for the defense of his throne by means of a 
co-operation agreed upon by mutual consent, for the purpose of placing 
the two straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, as well as the capital 
of the Ottoman Empire, in security against all aggression. 

It is further agreed, that the forces which, in virtue of such concert, 
may be sent as aforesaid, shall there remain so employed as long as 
their presence shall be required by the Sultan; and when His Highness 
shall deem their presence no longer necessary, the said forces shall 
simultaneously withdraw, and shall return to the Black Sea and the 
Mediterranean respectively. 

Art. IV. — It is, however, expressly understood, that the co-operation 
mentioned in the preceding article, and destined to place the straits of 
the Dardanelles and of the Bosporus, and the Ottoman capital, under the 
temporary safeguard of the high contracting parties against all aggres- 
sion of Mehemet Ali, shall be considered only as a measure of exception 
adopted at the express demand of the Sultan, and solely for his defense 
in the single case above mentioned; but it is agreed, that such measures 
shall not derogate in any degree from the ancient rule of the Ottoman 
Empire, in virtue of which it has at all times been prohibited for ships 
of war of foreign powers to enter the straits of the Dardanelles and of 
the Bosporus. 

Art. V.— 

Done at London, the fifteenth of July, in the year of our Lord, 1840. 
(L. S.) Palmerston [England] 

(L. S.) Neumann [Austria] 

(L. S.) Bulow [Prussia 

(L. S.) Brunnow [Russia] 

(L. S.) Chekib [Turkey] 

— " Parliamentary Papers," Session 1841, " On the Levant;' Vol. XXIX 
part 1, pp. 691-693. 

Eastern Question, News of Decisions Reaches Egypt. — Alexan- 
dria, Aug. 6, 1840. — Mehemet Ali has suddenly determined upon quit- 
ting Alexandria for from fourteen to twenty days, to make a journey 
into the province of Charkie (Damietta). He will set out tomorrow 
morning. The news of the decisions taken on the subject of the affairs 
of this country, which has just arrived by the steam-vessel the "Cy- 
clops," despatched from Vourla, appears to have thrown him into con- 
11 



162 EASTERN QUESTION 

sternation. I shall see him in an hour. — Letter of M. de Laurin (Con- 
sul-General of Austria) to Baron de Sturmer (Internuncio of Austria, 
Constantinople) ; "Sessional Papers" (House of Commons), Vol. XXIX, 
1841, part 2, p. 123. London: T. R. Harrison. 

Note. — Writing a second inclosure in the above letter, dated same day, 11 
p. m., after an interview with Mehemet Ali, Laurin reported: "'It is no use 
deluding oneself,' continued he, ' war is determined on ; it will commence as 
soon as a ship of war shall offer to blockade Alexandria.'" — Id., p. Ilk- The 
documents show that on August 6, also, the British consul-general in Alexan- 
dria, Colonel Hodges, received a copy of the convention of July 15, with instruc- 
tion from Lord Palmerston that at his discretion he might make the terms 
known to Mehemet Ali. He decided to await the arrival of the Sultan's envoy. 
— Eds. 

Eastern Question, Ambassadors Repeat Assurance to Turkey, 
Aug. 11, 1840. — The undersigned representatives of the Four Powers 
who signed the Convention concluded at London on the 15th of July 
last, hastened to communicate hy their dragomans to His Excellency 
the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Sublime Porte the reports which 
they received from their respective consuls in Egypt. 

" His Excellency will have seen therein that Mehemet Ali, who had 
already been informed that a decision was about to be taken by the 
Conference of London, expressed himself thereupon toward those con- 
suls in a manner to occasion the belief that he will not consent to any 
restitution of territory, and, moreover, that he appears disposed to 
have recourse to extreme measures, in case measures of coercion should 
be employed against him. 

" The undersigned deem it useless to pause, in order to demonstrate 
the improbability of menaces being executed which the numerous em- 
barrassments of Mehemet Ali's position divest of the character of seri- 
ousness which he would wish to give them. But, in any case, they take 
this opportunity to repeat to the Sublime Porte the most formal assur- 
ance of the firm resolution of their courts to devote all the means at 
their disposal to the defense of the cause with which they have just 
identified themselves by a solemn memorable act; and whatever con- 
tingencies may occur, the undersigned are justly confident in the be- 
lief that that cause will triumph over all obstacles and over all perils." 

The Undersigned, (Signed) Ponsonby, Baron de Sturmer, Titow, 
Count Koenigsmarck, Constantinople, Aug. 11, 1840. — Note from the 
Representatives of the Four Powers to Reschid Pasha; " Sessional Pa- 
pers " (House of Commons), Vol. XXIX, 1841. part 2, pp. 115, 116. 
London: T. R. Harrison. 

Eastern Question, Negotiations with Egypt. — The news of the 
conclusion of the treaty of July had reached Constantinople, and despite 
some dissensions in the interior of the divan, and some objections by 
his mother, the sultana Valide, the sultan, always under the influence 
of Reschid Pasha, hastened to accept it, and forwarded the ratifica- 
tions to London, instructing Rifat Bey to carry to Alexandria the suc- 
cessive summonses, which, in the terms of the treaty, the Porte was to 
address to the pasha. Rifat Bey arrived at Alexandria on the 11th of 
August; but found no Mehemet Ali there. He had been for some days 
on a tour in lower Egypt, under the pretext of visiting the canals of the 
Nile, but in reality to gain time, and prepare his means of defense. 
Having returned to Alexandria on the 14th, he received Rifat Bey on 
the 16th, and without entering into discussion with him — scarcely 
giving him time to speak — he rejected the first summons prescribed 
by the treaty. On the following day (the 17th), the consuls of the 
four subscribing powers asked an audience, and remonstrated with him 



EASTERN QUESTION 163 

on his refusal. He repulsed them sharply, cut short Colonel Hodges, 
the English consul, and persevered in his remonstrance, saying, " I 
shall only yield to the saber what I have won by the saber." — ■■ The Life 
and Times of Viscount Palmerston," James Ewing Ritchie, Division II, 
p. 529. The London Printing and Publishing Company, 1866. 

Eastern Question, The Pasha and the Ultimatum. — Alexandria, 
August 16 [1840]. — The arrival of Rifat Bey and Mr. Alison in the " Bair- 
Tahir " steamer from Constantinople, on the 11th instant, with the ulti- 
matum of the Four Powers, produced a great sensation here. The Pasha 
was absent at Damietta (it is believed on purpose to be out of the way at 
the moment when all eyes would naturally be turned on his, to read the 
fate of Egypt in their expression), and speculation was left to indulge 
itself at leisure; for all other occupation among the commercial portion 
of the inhabitants was virtually at an end. — London Times, Sept. 4, 
1840, p. 4, col. 6. 

Eastern Question, The Official Correspondence of August, 1840. 
— On the 11th instant Rifat Bey, bearer of the demands of the Sublime 
Porte, reached Alexandria. The general object of his mission soon be- 
gan to be known in the city, and as the French and Russian consuls- 
general had within a few days officially cautioned the merchants and 
residents of their respective nations, I felt that the time was now ar- 
rived to follow that example. — Colonel Hodges to Viscount Palmerston, 
dated Alexandria, Aug. 17, 1840; " Sessional Papers " (House of Com- 
mons), Vol. XXIX, 1841, part 2, p. 143. London: T. R. Harrison. 

Note. — Colonel Hodges on August 11 and later dates wrote the British con- 
sul, asking him to inform British merchants of conditions and caution them 
about extended credits and transactions. Replying to requests from the mer- 
chants for more definite information. Colonel Hodges wrote the consul on 
August 14 : " Everything seems to depend on the resolutions of Mehemet AH, 
of which I can know nothing with certainty." — Id., p. U6. — Eds. 

Colonel Hodges to Viscount Ponsonby 

[Extract] Alexandria, August 16, 1840. 

On the 11th of August, Rifat Bey reached this port, and was sub- 
ject to six days' quarantine, which expires this morning. He has been 
lodged very commodiously in the pasha's sea baths. Both in conjunc- 
tion with my colleagues, and alone, I have had with His Excellency 
several protracted and confidential interviews. We are all gratified by 
the very judicious choice of the Sublime Porte, whose envoy displays 
those rare qualities which render him perfectly equal to the difficult 
mission with which he is intrusted. 

On the 12th instant the French steamer of war " Tartare " reached 
Alexandria, having come in eight days from Toulon. She brought dis- 
patches for M. Cochelet, and also conveyed the Comte Walewski, charged 
with an extraordinary mission to Mehemet Ali. This arrival, and the 
news from France, which speedily circulated, produced a powerful im- 
pression in the city. 

The precise object of Count Walewski's mission has not yet com- 
pletely transpired, but enough has appeared to leave little doubt as to 
its general character. The Count, in conversations with the Russian 
Consul-General and myself, declared openly that he had not come to dis- 
suade Mehemet Ali from accepting the terms of the Convention of 15th 
of July; but he added that he possessed no instructions to advise his 
acquiescence. — "Parliamentary Papers,'" Session 1841, Vol. XXIX, part 
2, p. 148. 

Note. — Colonel Hodges was British consul-general in Egypt ; Lord Ponsonbv. 
the British ambassador at Constantinople. — Eds. 



164 EASTERN QUESTION 

[Extract] . Alexandria, August 16, 1840. 

On the arrival of Rifat Bey in Afexandria, Mehemet Ali was ab- 
sent from thence on a tour of the Delta. 

The Pasha returned to this city on the afternoon of the 14th in- 
stant. The same evening he was visited by the French Consul-General. 

Early this morning, Rifat Bey was liberated from quarantine, and 
at half past eight o'clock, a. m., he had his first audience of the 
Pasha. This was private, as had been arranged between Rifat Bey 
and the consuls-general of the Four Powers. 

It appears that the reception of the sultan's envoy was anything 
but gracious or favorable; but the results of that interview are fully 
related by Rifat Bey himself, in minutes which I have the honor to 
inclose. 

Discouraged by want of his success, Rifat Bey at first proposed 
an immediate return to Constantinople; but in conjunction with my 
colleagues, I represented to him the propriety of awaiting the expira- 
tion of the first and second periods of ten days specified in the Con- 
vention, and at the termination of which it will be proper to make 
new and formal summonses of compliance. With these suggestions 
Rifat Bey has fully concurred, and we have exerted our joint efforts to 
encourage the envoy, and to console him for his recent check. — Colonel 
Hodges to Viscount Ponsonoy ; " Parliamentary Papers" Session 1841, 
Vol. XXIX, part 2, p. 149., 

Note — The minutes of the interview referred to show that Rifat Bey stated 
to Mehemet Ali that the object of his mission was to announce that the sultan 
conferred upon him and his descendants the governorship of Egypt, and upon 
Mehemet Ali the command of St. Jean d'Acre for life, and he hoped His High- 
ness would accept " without making difficulties of any kind." Mehemet Ali 
replied : " I am prepared to perish rather than to accept your propositions. 
This is my first and my last answer." Rifat Bey at last said : " I leave with 
you the vizierial letter which has been addressed to you on this subject, in order 
that you may have time to peruse it quite at your ease, and to make your reflec- 
tions before giving me a definite answer, which I shall come and seek in a few 
days hence." — Id., p. 153. — Eds. 

[Memoranda of the further interviews and negotiations: 

August 17. The Consuls-General of the Four Powers visited Me- 
hemet Ali, urging compliance. He rebuffed them and told them to put 
in writing anything they had to say. 

August 19 they addressed a memoir to him. 

August 20 Mehemet Ali invited Rifat Bey to an interview, which 
ended with Ali's declaration: " I will not change my opinion, whatever 
may happen. France is at hand to offer me her mediation." — Id., 
p. 173. 

August 25 the Consuls-General had another interview, Mehemet Ali 
threatening war, and asking them to leave Egypt at the expiration 
of the twenty days. 

August 26 Rifat Bey waited on Mehemet Ali, saying: "As the first 
term of ten days expires today, I am come in company with the Consuls 
of the Contracting Courts, to receive your official answer." Mehemet 
Ali replied : " I have already given to you my answer, as well to you as 
to the Consuls, and that which I give you at present can only be the 
same." — Id., p. 186. He declared he would give the same answer at the 
expiration of the next term of ten days, September 5. 

August 29, however, Mehemet Ali sent for Rifat Bey and the Con- 
suls, and said to them: " Three days ago I gave a categorical refusal to 
accede to the conditions. . . . But I have just decided to accept those of 
the second term." — Id., p. 224. He wished not to fulfil any conditions 
until this answer was sent to the Porte, together with his plea regarding 



EASTERN QUESTION 165 

Syria. Rifat Bey and the Consuls replied that they had no authority to 
discuss terms. Mehemet Ali dismissed them, threatening a five years' 
war if his proposition was rejected. — " Parliamentary Papers," Session 
1841, Vol. XXIX, part 2, pp. 224, 225. 

September 5, the expiration of the twentieth day, found Mehemet 
Ali refusing to receive Rifat Bey and the Consuls on account of ill- 
ness. They were received by his minister, Sami Bey, who said that the 
Sultan had been notified of Ali's acceptance of Egypt. Mehemet Ali's 
non-acceptance of terms regarding Syria was not a refusal, but he 
wished to submit his propositions to the Sultan. Sami Bey gave Rifat 
Bey a letter from Mehemet Ali to the Sultan. The Consuls asked if 
they were now ordered out of Egypt, as Mehemet Ali had once said. 
Sami Bey replied that Mehemet Ali considered his reply an acceptance 
of the terms, so there was no hostility with the Powers. The Consuls 
replied: "For our part we consider your proposition as a non-accept- 
ance." — ild., p. 247. Rifat Bey departed the same day for Constanti- 
nople. — Eds.] 

Eastern Question, Terms of Powers Rejected and Force Employed. 
— Mehemet Ali, trusting in the encouraging attitude of France, and in 
the effectiveness of Ibrahim's army, had defied the coalition. But 
French help never went beyond stimulating phrases, and the Egyptian 
military power collapsed with surprising rapidity. . . . 

Scarcely had the combined British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet 
appeared off Beirout on August 11, when the Syrian population rose as 
one man in revolt against the tyranny of that same Ibrahim who, six 
years before, had been welcomed as a liberator. Beirout fell on October 
3; and Ibrahim, cut off amidst a hostile people, began a hurried re- 
treat southward. On November 2 the Allies captured Acre, and Me- 
hemet Ali ordered the evacuation of Syria. From Acre, Admiral Napier 
sailed straight to Alexandria, and threatened to bombard it if the 
pasha did not come to terms. On November 25 was signed a Conven- 
tion by which Mehemet Ali resigned all claims to Syria, and agreed to 
restore the Ottoman fleet, the powers on their part undertaking to use 
their influence with the Porte to procure for himself and his heirs the 
pashalik of Egypt. The Turco-Egyptian Question was settled. — "Mod- 
ern Europe," 1815-99, W. Alison Phillips, M. A., pp. 229, 230, 2d edition. 
London: Rivingtons, 1902. 

Eastern Question, The Step of 1841. — Mohammed Ali, by the 
treaty of [July 13] 1841, was confined to his Egyptian possessions, 
under the suzerainty of the sultan, the integrity and independence of 
whose empire were now placed formally under the guarantee of the 
great powers. The treaty of 1841 was a new and vital departure: Tur- 
key was for the first time placed in a state of tutelage. — " The Story of 
Turkey," Stanley Lane-Poole, p. 350. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
1888. 

The integrity and independence of that state was declared by 
the five powers to be of essential importance to the world, and the 
Ottoman Empire was formally taken under the protection of all 
Europe. . . . 

Before this treaty was agreed to, whatever step Russia might take 
in the East was a mere question of policy and of convenience; she 
could now make no attempt on the independence of the Porte without 
breaking her plighted faith, and giving all the other four powers the 
right, which would become a duty, to oppose her by force of arms. — 
" Thirty Years of Foreign Policy," Thomas MacKnight, p. 280. London. 
WSS. 



166 EASTERN QUESTION 

Eastern Question, Decline of Turkish Power Foreseen in Proph- 
ecy. — This prediction [of Dan. 11: 44] has been in part already ful- 
filled and is still fulfilling, by the apprehensions the Turks have long 
had of a war with the Persians in the East; and of the progress of the 
Muscovite there also, who is properly on the north. It also deserves to 
be here noted that these Turks themselves have a traditionary proph- 
ecy, greatly believed among them, that they are at last to be destroyed 
by a northern nation. — " Literal Accomplishment of Scripture Proph- 
ecies," William Whiston, M. A., p. 47. London, 1724. 

Note. — The copy of the book from which this quotation was taken, was 
the author's. In it he had made corrections with a pen, and this quotation fol- 
lows the interlining. This book is in the British Museum Library. — Eds. 

This part of the prophecy [Dan. 11:44] is allowed to be yet unful- 
filled; and what is portended, the course of prophetic events will show. 
. . . But if the Turkish power be understood, as in the preceding verses, 
it may mean that the Persians on the east, and the Russians on the 
north, will at some time greatly embarrass the Ottoman government. 
And how completely has this been fulfilled; first, by the total de- 
struction of the Egyptian fleet, by the combined fleets of England, 
France, and Russia, in the bay of Navarino; and, secondly, by the total 
overthrow of the Turkish army by the Russians, in the years 1828 and 
1829, when the sultan was obliged to accept any conditions that the 
emperor of Russia was pleased to give! — "A Commentary and Critical 
Notes," Adam Clarke, LL. D., on Dan. 11:44. New York: Lane and 
Scott, 1850. 

Note. — The first sentence of this extract was written for the first edition 
of this work, printed in 1825. — Eds. 

Eastern Question, Turkey " Helped " to Stand. — Turkey is in the 
remarkable condition that it has now stood for half a century, mainly 
because the great powers have resolved that for the peace of Chris- 
tendom it is necessary that the Ottoman Empire should stand. They 
came to that conclusion nearly half a century ago. I do not think 
they have altered it now. The danger, if the Ottoman Empire fell, 
would not merely be the danger that would threaten the territories of 
which that empire consists; it would be the danger that the fire there 
lit should spread to other nations, and should involve all that is most 
powerful and civilized in Europe in a dangerous and calamitous contest. 

— Extract from Lord Salisbury's Mansion House Speech, Nov. 9, 1895, 
Responding to a Widespread Demand for the Overthrow of the Turkish 
Power. " The Third Salisbury Administration, 1895-1900," H. Whates. 
book 1, chap. 2, p. 20. Westminster: Vacher & Sons. 

Eastern Question, Constantinople Saved from Russians in 1878. 

— With the arrival of the Russian army came the English fleet, which 
had nominally forced the passage of the Dardanelles in defiance of 
treaties, and hoped to prevent the occupation of Constantinople by the 
Russians. It was not war, but a threat of war. So far as the Turks 
were concerned, there was nothing to prevent the Russians entering 
the city without firing a shot. General Grant, who was here a little 
later, was in St. Petersburg at this time, and he told this story on the 
authority of a high official there: " When the Grand Duke arrived at San 
Stefano, he sent many telegrams to the czar, among others this, 'We 
are in sight of St. Sophia. There are no troops between us and the 
city. Shall I enter and take possession? ' All the other telegrams were 
answered at once. This one was not, in the full belief that the Grand 
Duke would understand that he was to take the responsibility himself 
and occupy the city. To the great disappointment of the czar, he did 



EASTERN QUESTION 167 

not." General Grant added that this seemed to him tfte greatest mis- 
take the Russians had made. — "Fifty Years in Constantinople," George 
Washburn, D. D., p. 131. Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Go. 

Eastern Question, Turkey's Disintegration. — The disintegration 
once started spread rapidly, until under Abdul Hamid, Thessaly was 
ceded to Greece; a strip of eastern Avatolia, including Batum and Kars, 
to Russia; and Tunis to France. Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, and 
Bulgaria became independent; Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed 
to Austria, and Egypt and Cyprus passed under the control of Great 
Britain. . . . Tripoli, the last of the African possessions of Turkey, 
has been wrested from Turkey by Italy. Macedonia, Epirus, Albania, 
and the greater part of Thrace have become the spoils of the Balkan 
war, and, of all their vast possessions in Europe, the Turks retain only 
Constantinople and a fragment of Thrace. 

This is a story of defeat and disaster almost unexampled, and 
might reasonably be accepted as the closing chapter in the history of 
any race. — William Maxwell, in the Nineteenth Century and After 
(London), May, 1913. 

Eastern Question, Scripture Prophecy and Moslem Tradition. — 
And highly is it worth our remark that the following prediction seems 
very near its completion also (Dan. 11: 45) ; that the same Turk after he 
has gone forth with great fury to destroy and utterly to make away 
many, shall plant the tabernacle of his palace (his royal tent and pavil- 
ion in war, as I interpret those words) between the seas, in the glorious 
holy mountain; Mount Sion, or Mount Moriah, or Mount Calvary; all in 
Jerusalem, and all answering those descriptions. Yet shall he come 
to his end, and none shall help him. Which is so distinct and illustrious 
a prophetic character as cannot easily but be taken notice of when it 
comes to pass. — " Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, M. A., on 
Dan. 11:45, p. 319. London, 1744. 

In Surah 1. 40 [of the Koran], one of the signs of the approach 
of the last day will be: "The crier [to prayer] shall cry from a near 
place" (that is, a place from which all men shall hear). Husain says 
this " near place " is the temple at Jerusalem. — " Dictionary of Islam," 
Thomas Patrick Hughes, art. "Jerusalem." London: W. H. Allen & Co., 
1896. 

It was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to heaven; and it will 
be there that he will again descend. ... In the last days there will 
be a general flight to Jerusalem. — Jalalan, old commentator on the 
Koran; cited in "Dictionary of Islam," T. P. Hughes, art. "Jerusalem." 

The Turks themselves seem generally to be convinced that their 
final hour is approaching. " We are no longer Mussulmans — the Mus- 
sulman saber is broken — the Osmanlies will be driven out of Europe by 
the Giaours, and driven through Asia to the regions from which they 
first sprang. It is Kismet! We cannot resist destiny! " I heard words 
to this effect from many Turks, as well in Asia as in Europe. — "Kis- 
met, or the Doom of Turkey," Charles 8. MacFarlane, p. 409. London 
1853. 

Ancient prophecy and modern superstition alike point to the return 
of the Crescent into Asia as an event at hand, and to the doom of the 
Turks as a race that has corrupted Islam. A well-known prediction to 
this effect . . . places the scene of the last struggle in northern Syria, 



168 EGYPT 



at Horns, on the Orontes. Islam is then finally to retire from the north, 
and the Turkish rule to cease. Such prophecies often work their own 
fulfilment. — " The Future of Islam," Wilfred Scawen Blunt, p. 95. Lon- 
don, 1882. 

Eastern Question, Great Britain's Mandate over Palestine. — By 
the terms of the mandate Great Britain is given sovereign power over 
Palestine, and is made " responsible for placing the country under 
such political, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure 
the establishment of a Jewish national home and the development of 
self-governing institutions and the safeguarding of the civil and re- 
ligious rights of all inhabitants, irrespective of race or religion." " The 
Zionist organization ... shall, in consultation with the government, 
secure the co-operation of all Jews who are willing to assist in the es- 
tablishment of a Jewish national home." Jewish immigration and 
settlement shall be fostered. Great Britain as a mandatary power con- 
trols the foreign relations of Palestine, and extends diplomatic pro- 
tection to Palestinian citizens — whether Jews or not — abroad. The 
" holy places " of Christians and Moslems are protected by the man- 
datary, the free exercise of religion guaranteed, and " no discrimina- 
tion shall be allowed in behalf of any race, religion, or language, each 
community being entitled to schools conducted in its own language." 
English, Arabic, and Hebrew are recognized as official languages; but 
money and stamps will be marked in Arabic and Hebrew only. The 
Court of International Justice will have power to interpret doubtful 
questions regarding the terms of the British mandate. — Editorial, " The 
New Jerusalem," in the Independent, New* York, Feb. 19, 1921, p. 187. 

Examine Mr. Balfour's careful words: Palestine to be "a national 
home," not " the national home " — a great difference in meaning. The 
establishment of a national home does not mean a Jewish government 
to dominate the Arabs. Great Britain is the greatest Moslem state in 
the world, and is well disposed to the Arabs, and cherishes their 
friendship. I found since my arrival that the ministrations of the 
officials make no distinction between Jew and Arab. You need not be 
alarmed for the future. Great Britain has promised a fair chance for 
the Zionist movement, but the latter will succeed only on its merits. 

Above all, there will be respect for the different religions. Though 
the Arabs are in a large majority in Palestine, though the British Em- 
pire has accepted the mandate in the wider sense, Palestine belongs to 
the whole world, and this city of Jerusalem is almost equally sacred to 
Moslems, Christians, and Jews, and not only to the dwellers in Pales- 
tine, but everywhere. Instead of sharing miseries through quarreling, 
the Palestinians should share blessings through co-operation. — From a 
speech by Winston Churchill, the British Secretary of State for the 
Colonies, printed in Current History, May, 1921, p. 353. The New York 
Times Comany. 

Eastern Question. — Pages 211-215. 

Egypt, Time of Sojourn in. — They [the Israelites] left Egypt in 
the month of Xanthicus [Nisan], on the fifteenth day of the lunar 
month; four hundred and thirty years after our forefather Abraham 
came into Canaan, but two hundred and fifteen years only after Jacob 
removed into Egypt. — Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews" Whiston's 
translation, book 2, chap. 15, par. 2. Philadelphia: The John C. Winston 
Company. 

Egypt, Plagues of. — The plagues which were sent upon Pharaoh 
because he would not let the children of Israel go, were directed against 



EPISTLES 169 



the gods. The Lord said to Moses, " Against all the gods of Egypt I 
will execute judgment." He redeemed his people " from Egypt, from 
the nations and their gods." The first and second plagues, when the 
water was turned into blood and the frogs invaded the land, fell among 
others upon the Nile god and the god of water. 

The third, when the dust of the earth became lice ■ — upon the 
Earth-god Seb. 

The fourth and eighth, when swarms of flies and locusts filled the 
air, were directed against Shu, the personification of the atmosphere. 

The fifth, the murrain of beasts, would touch the sacred bulls. Apis 
was the sacred bull of Memphis, Mnevis of Heliopolis, and Hathor was 
the cow goddess, who represented the place of sunrise. 

In the sixth plague the ashes of the furnace were flung to the 
winds, as were the ashes of the victims in the worship of Sutech or 
Typhon. 

The seventh plague of the hail and the mighty storm which ac- 
companied it, and the ninth plague of darkness, were judgments on 
the larger number of the gods of Egypt, — the hawk-headed Horus who 
represented the face of heaven, Heru the sky god, Ra, Osiris, and all 
the other forms of the sun god, such as Ptah, the rising sun; Temu, the 
setting sun; Sekhet, the fierce, scorching, and destroying heat of the 
sun's rays, — all these and many more were proved to be absolutely 
powerless before the God of Israel, the Maker of heaven and earth. 

The last plague touched Pharaoh himself, and the kings of Egypt 
were themselves elevated to a position among their gods. — " The Bible 
and the British Museum" Ada R. Habershon, pp. 51, 52. London: 
Morgan and Scott, 1909. 

Egypt, Death of the First-born. — It was scarcely to be expected 
that the Egyptian records would present any evidence on the subject 
of Menephthah's loss of a son by an untimely death. Curiously, how- 
ever, it does happen that a monument, at present in the Berlin Museum, 
contains a proof of his having suffered such a loss. There is no de- 
scription of the circumstances, but a mere indication of the bare fact. 
The confirmation thus lent to the Scriptural narrative is slight; but 
it has a value in a case where the entire force of the evidence consists 
in its being cumulative. — "Egypt and Babylon," George Rawlinson, 
M. A., p. 148. New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Egypt.— Pages 156, 158, 161-164. 

Epistles, Interpretation of Facts Relating to Christ. — It is to 
the epistles that we must first go for an explanation of the facts of 
Christ's person and his relation to God and man. Paul's epistles are 
really of the nature of a confession and manifesto of Christian belief. 
Communities of believers already existed when the apostle directed to 
them his earliest letters. In their oral addresses the apostles must 
have been accustomed not only to state facts which were familiar to 
their hearers, but also to draw inferences from them as to the meaning 
of Christ and the great truths centering in his person — his incarnation, 
his death and resurrection (as we may see from the recorded sermons 
of Peter and Paul in Acts). It is to these facts that the epistles appeal. 
— The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James 
Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Greed," p. 741. 

Exarchate of Ravenna. — Pages 482, 588, 590, 598. 

Exodus, Route of, to Red Sea. — The route of the exodus was first 
a concentration at Raamses, or Tell Rotab, in the Wady Tumilat, fol- 



170 EXTREME UNCTION 



lowed by a march to Succoth, a general name for the region of Bedawy 
booths; from there to Etham in the edge of the wilderness. . . . Thence 
they turned and encamped before Pi-hahiroth, the Egyptian Pa-qaheret, 
a Serapeum [a temple of Serapis]. Thus turning south to the west 
of the Red Sea (which then extended up to Tell el-Maskhuta), they had 
a Migdol tower behind them and Baal-zephon opposite to them. They 
were thus " entangled in the land." Then the strong east wind bared 
the shallows, and made it possible to cross the gulf and reach the op- 
posite shore. They then went " three days in the wilderness," the three 
days' route without water to Marah, the bitter spring of Hawara, and 
immediately beyond reached Elim, which accords entirely with the 
Wady Gharandel. Thence they encamped by the Red Sea. All of this 
account exactly agrees with the traditional route down the west of the 
Sinai tic peninsula; it will not agree with any other route, and there is 
no reason to look for any different location of the march. — The Inter- 
national Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. ZX, 
Vol. II, art. "Egypt," p. 911. 

Extreme Unction. — Extreme unction was instituted, according to 
Peter Lombard, by the apostles, according to Alexander Hales by Christ, 
according to Bonaventura by the Holy Spirit through the apostles, ac- 
cording to Thomas Aquinas by Christ, but was promulgated by the apos- 
tles. The Council of Trent declares that, according to Mark 6: 13, 
Christ suggested the sacrament, and that James, his brother, promul- 
gated and recommended it. The material which is to be used in extreme 
unction is olive oil consecrated by a bishop, and, according to a decision 
of Paul V, given in 1655, the oil is not effective unless so consecrated. 
Gregory XVI (1842) confirmed and further limited this decision by 
declaring that not even in case of extreme necessity could a priest con- 
secrate oil for the purpose. The form of the sacrament was settled only 
after many discussions. With the growing tendency to look upon 
anointing as sacramental, the form of prayer was changed from the 
precatory to the declarative, and this was confirmed by the Council of 
Florence. The specific purpose and effect of extreme unction is some- 
what indefinite. The Council of Trent declares that this sacrament 
completes not only penance, but the whole Christian life. Nevertheless, 
it does not occupy nearly the important position in the doctrinal system 
of the Roman Church taken by baptism, the mass, and penance; it is 
merely an annex to the latter sacrament, to which it gives the character 
of preparation for death. A specific effect has never been attributed 
to it officially. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Extreme Unction," p. 252. 

.Extreme Unction, Defined. — Extreme unction is a sacrament of 
the new law instituted by Christ to give spiritual aid and comfort and 
perfect spiritual health, including, if need be, the remission of sins, 
and also, conditionally, to restore bodily health to Christians who arp 
seriously ill; it consists essentially in the unction by a priest of the 
body of the sick person, accompanied by a suitable form of words. . . . 
The name " extreme unction " did not become technical in the West 
till toward the end of the twelfth century, and has never become cur- 
rent in the East. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, art. " Extreme 
Unction;' p. 716. 

Extreme Unction, Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that ex- 
treme unction is not truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by 
Christ our Lord, and promulgated by the blessed apostle James; but is 
only a rite received from the Fathers, or a human figment; let him 
be anathema. . . . 



FAITH 171 



Canon IV. If any one saith that the presbyters of the church, whom 
blessed James exhorts to be brought to anoint the sick, are not the 
priests who have been ordained by a bishop, but the elders in each 
community, and that for this cause a priest alone is not the proper 
minister of extreme unction; let him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons 
and Decrees," pp. 121, 122. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Ezra. — Page 555. 

Faith, Ultimate Object of. — The ultimate object of faith is always 
God, but Christian faith in God is faith which is determined by Christ, 
and which would not in any respect be what it is but for him. Hence 
in the most elementary Christian confession, faith in God must be so 
described as to bring out this specific character. It must be defined as 
faith in God through Christ. — "Jesus and the Gospel," James Denney, 
D. D., pp. 350, 351. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1909. 

Faith, Real Meaning of. — Men are asked to believe in Jesus. " To 
those that believe" is the promise of the gospel given. The writer does 
not say that the mystery of Jesus Christ is made manifest to the clever 
and the wise; he does not say that the secret of Jesus Christ is declared 
even to those who simply seek it, but he does say that it is made mani- 
fest to him who believes. That is the challenge which the person of 
Jesus Christ still throws out. It is " whosoever believeth." That with 
us has become almost a cant phrase. It is an easy kind of thing to 
say in a sermon or at a revival meeting, but there is a meaning behind 
it, and we need to get back to the original and true meaning of it. To 
believe in Jesus Christ is to do something more than think about him 
and to have an opinion concerning him. It means to bow before him 
in reverence; to take him at his word; to do his will; to begin walking 
in his way; to make the great surrender. . . . The man who so deals 
with Christ is the man who in the end finds out his secret and is able 
to say, " My Lord and my God." — "Aspects of Christ," W. B. Selbie, 
M. A., pp. 115, 116. New York: Hodder and Stoughton. 

Faith, Acceptance of Christ. — Belief in Jesus Christ is not the 
acceptance of intellectual propositions concerning Jesus Christ. Belief 
in Jesus Christ is the acceptance in actual fact and experience of Jesus 
Christ on his own terms. The man who really believes is the man who 
in his own heart says to Jesus Christ, " My Lord and Saviour," who 
acts upon that principle, who makes Christ his leader and his Lord, who 
lives in and unto him, who seeks his ends and pursues his will. That 
is the man who believes, and not the man who can say merely that he 
is very God of very God, that he is eternal, coeternal with the Father, 
that he is of the same substance with the Father. — Id., pp. 192, 193. 

Faith, Luther's Experience of. — 'Faith to Luther became, thus, 
not belief in the second person in the Trinity, nor belief in a creed of 
any description, but trusting in Christ, taking Christ at his word; and 
when faith becomes that for a man, he knows something of what both 
justification and salvation may mean. — Id., p. 216. 

Faith, More Reasonable than Doubt. — Those who refuse to believe 
without scientific demonstration show that they misunderstand the na- 
ture and purpose of faith. A forced belief could not bring men nearer 
to God. But we do not in the least degree escape from these difficulties, 
but rather multiply them, when we abandon faith. The difficulties of 



172 FAITH 



infidelity are greater than the difficulties of faith. It is more reason- 
able to believe than to doubt; but reason will never compel faith. — 
" Christ and the Comforter," Rev. F. 8. Webster, M. A., p. 31. London: 
Marshall Brothers, 1895. 

Faith, Reliance on the Promisee. — Noah, Abraham, Joseph, Moses 
— they all treated the hoped-for and the unseen as solid and certain 
because they all relied upon the faithful Promiser. Their victories 
were mysteriously great, their lives were related vitally to the Unseen. 
But the action to this end was on their part sublimely simple. It was 
reliance on the Promiser. It was taking God at his word. — H. C. G. 
Moule, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 114. Chicago: Testi- 
mony Publishing Company. 

Faith, Effects of Reliance upon God in Christ. — Faith is reli- 
ance. But then, when the reliance is directed upon an object infinitely 
great and good, when it reposes upon God in Christ, upon him in his 
promise, his fidelity, his love, upon his very self, what is not this reli- 
ance in its effects? It is the creature laying hold upon the Creator. 
It is our reception of God himself in his word. So, it is the putting 
ourselves in the way of his own almighty action in the fulfilment of 
his word, in the keeping of his promise. 

" The virtue of faith lies in the virtue of its Object." That Object, 
in this matter of justification, so the Scriptures assure us abundantly 
and with the utmost clearness, is our Lord Jesus Christ himself, who 
died for us and rose again. — Id., p. 115. 

Faith, Not Compelled. — There will still be difficulties, both in the 
Bible and in the deep things of God. For there must be an element 
of uncertainty in the exercise of true faith. If it had been in accord- 
ance with God's purpose, the truths of God might have been so brought 
home to men by vision and portent that every one should be compelled 
to believe. The Jews were always seeking for some unmistakable sign 
that should make unbelief impossible. Christ never gave it them. If 
unbelief were impossible, there would be no moral value in faith. — 
" Christ and the Comforter" Rev. F. 8. Webster, M. A., pp. 29, 30. 
London: Marshall Brothers, 1895. 

Faith, Essence of. — We are justified solely on account of what 
Christ is and has done; but the faith that accepts him, that sees in his 
death the atonement for human sin, and identifies itself with that death, 
is in its essence an act of self-committal to the living Christ, and a re- 
ception of his Spirit. — " The Christ of History and of Experience," 
David W. Forrest, D. D., p. 246. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Faith, thus seen to be reliance, is obviously a thing as different as 
possible from merit. No one in common life thinks of a well-placed 
reliance as meritorious. It is right, but not righteous. It does not make 
a man deserving of rescue when, being in imminent danger, he im- 
plicitly accepts the guidance of his rescuer. And the man who, dis- 
covering himself, in the old-fashioned way (the way as old as David 
before Nathan, Isaiah in the vision, the publican in the temple, the 
jailer at Philippi, Augustine at Milan), to be a guilty sinner, whose 
" mouth is shut " before God, relies upon Christ as his all for pardon 
and peace, certainly does not merit anything for closing with his own 
salvation. He deserves nothing by the act of accepting all. — H. C. G. 
Moule, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 116. Chicago: Testi- 
mony Publishing Company. 



FAITH 173 



Faith, A Surrender To Christ. — When Paul argues most strongly 
that the death of Christ is alone the ground of justification, he is just 
as emphatic in declaring that it is so for us, because we perform the 
personal act of accepting that death as God's righteous condemnation 
of our sin. In other words, we indorse and embrace the spirit of his 
sacrifice, and so of necessity we rise with him into newness of life. 
The entire course of our Christian experience is but an affirmation in 
an ever-deepening sense of the will and work of Christ; and the word 
which in some respects best describes the whole scope of his redeeming 
work as both objective and subjective, is not substitution, but represen- 
tation. No doubt even representation fails to bring out the real unity 
of Christ with us, whereby it is he who fulfils himself in us, and not 
simply we who, standing apart, " think his thoughts after him." But 
it at least sets forth the fact that the simplest faith that saves has in 
the heart of it a genuine surrender to Christ, without which he would 
not be in any true sense our personal representative before the Father. — 
" The Christ of History and of Experience," David W. Forrest, D. D., 
p. 248. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Faith, The One Condition of Salvation. — Christ restores us by re- 
quickening in us the lost power of faith. Faith is not a means of salva- 
tion to which we must resort because other means fail; it is the one 
condition, both for fallen and for unfallen man, of acceptance and life. 
Only, it operates differently in the two cases. In the sinless, faith is 
the medium of receiving God's righteousness; in the sinful, it "is 
counted for righteousness." He who, on account of his sin, cannot ren- 
der to God the full obedience of faith, is by his faith identified with 
Christ, who is the righteousness of God for sinful men, and he receives 
through this identification the increasing power of sonship. The eternal 
Son is the one mediator of the divine life to the human spirit, whether 
fallen or unfallen. But for the former his mediation only avails when 
it is realized under a form which removes from the spirit its burden of 
guilt, and contains the guaranty of its ultimate victory over indwelling 
sin, and its perfect union with God in filial fellowship. Thus it is that 
the same lines which God laid down for man's life in his creation are 
maintained in his redemption. — Id., pp. 265, 266. 

Faith Surrenders and Receives. — Faith is no formal belief, but 
the profound surrender of the soul to Christ whereby it receives his 
Spirit.— Id., p. 281. 

Faith, Historical and Spiritual. — What, then, is a true faith in 
Christ? It is not simply an intellectual assent to propositions regard- 
ing his person and work, but a receptive attitude of heart and mind 
to Christ himself, a dying to self and a laying hold of the life he brings. 
It involves, indeed, as has been already shown, an intellectual assent 
to certain facts and truths. The historical is embedded in the heart of 
the spiritual, and is at once its inspiration and guaranty. That is 
Christian faith in its complete form. But this conscious historical 
element is fundamentally a means for the production of the spiritual, 
which is the longing for the fellowship and likeness of Christ. — Id., 
p. 853. 

Faith, Two Senses of. — The history of the English word is rather 
interesting than, important; use and contexts, alike for it and its He- 
brew and Greek parallels, are the surest guides to meaning. But we 
may note that it occurs in the form of " feyth," in " Havelock the Dane " 
(thirteenth century); that it is akin to fides, and this again to the 



174 FAITH 



Sanskrit root bhidh, " to unite," " to bind." It is worth while to recall 
this primeval suggestion of the spiritual work of faith as that which, 
on man's side, unites him to God for salvation. 

Studying the word " faith " in the light of use and contexts, we find 
a bifurcation of significance in the Bible. We may distinguish the two 
senses as the passive and the active; on the one side, " fidelity," " trust- 
worthiness; " and "faith," "trust," on the other. In Galatians 5: 22, 
e. g., context makes it clear that " fidelity " is in view, as a quality 
congruous with the associated graces. (R. V. accordingly renders pistis 
there by "faithfulness.") Again, Rom. 3: 3, A. V., "the faith of God;' 
by the nature of the case, means his fidelity to promise. But in the 
overwhelming majority of cases, " faith," as rendering pistis, means 
" reliance," " trust." . . . 

It is important to notice that Hebrews 11: 1 is no exception to the 
rule that " faith " normally means " reliance," " trust." There " faith 
is the substance [or possibly, in the light of recent inquiries into the 
type of Greek used by New Testament writers, " the guaranty "] of 
things hoped for, the evidence [or "convincing proof"] of things not 
seen." This is sometimes interpreted as if faith, in the writer's view, 
were, so to speak, a faculty of second sight, a mysterious intuition into 
the spiritual world. But the chapter amply shows that the faith il- 
lustrated, e. g., by Abraham, Moses, Rahab, was simply reliance upon 
a God known to be trustworthy. Such reliance enabled the believer 
to treat the future as present and the invisible as seen. In short, 
the phrase here, " Faith is the evidence," etc., is parallel in form to our 
familiar saying, " Knowledge is power." . . , 

We call the reader's attention, for his Scriptural studies, to the 
central place of faith in Christianity, and its significance. As being, 
in its true idea, a reliance as simple as possible upon the word, power, 
love, of Another, it is precisely that which, on man's side, adjusts him to 
the living and merciful presence and action of a trusted God. In its 
nature, not by any mere arbitrary arrangement, it is his one possible 
receptive attitude, that in which he brings nothing, so that he may 
receive all. Thus " faith " is our side of union with Christ. And 
thus it is our means of possessing all his benefits, pardon, justification, 
purification, life, peace, glory. — The International Standard Bible En- 
cyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Faith," pp. 
1087, 1088. 

Faith, Not a New Thing. — Faith was no new thing; all the heroes 
and the saints under the old covenant had been made heroic and saintly 
by faith, and not by the sensuous worship. Faith, which has always and 
everywhere been the principle creative of obedience, is as old as man, 
and those who have lived by it form a society at once earthly and 
heavenly, of all ages and all places, which has been united in Christ, 
those before as those after his coming being made perfect by him. — 
"The Place of Christ in Modern Theology," A. M. Fairbairn, M* A., 
D. D., p. 327. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 

Faith, The Germ of Practice. — When St. Paul speaks of justifying 
faith, he means an act of the soul, simple indeed at the moment and in 
the process of its living action, but complex in its real nature, and pro- 
found and far-reaching in its moral effect. The eye of the soul is opened 
upon the Redeemer: it believes. But in this act of living belief, not the 
intellect alone, but in reality, although imperceptibly, the whole soul, 
with all its powers of love and resolution, goes forth to meet its Saviour. 
This is St. Paul's meaning when he insists upon justifying faith as 
being ttI<ttis $i dydirrjs ivepyov/j.{vr) [pistis dV agapes energoumene, faith 
which works through love]. 



FALLING STARS 175 



Faith, according to St. Paul, when once it lives in the soul, is all 
Christian practice in the germ. The living apprehension of the Cruci- 
fied One, whereby the soul attains light and liberty, may be separable 
in idea, but in fact it is inseparable from a Christian life. If the ap- 
prehension of revealed truth does not carry within itself the secret will 
to yield the whole being to God's quickening grace and guidance, it is 
spiritually worthless, according to St. Paul. St. Paul goes so far as to 
tell the Corinthians that even a faith which was gifted with the power 
of performing stupendous miracles, if it had not charity, would profit 
nothing. Thus between St. Paul and St. James there is no real oppo- 
sition. When St. James speaks of a faith that cannot justify, he means 
a barren intellectual consent to certain religious truths, a philosophizing 
temper, cold, thin, heartless, soulless, morally impotent, divorced from 
the spirit as from the fruits of charity. When St. Paul proclaims that 
we are justified by faith in Jesus Christ, he means a faith which only 
realizes its life by love, and which, if it did not love, would cease to live. 
When St. James contends that " by works a man is justified, and not by 
faith only," he implies that faith is the animating motive which gives 
to works their justifying power, or rather that works only justify as 
being the expression of a living faith. When St. Paul argues that a man 
is justified neither by the works of the Jewish law nor by the works of 
natural morality, his argument shows that by a " work " he means a 
mere material result or product, a soulless act, unenlivened by the 
presence of that one supernatural motive which, springing from the 
grace of Christ, can be indeed acceptable to a perfectly holy God. — 
" The Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ" Henri/ Parry 
Liddon, M. A. (Bampton Lectures for 1866), pp, 284, 285. London: 
Rivingtons, 1868. 

Faith and Action. — Faith is not the antithesis of thought, but 
only of sight. Faith is an act of the will relating you to new realities, 
new objects. Act as if the invisible Christ were present and accessible, 
and you will not be met by vacancy. He will respond and make mani- 
fest his response to you. — " Why Is Christianity True? " E. Y. Mullins, 
D. D., LL. D., p. 272. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication So* 
ciety, copyright 1905. 

Faith.— Pages 75, 301, 429. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Professor Olmsted's Description. — The morn- 
ing of November 13, 1833, was rendered memorable by an exhibi- 
tion of the phenomenon called shooting stars, which was probably more 
extensive and magnificent than any similar one hitherto recorded. 
. . . Probably no celestial phenomenon has ever occurred in this coun- 
try, since its first settlement, which was viewed with so much ad- 
miration and delight by one class of spectators, or with so much 
astonishment and fear by another class. For some time after the 
occurrence, the " meteoric phenomenon " was the principal topic of 
conversation in every circle. — Denison Olmsted, Professor of Mathe- 
matics and Natural Philosophy in Yale College, in the American Journal 
of Science and Arts, Vol. XXV (1834), pp. 363, 364. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Most Remarkable on Record. — The most 
remarkable one ever observed. — "Astronomy for Everybody,'' Simon 
Newcomb, LL. D. t p. 280. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Estimate of Numbers. — The Boston observer, 
Olmsted, compared them, at the moment of maximum, to half the 



176 FALLING STARS 

number of flakes which we perceive in the air during an ordinary 
shower of snow. — " Popular Astronomy,'" Flammarion and Gore, p. 536. 

Falling Stars, 1833, As Seen in Missouri. — Though there was 
no moon, when we first beheld them, their brilliancy was so great 
that we could, at times, read common-sized print without much diffi- 
culty, and the light which they afforded was much whiter than that of 
the moon, in the clearest and coldest night, when the ground is cov- 
ered with snow. The air itself, the face of the earth, as far as we 
could behold it, — all the surrounding objects, and the very countenances 
of men, wore the aspect and hue of death, occasioned by the continued, 
pallid glare of these countless meteors, which in all their grandeur 
flamed " lawless through the sky." There was a grand, peculiar, and 
indescribable gloom on all around, an awe-inspiring sublimity on all 
above; while 

" the sanguine flood 
Rolled a broad slaughter o'er the plains of heaven, 
And Nature's self did seem to totter on the brink of time! " 

. . . There was scarcely a space in the firmament which was not 
filled at every instant with these falling stars, nor on it, could you 
in general perceive any particular difference in appearance; still at 
times they would shower down in groups — calling to mind the " fig tree 
casting her untimely figs when shaken by a mighty wind." — Letter 
from Bowling Green, Missouri, to Professor Silliman, in the American 
Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. XXV (1834), p. 382. 

Falling Stars, 1833, London Scientist on Prophetic Picture. — 
In many districts, the mass of the population were terror-struck, and 
the more enlightened were awed at contemplating so vivid a picture of 
the Apocalyptic image — that of the stars of heaven falling to the 
earth, even as a fig tree casting her untimely figs, when she is shaken 
of a mighty wind. — " Tine Gallery of Nature" Rev. Thomas Milner, 
F. R. G. S., p. 140. London, 1852. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Attention of World's Astronomers At- 
tracted by. — The attention of astronomers in Europe, and all over the 
world, was, as may be imagined, strongly roused by intelligence of this 
celestial display on the Western continent. — Id., p. 141. 

Falling Stars, 1833, A Tempest of Stars. — On the night of 
November 12-13, 1833, a tempest of falling stars broke over the earth. 
North America bore the brunt of its pelting. From the Gulf of Mexico 
to Halifax, until daylight with some difficulty put an end to the dis- 
play, the sky was scored in every direction with shining tracks and 
illuminated with majestic fireballs. — " History of Astronomy in the 
Nineteenth Century," Agnes M. Gierke, p. 328. London, 1902. 

Falling Stars, Shower of 1833 Awakens Interest in the Study of 
Meteors. — Once for all, then, as the result of the star fall of 1833, the 
study of luminous meteors became an integral part of astronomy. — Id., 
p. 329. 

Falling Stars, 1833, " Fell Like Flakes, of Snow." — In the 
words of most, they fell like flakes of snow. — Dr. Humphreys, President 
St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, in American Journal of Science, 
Vol. XXV (1834), p. 372. 

Falling Stars, 1833, The Peophetic Description Fulfilled. — And 
how did they fall? Neither myself nor one of the family heard 



FALLING STARS 177 

any report; and were I to hunt through nature for a simile, I could 
not find one ( so apt to illustrate the appearance of the heavens as that 
which St. John uses in the prophecy, before quoted. " It rained fire! " 
says one. Another, " It was like a shower of fire." Another, " It was 
like the large flakes of falling snow before a coming storm, or large 
drops of rain before a shower." 

I admit the fitness of these for common accuracy; but they come 
far short of the accuracy of the figure used by the prophet. " The 
stars of heaven fell unto the earth; " they were not sheets, or flakes, 
or drops of fire; but they were what the world understands by the 
name of "falling stars; " and one speaking to his fellow in the midst 
of the scene would say, " See how the stars fall ; " and he who heard, 
would not pause to correct the astronomy of the speaker, any more than 
he would reply, " The sun does not move," to one who should tell him, 
" The sun is rising." 

The stars fell " even as a fig tree casteth her untimely figs, when 
she is shaken of a mighty wind." Here is the exactness of the prophet. 
The falling stars did not come as if from several trees shaken, but 
from one. Those which appeared in the east fell toward the east; 
those which appeared in the north fell toward the north; those which 
appeared in the west fell toward the west; and those which appeared 
in the south (for I went out of my residence into the park) fell toward 
the south; and they fell, not as the ripe fruit falls; far from it; but 
they flew, they were cast, like the unripe fig, which at first refuses to 
leave the branch; and when it does break its hold, flies swiftly, 
straight off, descending; and in the multitude falling, some cross the 
track of others, as they are thrown with more or less force. 

Such was the appearance of the above phenomenon to the inmates 
of my house. I walked into the park with two gentlemen of Pearl 
Street, feeling and confessing that this scene had never been figured 
to our minds by any book or mortal, save only by the prophet. — A cor- 
respondent in the New York Journal of Commerce, Vol. VIII, No. 534. 
Saturday Morning, Nov. 14, 



Falling Stars, 1833, Like a Shower of Fire. — In any direction, 
the scene could not be compared more aptly to anything than a distant 
shower of fire, whose particles were falling sparsely to the earth. 
Frequently one larger and more luminous than the rest would shoot 
across the heavens, producing a flash like vivid lightning. Toward 
the approach of daylight the sky began to be obscured with clouds, 
and these substances appeared less frequent, but did not disappear till 
long after the light of the morning had arisen, and were seen as long 
as stars were visible. — New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette 
(semiweekly), Vol. I, No. 104; Concord, Saturday, Nov. 16, 1833 
(State Library.) 

Falling Stars, The Sign Anticipated in 1697. — The last sign we 
shall take notice of, is that of " falling stars." "And the stars shall fall 
from heaven," says our Saviour. Matt. 24: 29. We are sure, from the 
nature of the thing, that this cannot be understood either of fixed 
stars or planets; for if either of these should tumble from the skies 
and reach the earth, they would break it all in pieces, or swallow 
it up, as the sea does a sinking ship; and at the same time would put 
all the inferior universe into confusion. It is necessary, therefore, 
by these stars, to understand either fiery meteors falling from the 
middle region of the air, or comets and blazing stars. No doubt there 
will be all sorts of fiery meteors at that time; and amongst others, 
those which are called falling stars; which, though they are not con r 
12 



178 FALLING STARS 

siderable singly, yet if they were multiplied in great numbers, fall- 
ing, as the prophet says, as leaves from the vine, or leaves from the 
fig tree, they would make on astonishing sight. — " Sacred Theory of the 
Earth" Dr. Thomas Burnet, book 3, p. 66, 3d edition, 1697. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Seen as Sign of the Second Advent. — I wit- 
nessed this gorgeous spectacle, and was awe-struck. The air seemed 
filled with bright descending messengers from the sky. It was about 
daybreak when I saw this sublime scene. It was not without the sug- 
gestion at that moment that it might be the harbinger of the coming 
of the Son of man; and in my state of mind I was prepared to hail 
him as my friend and deliverer. I had read that the " stars shall fall 
from heaven," and they were now falling. I was suffering much in 
my mind. ... I was beginning to look away to heaven for the rest 
denied me on earth. — " My Bondage and My Freedom" Frederick A. 
Douglass, p. 186. New York: Orton and Milligan, 1855. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Regarded as Forerunner of the Last Day. — 
We pronounce the raining fire which we saw on Wednesday morning 
last an awful type, a sure forerunner, a merciful sign, of that great 
and dreadful day which the inhabitants of the earth will witness when 
the sixth seal shall be opened. 

That time is just at hand described not only in the New Testa- 
ment but in the Old; and a more correct picture of a fig tree casting 
its leaves when blown by a mighty wind, it was not possible to behold. 

Many things now occurring upon the earth tend to convince us 
that we are in the " latter days." This exhibition we deem to be a 
type of an awful day fast hurrying upon us. This is our sincere opin- 
ion; and what we think, we are not ashamed to tell. — " The Old Coun- 
tryman" New York, printed in the New York Star and quoted in the 
Portland Evening Advertiser, Nov. 26, 1833. (Portland Public Library.) 

Falling Stars, 1833, Regarded as Sign of End by Many. — Scien- 
tific study of the orbits of shooting stars began after the occurrence 
of the most brilliant meteoric shower on record, — that of November 
13, 1833. This spectacle, which excited the greatest interest among all 
beholders, and was looked upon with consternation by the ignorant, 
many of whom thought that the end of the world had come, was wit- 
nessed generally throughout North America, which happened to be the 
part of the earth facing the meteoric storm. Hundreds of thousands 
of shooting stars fell in the course of two or three hours. Some ob- 
servers compared their number to the flakes of a snowstorm, or to the 
raindrops in a shower. — The Encyclopedia Americana, art. "Meteors 
or Shooting Stars." 

Falling Stars, 1833, Inspired Reflections on the Creator's Care. — 
Had they held on their course unabated for three seconds longer, 
half a continent must, to all appearance, have been involved in un- 
heard-of calamity. But that almighty Being who made the world, 
and knew its dangers, gave it also its armature, endowing the atmos- 
pheric medium around it with protecting, no less than with life-sustain- 
ing properties. . . . 

Considered as one of the rare and wonderful displays of the Crea- 
tor's preserving care, as well as the terrible magnitude and power of 
his agencies, it is not meet that such occurrences as those of Novem- 
ber 13 should leave no more solid and permanent effect upon the hu- 
man mind than the impression of a splendid scene. — Prof. Alexander 
C. Twining, Civil Engineer, Late Tutor in Yale College, in American 
Journal of Science, Vol. XXVI (1834), p. 351. 



FALLING STARS 179 



Falling Stars, The Display of 1833 Incomparably the Greatest. — 
Probably the most remarkable of all the meteoric showers that have 
ever occurred was that of the Leonids, on the [night following] Novem- 
ber 12, 1833. The number at some stations was estimated as high as 
200,000 an hour for five or six hours. " The sky was as full of them as 
it ever is of snowflakes in a storm," and, as an old lady described it, 
looked " like a gigantic umbrella." [page 469] . . . 

In 1864 Professor Newton of New Haven showed by an examina- 
tion of the old records that there had been a number of great meteoric 
showers in November, at intervals of thirty-three or thirty-four years, 
and he predicted confidently a repetition of the shower on November 
13 or 14, 1866. The shower occurred as predicted, and was observed 
in Europe; and it was followed by another in 1867, which was visible 
in America, the meteoric swarm being extended in so long a procession 
as to require more than two years to cross the earth's orbit. Neither 
of these showers, however, was equal to the shower of 1833. The re- 
searches of Newton, supplemented by those of Adams, the discoverer 
of Neptune, showed that the swarm moves in a long ellipse with a 
thirty-three-year period. 

A return of the shower was expected in 1899 or 1900, but failed 
to appear, though on November 14-15, 1898, a considerable number of 
meteors were seen, and in the early morning of November 14-15, 1901, 
a well-marked shower occurred, visible over the whole extent of the 
United States, but best seen west of the Mississippi, and especially on 
the Pacific Coast. At a number of stations several hundred Leonids 
were observed by eye or by photography, and the total number that 
fell must be estimated by tens of thousands. The display, however, 
seems to have nowhere rivaled the showers of 1866-67, and these were 
not to be compared with that of 1833. — " Manual of Astronomy," Charles 
A. Young, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Astronomy in Princeton Uni- 
versity, pp, 469, 471, 472. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1902. 

Falling Stars, 1833, Observed in Nova Scotia. — The meteoric 
phenomenon witnessed in this country on the 13th instant, was also 
seen at Halifax the same morning. Many persons rose from their beds 
supposing there was a fire near their dwellings. — Portland Evening Ad- 
vertiser, Nov. 27, 1833. (Portland Public Library.) 

Falling Stars, 1833, Seen in United States, Mexico, and West 
Indies. — The year 1833 is memorable for the most magnificent display 
[of falling meteors] on record. This was on the same night of Novem- 
ber [13] also, and was visible over all the United States, and over a 
part of Mexico, and the West India Islands. Together with the smaller 
shooting stars, which fell like snowflakes and produced phosphorescent 
lines along their course, there were intermingled large fireballs, which 
darted forth at intervals, describing in a few seconds an arc of 30 
or 40 degrees. 

These left behind luminous trains, which remained in view sev- 
eral minutes, and sometimes half an hour or more. One of them seen 
in North Carolina appeared of larger size and greater brilliancy than 
the moon. Some of the luminous bodies were of irregular form, and 
remained stationary for a considerable time, emitting streams of light. 

At Niagara the exhibition was especially brilliant, and probably 
no spectacle so terribly grand and sublime was ever before beheld by 
man as that of the firmament descending in fiery torrents over the 
dark and roaring cataract. — The American Cyclopedia, art. " Meteors." 
New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1881. 



180 FALLING STARS 

Falling Stars, 1866, in England. — In the night between Tues- 
day and yesterday, they who chose to watch and were not discouraged 
by the doubts of astronomers, were rewarded with a spectacle which 
cannot be imagined or forgotten. First one meteor then another shot 
across the sky. Then they appeared faster than he (the spectator) 
could count them. Some struck the sight like sparks from a forge 
everywhere at once, some to fall over trees and houses, bright to the 
last, but with the ruddy hues of the lower atmosphere. Look where 
we would, it was the same. The heavens seemed alive with this un- 
wonted host. 

There were times when it seemed as if a mighty wind had caught 
the old stars, loosed them from their holdings, and swept them across 
the firmament. The Olympian [Jove] himself might have been sup- 
posed on his throne launching his bolts against an offending or for- 
getful world. . . . All this may account for the little thought given to 
what is really a most startling and most awful phenomenon. . . . But 
science, which dispels so many terrors and proves so many appear- 
ances, illusions, and nothing more, does not do so in this instance.— 
London Times, Nov. 15 [Thursday}, 1866. 

Falling Stars, 1866, in North England. — As it seems to us 
people have been a good deal taken by surprise. The apparition has 
been far out of the common range of ideas. ... It is little more than 
a century since the principles of modern astronomical science were 
brought to bear on this subject. All this may naturally account for 
the little expectation or little thought given to what is really a most 
startling and most awful phenomenon. There will, however, be no 
more of this ignorance or indifference, for nobody who saw well what 
was to be seen the other night will forget this impression should he 
live to the next return. — Manchester (England) Guardian, Nov. 15, 1866. 

Falling Stars, The 1866 Display Slight in Comparison with 1833. 
— I shall never forget that night. On the memorable evening I was 
engaged in my usual duty at that time of observing nebulae with Lord 
Rosse's great reflecting telescope. I was of course aware that a shower 
of meteors had been predicted, but nothing that I had heard prepared 
me for the splendid spectacle so soon to be unfolded. It was about 
ten o'clock at night when an exclamation from an attendant by my side 
made me look up from the telescope just in time to see a fine meteor 
dash across the sky. It was presently followed by another, and then 
again by more in twos and in threes, which showed that the prediction 
of a great shower was likely to be verified. At this time the Earl of 
Rosse (then Lord Oxmantown) joined me at the telescope. There for 
the next two or three hours we witnessed a spectacle which can never 
fade from my memory. The shooting stars gradually increased in 
number until sometimes several were seen at once. ... It would be 
impossible to say how many thousands of meteors were seen, each one 
of which was bright enough to have elicited a note of admiration on 
any ordinary night. — " Story of the Heavens," Sir Robert Ball, pp. 
379, 380. London, 1900. 

Falling Stars, The 1866 Display in Syria. — On the morning of the 
fourteenth [November, 1866, at Beirut, Syria], at three o'clock, I was 
roused from a deep sleep by the voice of one of the young men calling, 
" The stars are all coming down." . . . The meteors poured down like a 
rain of fire. Many of them were large and varicolored, and left behind 
them a long train of fire. One immense green meteor came down over 
Lebanon, seeming as large as the moon, and exploded with a large noise, 



FATHERS 181 



leaving a green pillar of light in its train. It was vain to attempt to 
count them, and the display continued until dawn, when their light 
was obscured by the king of day. . . . The Mohammedans gave the 
call to prayer from the minarets, and the common people were in ter- 
ror. — "Fifty-three Years in Syria," H. H. Jessup, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 
316, 317. 

Falling Stars, Predictions of, fob 1899, Failed. — The great No- 
vember shower, which is coming once more in this century, and which 
every reader may hope to see toward 1899, is of particular interest to 
us as the first whose movements were subject to analysis. — "New As- 
tronomy " (1888), Prof. S. P. Langley, p. 196. 

The meteors of November 13 may be expected to reappear with 
great brilliancy in 1899. — '* Chambers' Astronomy " (1889), Vol. I, p. 635. 

We can no longer count upon the Leonids [as the meteorites of 1833 
were called, because they seemed to fall from a point in the constel- 
lation of Leo], Their glory, for scenic purposes, is departed. — "His- 
tory of Astronomy in the Nineteenth Century," Agnes M. Gierke, p. 
338. London, 1902. 

Note. — Although there were star showers of some note in 1866 and later, 
yet the shower of 1833 stands out distinctly" as the shower of the prophecy. — 
Eds. 

False Christs. — Page 270. 

Fathers, Application of the Term.— The Fathers. — This term has 
been applied variously, both in classical and Christian times (see Diet. 
of Christian Ant. I. 665). It is here considered with reference to* those 
primeval writers of the Christian church whose remains constitute 
what is called Patristic literature — a literature commencing with the 
first but ending practically with the seventh century, there having been 
few representatives of it acknowledged in the West and East alike sub- 
sequently to the sixth council, a. d. 680, when the last of the great 
heresies relating to the incarnation — viz., Monothelism — was con- 
demned. And, in truth, when we come to inquire when and where the 
application of the term in this sense commenced, we shall find that what- 
ever instances might be cited of its earlier application, it dates as a 
phrase from the time when the bishops who met in ecumenical synod at 
Nicea for the first time began to be so designated by their supporters 
and admirers in the struggle that ensued. — "A Dictionary of Christian 
Biography," Smith and Wace, Vol. II, art. " Fathers, The" p. 455. Lon- 
don: John Murray, 1880. 

Fathers, An Estimate of. — The preceding account of the Fathers 
of the second and third centuries may enable us to form some idea of 
the value of these writers as ecclesiastical authorities. Most of them 
had reached maturity before they embraced the faith of the gospel, so 
that, with a few exceptions, they wanted the advantages of an early 
Christian education. Some of them, before their conversion, had be- 
stowed much time and attention on the barren speculations of the 
pagan philosophers; and, after their reception into the bosom of the 
church, they still continued to pursue the same unprofitable studies. 
Cyprian, one of the most eloquent of these Fathers, had been baptized 
only about two years before he was elected bishop of Carthage; and, 
during his comparatively short episcopate^ he was generally in a tur- 
moil of excitement, and had, consequently, little leisure for reading or 



FATHERS 



mental cultivation. Such a writer is not entitled to command confi- 
dence as an expositor of the faith once delivered to the saints. Even 
in our own day, with all the facilities supplied by printing for the rapid 
accumulation of knowledge, no one would expect much spiritual instruc- 
tion from an author who would undertake the office of an interpreter 
of Scripture two years after his conversion from heathenism. The 
Fathers of the second and third centuries were not regarded as safe 
guides even by their Christian contemporaries. . . . Tertullian, who, in 
point of learning, vigor, and genius, stands at the head of the Latin 
writers of this period, was connected with a party of gloomy fanatics. 
Origen, the most voluminous and erudite of the Greek Fathers, was 
excommunicated as a heretic. If we estimate these authors as they 
were appreciated by the early Church of Rome, we must pronounce 
their writings of little value. Tertullian, as a Montanist, was under 
the ban of the Roman Bishop. Hippolytus could not have been a favor- 
ite with either Zephyrinus or Callistus, for he denounced both as here- 
tics. Origen was treated by the Roman Church as a man under sen- 
tence of excommunication. Stephen deemed even Cyprian unworthy of 
his ecclesiastical fellowship, because the Carthaginian prelate main- 
tained the propriety of rebaptizing heretics. 

Nothing can be more unsatisfactory, or rather childish, than the 
explanations of Holy Writ sometimes given by these ancient expositors. 
According to Tertullian, the two sparrows mentioned in the New Tes- 
tament signify the soul and the body; and Clemens Alexandrinus 
gravely pleads for marriage from the promise, " Where two or three 
are gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them." 
Cyprian produces, as an argument in support of the doctrine of the 
Trinity, that the Jews observed "the third, sixth, and ninth hours" 
as their " fixed and lawful seasons for prayer." Origen represents the 
heavenly bodies as literally engaged in acts of devotion. If these 
authorities are to be credited, the Gihon, one of the rivers of Paradise, 
was no other than the Nile. Very few of the Fathers of this period 
were acquainted with Hebrew, so that, as a class, they were miserably 
qualified for the interpretation of the Scriptures. Even Origen himself 
must have had a very imperfect} knowledge of the language of the Old 
Testament. In consequence of their literary deficiencies, the Fathers 
of the second and third centuries occasionally commit the most ridicu- 
lous blunders. Thus, Irenaeus tells us that the name " Jesus " in He- 
brew consists of two letters and a half, and describes it as signifying 
" that Lord who contains heaven and earth " ! This Father asserts also 
that the Hebrew word Adonai, or the Lord, denotes " utterable and 
wonderful." Clemens Alexandrinus is not more successful as an inter- 
preter of the sacred tongue of the chosen people; for he asserts that 
Jacob was called Israel " because he had seen the Lord God," and he 
avers that Abraham means " the elect father of a sound "! — " The An- 
cient Church" William D. Killen, D. D., period 2, sec. 2, chap. 1, pars. 
33, 34. London: James Nisoet & Co., 1883. 

Fathers, Bad Masters in Morals. — To us it appears that their 
writings contain many things excellent, well considered, and well calcu- 
lated to enkindle pious emotions; but also many things unduly rigorous, 
and derived from the stoic and academic philosophy; many things vague 
and indeterminate; and many things positively false, and inconsistent 
with the precepts of Christ. If one deserves the title of a bad master 
in morals, who has no just ideas of the proper boundaries and limita- 
tions of Christian duties, nor clear and distinct conceptions of the dif- 
ferent virtues and vices, nor a perception of those general principles 
to which recurrence should be had in all discussions respecting Chris- 



FATHERS 183 

tian virtue, and therefore very often talks at random, and blunders in 
expounding the divine laws; though he may say many excellent things, 
an <J excite in us considerable emotion; then I can readily admit that 
in strict truth this title belongs to many of the Fathers. — " Institutes of 
Ecclesiastical History" Mosheim, book 1, cent. 2, part 2, chap. 3, sec. 10 
(Vol. I, p. 165). London: Longman & Co., 1841. 

Fathers, Unreliability of. — There are but few of them [the Fath- 
ers] whose pages are not rife with errors, — errors of method, errors ol 
fact, errors of history, of grammar, and even of doctrine. This is the 
language of simple truth, not of slighting disparagement. — " The His- 
tory of Interpretation" Archdeacon F. W. Farrar, D. D., pp. 162, 163 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1886. 

Without deep learning, without linguistic knowledge, without liter- 
ary culture, without any final principles either as to the nature of the 
Sacred Writings or the method by which they should be interpreted, — 
surrounded by paganism, Judaism, and heresy of every description, and 
wholly dependent on a faulty translation, — the earliest Fathers and 
apologists add little or nothing to our understanding of Scripture. . . . 
Their acquaintance with the Old Testament is incorrect, popular, and 
full of mistakes; their Scriptural arguments are often baseless; their 
exegesis — novel in application only — is a chaos of elements uncon- 
sciously borrowed on the one hand from Philo, and on the other from 
rabbis and kabbalists. They claim " a grace " of exposition which is 
not justified by the results they offer, and they suppose themselves to 
be in possession of a Christian gnosis, of which the specimens offered 
are for the most part entirely untenable. — Id., pp. 164, 165. 

Fathers, Writings of, Unworthy of Confidence. — The writings of 
the so-called apostolic fathers have unhappily, for the most part, come 
down to us in a condition very little worthy of confidence, partly be- 
cause under the name of these men, so highly venerated in the church, 
writings were early forged for the purpose of giving authority to par- 
ticular opinions or principles; and partly because their own writings 
which were extant, became interpolated in subservience to a Jewish 
hierarchical interest, which aimed to crush the free spirit of the gospel. 
— " General History of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augus- 
tus Neander, translated by Joseph Torrey, Vol. I, Appendix, sec. 4, 
"Notices of the More Eminent Church Teachers," p. 657. Boston: 
Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

Fathers, Writings of, Interpolated and Forged. — The resources of 
medieval learning were too slender to preserve an authentic record of 
the growth and settlement of Catholic doctrine. Many writings of the 
Fathers were interpolated; others were unknown, and spurious matter 
was accepted in their place. Books bearing venerable names — Clement, 
Dionysius, Isidore — were forged for the purpose of supplying authori- 
ties for opinions that lacked the sanction of antiquity. — " The History 
of Freedom," John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (R. C), p. 513. 
London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Fathers, Adam Clarke on. — But of these [the Fathers] we may 
safely state, that there is not a truth in the most orthodox creed that 
cannot be proved by their authority, nor a heresy that has disgraced 
the Romish Church that may not challenge them as its abettors. In 
points of doctrine, their authority is, with me, nothing. The Word 
of God alone contains my creed. On a number of points I can go to 
the Greek and Latin Fathers of the church to know what they believed, 
and what the people of their respective communions believed; but after 



184 FEAST OF TABERNACLES 

all this I must return to God's Word to know what he would have me 
to believe. — "A Commentary and Critical 'Notes''' Adam Clarke, LL. D., 
on Proverbs 8. New York: Lane and Scott, 1850. 

Fathers, Early Christian. — Pages 66, 67, 75, 605. 

Feast of Tabernacles, Ceremonies of. — The Feast of Taberna- 
cles . . . was instituted to commemorate the dwelling of the Israelites 
in tents while they wandered in the desert. Lev. 23: 34, 43. Hence it 
is called by St. John the " feast of tents" ( aKrjvoirriyla [skenopegia]. 
John 7: 2). It is likewise termed the "feast of ingatherings." Ex. 
23: 16; 34: 22. Further, the design of this feast was to return thanks 
to God for the fruits of the vine, as well as of other trees, which were 
gathered about this time, and also to implore his blessing upon those 
of the ensuing year. The following were the principal ceremonies ob- 
served in the celebration of this feast: 

1. During the whole of this solemnity they were obliged to dwell in 
tents, which anciently were pitched on the fiat terrace-like roofs of their 
houses. Neh. 8: 16. 

2. Besides the ordinary daily sacrifices, there were several extraor- 
dinary ones offered on this occasion, which are detailed in Numbers 29. 

3. During the continuance of this feast, they carried in their hands 
branches of palm trees, olives, citrons, myrtles, and willows (Lev. 23: 
40; Neh. 8:15; 2 Mace. 10:7); singing, " Hosanna, save, I beseech 
Thee " (Ps. 118: 25), in which words they prayed for the coming of the 
Messiah. These branches also bore the name of Hosanna, as well as all 
the days of the feast. In the same manner was Jesus Christ conducted 
into Jerusalem by the believing Jews, who, considering him to be the 
promised Messiah, expressed their boundless joy at finding in him the 
accomplishment of those petitions which they had so often offered to 
God for his coming, at the Feast of Tabernacles. Matt. 21: 8, 9. Dur- 
ing its continuance, they walked in procession round the altar with the 
above-mentioned branches in their hands, amid the sound of trumpets, 
singing Hosanna; and on the last or seventh day of the feast, they com- 
passed the altar seven times. This was called the Great Hosanna. To 
this last ceremony St. John probably alludes in Revelation 7 : 9, 10, where 
he describes the saints as standing before the throne, " clothed with 
white robes, and palms in their hands; and saying, Salvation to our 
God which sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb." 

4. One of the most remarkable ceremonies performed at this feast 
in the later period of the Jewish polity, was the libation or pouring out 
of water, drawn from the fountain or pool of Siloam, upon the altar. 
As, according to the Jews themselves, this water was an emblem of the 
Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ applied the ceremony and the intention of it 
to himself, when he " cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him come 
unto me and drink." John 7: 37, 39. 

On the last day, that great day of the feast (John 7: 37), the Jews 
fetched water from that fountain in a golden pitcher, which they brought 
through the water-gate into the temple, with great rejoicing. The 
officiating priest poured it, mixed with wine, upon the morning sacri- 
fice as it lay on the altar. The Jews seem to have adopted this custom 
(for it is not ordained in the law of Moses) as an emblem of future 
blessings, in allusion to this passage of Isaiah (12: 3), "With joy shall 
ye draw water out of the wells of salvation," — expressions that can 
hardly be understood of any benefits afforded by the Mosaic dispensation. 
Water was offered to God this day, partly in reference to the water 
which flowed from the rock in the wilderness (1 Cor. 10: 4), but chiefly 



FEAST OF TABERNACLES 185 

to solicit the blessing of rain on the approaching seedtime. — "in Intro- 
duction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures ," 
Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D., Vol. Ill, pp. 315, 316. London: T. Cadell, 
1839. 

Feast of Tabernacles, A Holy Feast of Joy. — The most jdyous of 
all festive seasons in Israel was that of the Feast of Tabernacles. It 
fell on a time of year when the hearts of the people would naturally be 
full of thankfulness, gladness, and expectancy. All the crops had been 
long stored; and now all fruits were also gathered, the vintage past, 
and the land only awaited the softening and refreshment of the " latter 
rain " to prepare it for a new crop. . . . Both the land and the history 
were linked with the mission of Israel. If the beginning of the harvest 
had pointed back to the birth of Israel in their exodus from Egypt, and 
forward to the true Passover sacrifice in the future; if the corn 
harvest was connected with the giving of the law on Mt. Sinai in the 
past, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost; 
the harvest thanksgiving of the Feast of Tabernacles reminded Israel, 
on the one hand, of their dwelling in booths in the wilderness, while, 
on the other hand, it pointed to the final harvest when Israel's mission 
should be completed, and all nations gathered unto the Lord. . . . 

The Feast of Tabernacles was the third of the great annual fes- 
tivals, at which every male in Israel was to appear before the Lord in 
the place which he should choose. It fell on the fifteenth of the seventh 
month, or Tishri (corresponding to September or the beginning of 
October), as the Passover had fallen on the fifteenth of the first month. 
The significance of these numbers in themselves and relatively will not 
escape attention, the more so that this feast closed the original festive 
calendar; for Purim and the feast of the dedication of the temple, 
which both occurred later in the season, were of post-Mosaic origin. 
The Feast of Tabernacles, or rather (as it should be called), of " booths," 
lasted for seven days — from the fifteenth to the twenty-first Tishri — 
and was followed by an octave on the twenty-second Tishri. But this 
eighth day, though closely connected with the Feast of Tabernacles, 
formed no part of that feast, as clearly shown by the difference in the 
sacrifices and the ritual, and by the circumstance that the people no 
longer lived in booths. The first day of the feast, and also its Oc- 
tave, or Azereth (clausura, conclusio), were to be days of "holy convo- 
cation," and each " a sabbath," not in the sense of the weekly Sabbath, 
but of festive rest in the Lord, when no servile work of any kind might 
be done. 

There is yet another important point to be noticed. The Feast of 
Tabernacles followed closely on the day of atonement. Both took place 
in the seventh month; the one on the tenth, the other on the fifteenth 
of Tishri. What the seventh day, or Sabbath, was in reference to the 
week, the seventh month seems to have been in reference to the year. 
It closed not only the sacred cycle, but also the agricultural or working 
year. It also marked the change of seasons, the approach of rain and 
of the winter equinox, and determined alike the commencement and 
the close of a sabbatical year. Coming on the fifteenth of this seventh 
month, — that is, at full moon, when the " sacred " month had, so to 
speak, attained its full strength, — the Feast of Tabernacles appropri- 
ately followed five days after the day of atonement, in which the sin of 
Israel had been removed, and its covenant relation to God restored. 
Thus a sanctified nation could keep a holy feast of harvest joy unto the 
Lord. — " The Temple, Its Ministry and Services, as They Were at the 
Time of Jesus Christ;' Rev. Br. Edersheim, pp. 232-235. Boston: Ira 
Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 



186 FEDERATION 

Federation, " The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in 
America." — The Federal Council was organized as the chief consumma- 
tion of the National Federation of Churches at its first meeting, held in 
Philadelphia, Dec. 2-8, 1908. It is the delegated congress of thirty lead- 
ing Christian bodies which are constitutionally federated for the purpose 
of providing this congress, through which to realize their fellowship 
and united action. The Federal Council, through its commissions and 
secretaries, seeks to organize efficient State and local federations, to 
secure co-operation in home missionary work, and to promote moral 
reform and social service by the churches throughout the United States. 
— The World Almanac and Encyclopedia, 1917, p. 593. 

Federation, " American Federation of Catholic Societies." — The 
American Federation of Catholic Societies was founded in 1901. It is 
composed of thirty-four national organizations, many State and county 
federations and parishes. Total membership about 3,000,000. Its ob- 
jects are the cementing of the bonds of fraternal union among the Cath- 
olic laity, and the fostering and protection of Catholic interests. — Ibid. 

Federal Council. — Bee Federation on this page. 

Festivals. — 1. Of these, the primary was the Passover. This was 
instituted on the night before the exode, for a perpetual memorial of 
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, when the Lord or his destroying 
angel passed over or spared the houses of the Israelites, while he smote 
the first-born of the Egyptians. It was ordained to be celebrated on 
the same day, the fourteenth of the first month, at even, and in the 
same circumstances. 

This was an indispensable rite, to be observed by every Israelite, 
except in particular cases of pollution or defilement, or absence in for- 
eign countries, under pain of death. Num. 9: 1-13. No uncircumcised 
person was to eat thereof. 

2. The second was that of weeks, or Pentecost. It was appointed 
on the fiftieth day after the wave sheaf, or first fruits of the barley 
harvest, was offered, on the second day of the paschal week (Lev. 23: 
15, 16), in order to commemorate the promulgation of the decalogue on 
Mt. Sinai, and also to offer unto the Lord the first fruits of the wheat 
harvest. See the form of thanksgiving, Deut. 26: 5-10. 

3. The third was that of tabernacles. It was instituted in memory 
of the booths formed of branches of trees, in which the Israelites so- 
journed on their departure from Egypt; and was to be held on the 
fifteenth day of the seventh month, at the end of the vintage and in- 
gathering of fruits. Lev. 23: 34-43. 

Each of these grand festivals was to last a week, during which they 
were bound to rejoice before the Lord for all his deliverances and mer- 
cies. Deut. 16: 11-15. 

Each of these festivals had also a further typical reference or 
analogy to the gospel dispensation. 

1. A bone of the paschal lamb, or Passover, was not to be broken. 
Ex. 12: 46; Num. 9: 12. This singular injunction was fulfilled in Christ, 
our Passover, who was sacrificed for us (1 Cor. 5: 7); and yet not a 
bone of him was broken, as foretold by David (Ps. 34: 21), and re- 
corded as accomplished (John 19: 36). 

2. Pentecost was equally significant of the effusion of the Holy 
Spirit upon the apostles and first fruits of the Christian church, on 
Pentecost or Whitsunday, the fiftieth day after our Lord's resurrection. 
Acts 2: 1-40. 

3. The Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated with greater joy at the 



FESTIVALS 187 



return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, by Ezra (3: 4), and 
by Nehemiah (8: 14-17), and was evidently considered by the Jews in 
our Saviour's time as typical of future deliverance, at his triumphal 
entry into Jerusalem from Bethany, at his last Passover, in which they 
carried branches of palms in procession. — " A New Analysis of Chro- 
nology and Geography" Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, pp. 244, 245. 
London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Festivals, The Great. — Moses instituted three annual festivals, 
viz., the Passover, the Feast of Pentecost, and the Feast of Tabernacles: 
these, which are usually denominated the Great Festivals, were dis- 
tinguished from the Sabbath, and indeed from all other holy days, by 
the circumstance of two of them lasting seven, and one for eight, suc- 
cessive days, during which the Jews were bound to rejoice before the 
Lord for all their deliverances and mercies. Deut. 16: 11-15. All the 
males of the twelve tribes were bound to be present at these grand 
festivals (Ex. 34: 23; Deut. 16: 16); and for their encouragement to 
attend they were assured that no man should desire their land during 
their absence (Ex. 34: 24): in other words, that they should be secure 
from hostile invasion during their attendance on religious worship — a 
manifest proof this of the divine origin of their religion, as well as of 
the power and particular providence of God in working thrice every 
year an especial miracle for the protection of his people; for it is a well- 
known fact that the Jews constantly attended these ceremonies without 
any fear of danger, and that their most vigilant enemies never invaded 
or injured them during these sacred seasons. — " An Introduction to the 
Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures" Thomas Hartwell 
Home, B. D., Vol. Ill, p. 303. London: T. Cadell, 1839. 

Festivals, Three Pilgrimage. — The three pilgrimage festivals were 
known by that name because on them the Israelites gathered at Jeru- 
salem to give thanks for their doubly joyful character. They were of 
agricultural significance as well as commemorative of national events. 
Thus the Passover is connected with the barley harvest; at the same 
time it is the zeman heruth, recalling the exodus from Egypt. Ex. 12: 6; 
Lev. 23: 5, 8; Num. 28: 16-25; Deut. 16: 1-8. 

Pentecost has an agricultural phase as hagh haoikkurim, the cele- 
bration of the wheat harvest; it has a religious phase as zeman mattan 
Thorah in the Jewish liturgy, based on the rabbinical calculation which 
makes it the day of the giving of the law, and this religious side has 
so completely overshadowed the agricultural that among modern Jews 
the Pentecost has become "confirmation day." Ex. 34:26; Lev. 23: 
10-14; Num. 28: 26-31. 

The Feast of Tabernacles is at once the general harvest festival, 
hagh he-dsiph, and the anniversary of the beginnings of the wanderings 
in the wilderness. Ex. 23: 16; Lev. 23: 33 ff; Deut. 16: 13-15. The eighth 
day of assembly immediately following the last day of Tabernacles 
(Lev. 23: 36; Num. 29: 35 ff; John 7: 37), and closing the long cycle 
of Tisbri festivals, seems to have been merely a final day of rejoicing 
before the pilgrims returned to their homes. 

New year (Lev. 23: 23-25; Num. 29: 1-6) and the day of atonement 
(Lev. 16: 1 ff; 23: 26-32; Num. 29: 7-11) marked the turning of the 
year; primarily, perhaps, in the natural phenomena of Palestine, but 
also in the inner life of the nation and the individual. Hence the reli- 
gious significance of these days as days of judgment, penitence, and for- 
giveness soon overshadowed any other significance they may have had. 
The temple ritual for these days, which is minutely described in the 
Old Testament and in the Talmud, was the most elaborate and impres- 



188 FLOOD 



sive of the year. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 
edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. ''Feasts and Fasts," p. 

1103. 

Festivals.— Pages 185, 395-400. 

Feudalism, Fall of. — Page 617. 

Finland, Sabbath Keeping in. — Page 508. 

Flood, A Historical Fact. — In view of the perfect collapse of the 
theory of successive ages, in view of the fact that modern living species 
are found fossil in all the rocks, of the amazing change in climate which 
the earth has experienced, of the dwindling of all forms of life and the 
extinction of thousands of genera, and in view of the crowded grave- 
yards in which we find their remains, it seems almost like a deliberate 
insult to our intellectual honesty to be approached with offers to explain 
these things on any so-called natural action of the forces of nature. It 
is now as certain as any other common scientific or historical fact, as 
certain as the fall of Rome, the burning of Moscow, or the earthquake of 
Lisbon, that our once magnificently stocked and climated world was de- 
stroyed by some sudden and awful cataclysm. With this an assured fact, 
it is not difficult for the Christian to go a step farther, and say that it 
must have been just as complete a destruction, brought about by the 
same means, and recovered from in just the same manner, as pictured in 
the book of Genesis. So with renewed courage and faith, we turn again 
to this dear old Book, which has told the one consistent story all these 
centuries. — " God's Two Books" George McCready Price, p. 165. 
Washington, D. C: Review & Herald Publishing Association, 1911. 

Flood, Reality of, Proved. — Everybody knows how completely it 
is demonstrated that life can come only from antecedent life. The spon- 
taneous generationists have practically given up the fight. But not all 
are equally aware that the Darwinists are in about the same fix. Not 
a single example has ever been proved of one species having produced 
another distinct species. In addition, we have the recent demonstra- 
tion that the popular geological ages are a hoax, being founded on a 
long series of gross blunders; and this demonstration has been wel- 
comed and acknowledged by most men who have had a chance to look 
into the matter. But if a true or inductive system of geology removes 
every possible scheme of evolution, and makes it childish nonsense in 
the eyes of every one capable of appreciating evidence, it also, in the 
very nature of things, proves the reality of the deluge, and thus not only 
strengthens faith in the Bible in general, but practically demonstrates 
the reality of a literal creation at some one definite time in the past. 
For if life demands a real creation, if each separate species demands 
a real creation, and if no one species can be proved to be older than 
another, then why is not a literal creation of all the forms of life at ap- 
proximately one time demonstrated as a scientific fact for every one 
capable of logical reasoning? — Id., p. 177. 

Foot- washing. — Foot-washing: A religious ceremony practised at 
various times in, different branches of the church. The use of sandals 
among the Eastern natives required frequent washing of the feet, and 
to perform this office for others was considered a mark of hospitality. 
At the last supper Jesus washed the feet of his disciples (John 13: 
5-10) to indicate that he who* was not purified by him had no part with 
him. The post-apostolic age understood the example, thus, given to he 



FOUR HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS 189 

mandatory. Augustine (Epist. ad Januarium) testifies that it was fol- 
lowed on Maundy Thursday by the church of his day. St. Bernard in 
his sermon Be coena Domini recommends foot-washing as " a daily sac- 
rament for the remission of sins." In the Greek Church also it was 
regarded as a " mystery." Yet it nowhere became a general, public, 
solemn, ecclesiastical act. . . . 

The Church of England at first carried out the letter of the command; 
but the practice afterward fell into disuse. The Anabaptists declared 
most decidedly in favor of foot-washing, appealing to John 13: 14, and 
also to 1 Tim. 5: 10, considering it as a sacrament instituted by Christ 
himself, " whereby our being washed by the blood of Christ and his 
example of deep humiliation is to be impressed upon us " (Confession 
of the United Baptists or Mennonites, 1660). The Moravians with the 
love-feasts revived also the foot-washing, yet without strictly enforcing 
it or confining it to Maundy Thursday. It was performed not only by 
the leaders toward their followers, but also by the latter among 
themselves, during the singing of a hymn explanatory of the symbol. 
This practice was finally abolished by the Moravian Synod in 1818. — 
The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Yol. IV, 
art. " Foot^joaslaing," pp. 339, 340. 

Foot-washing. — Pages 605, 607. 

Forgeries.— Pages 366, 367. 

Four Hundred Fifty Years, The. — The 450 years of the apostle 
commence at the division of the lands in the forty-seventh year after 
the exode. But it is not clear when they terminate, whether at the call 
of the child Samuel in the last years of Eli, or whether at the adminis- 
tration of Samuel after the death of Eli. Now, as we have seen already 
that there were 430 years from the first servitude inclusive to the 
death of Eli, if these 450 years terminate at that point, they will 
leave 20 years for Joshua and the elders, and, 32 years being assumed 
between Eli and Saul, the whole period will be 611 or 612 years. Hales 
supposes the period of the apostle to end at the call of the child Samuel, 
which he assumes to be ten years before the death of Eli. This arrange- 
ment throws back the division of the lands ten years higher, allows 30 
years for Joshua and the elders, and enlarges the whole period to 621 
years. I think that the other interpretation is the most probable, and 
that the 450 years extended to the death of Eli. — "Fasti Hellenici," 
Henry Fynes Clinton, M. A., Vol. I, p. 312. London: Oxford University 
Press, 1834. 

Fox Sisters. — Page 568. 

France.— Pages 159, 374, 379, 388, 611-613, 616. 

Franks.— Pages 476, 594, 596. 

French Revolution, Eably Recognized as a Time of Fulfilling 
Pbophecy. — The French Revolution — peculiar in its aspect — had not 
made much progress before many began to suspect that that great and 
finishing scene of God's judgments was disclosing, of which the Scrip- 
ture prophecies speak so much; and in which are to be overthrown all 
those anti-Christian systems, civil and ecclesiastical, which have so long 
been opposed to genuine Christianity. — " The Signs of the Times; or, 
The Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in France''' J. Bicheno, M. A.. 
Preface to 5th edition (written Bee. 31, 1798). London: Johnson, Mat- 
thews, Knott, 1799.. 



190 FRENCH REVOLUTION 

History nowhere informs us of any event so extraordinary as the 
late Revolution in France. If viewed on all sides, with its attending 
circumstances, by an attentive and unprejudiced eye, it must surely 
excite the greatest astonishment; and those who have been used to 
unite in their minds the providence of God with human occurrences, 
. . . cannot help inquiring, Is this from men, or is it from God? — 
" The Signs of the Times; or, The Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in 
France" J. Bicheno, M. A., Advertisement, dated Jan. 19, 1793, p. 2, 
following Preface. London: Johnson, Matthews, Knott, 1799. 

French Revolution, Its Era a Turning-Point in History. — The 
French Revolution is the most important event in the life of modern 
Europe. ... It brought on the stage of human affairs forces which have 
molded the thoughts and actions of men ever since, and have taken 
a permanent place among the formative influences of civilization. — 
" Cambridge Modern History," Vol. VIII, chap. 25, p. 754. 

Note. — As the time of Justinian, in the sixth century, when the Papacy 
rose to supremacy, was a turning-point between ancient and medieval history, 
so the events of the French Revolution stamp the time when the 1260 years of 
papal supremacy came to a close as a turning-point in modern history. The 
close of the prophetic period of tribulation marked the opening of the time of 
the end. Dan. 11 : 35. The extracts srivpn tfpal only with phases of the Revolu- 
tion suggested by the prophecy of Daniel 11. — Eds. 

French Revolution, Atheistic Spirit of Times. — As we advance 
toward the latter end of the eighteenth century, we may observe yet 
greater activity on the part of the infidel faction and a yet more dis- 
tinctly evident development of what had now become the character- 
istic spirit of a period. — " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," George 
Stanley Faber, B. D., book 3, chap. 4 (Vol. II, p. 151). London: W. E. 
Painter, 1844. 

Note. — The first edition of this work was published in 1828. — Eds. 

Daniel [11th chapter] had described his fourth period as a period of 
daring unbelief and of presumptuous defiance hurled against the Om- 
nipotent himself; and he had chronologically arranged it, as succeeding 
a prior period of superstitious intolerance and persecution. The event 
has shown the accuracy of his prediction: for the spirit of the Age 
of Reason, which has succeeded to the spirit of the Age of Intolerance, 
is the identical spirit of the prophetic period now under our special 
consideration. — Id., p. 159. 

When I was myself in France in the year 1774, I saw sufficient rea- 
son to believe that hardly a person of eminence in church or state, and 
especially in the least degree eminent in philosophy or literature, . . . 
were believers in Christianity. . . . One of the best-informed men in 
the country assured me very gravely that (paying me a compliment) I 
was the first person he had ever met with, of whose understanding he 
had any opinion, that pretended to believe Christianity. To this all 
the company assented. And not only were the philosophers and other 
leading men in France, at that time, unbelievers in Christianity or 
deists; but they were even atheists, denying the being of a God. — 
Dr. Joseph Priestly; quoted in " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," 
George Stanley Faber, B. D., book 3, chap. 4 (Vol. II, p. 170). London: 
W. E. Painter, 1844. 

French Revolution, Aimed to Dethrone Deity. — Having massacred 
the great of the present, and insulted the illustrious of former ages, 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 191 

nothing remained to the Revolutionists but to direct their fury against 
Heaven itself. Pache, Hebert, and Chaumette, the leaders of the munici- 
pality, publicly expressed their determination " to dethrone the King 
of heaven, as well as the monarchs of the earth." To accomplish this 
design, they prevailed on Gobel, the apostate constitutional bishop of 
Paris, to appear at the bar of the Convention [Nov. 7, 1793] accompanied 
by some of the clergy of his diocese, and there abjure the Christian 
faith. That base prelate declared, " that no other national religion was 
now required but that of liberty, equality, and morality." i Many of the 
constitutional bishops and clergy in the Convention joined in the propo- 
sition. . . . 

Shortly after, a still more indecent exhibition took place before the 
Convention. Hubert, Chaumette, and their associates appeared at the 
bar [November 10] and declared that " God did not exist, and that the 
worship of Reason was to be substituted in his stead." ... A veiled 
female, arrayed in blue drapery, was brought into the Convention; and 
Chaumette, taking her by the hand — " Mortals," said he, " cease to 
tremble before the powerless thunders of a God whom your fears have 
created. Henceforth acknowledge no divinity but Reason. I offer you 
its noblest and purest image; if you must have idols, sacrifice only to 
such as this." Then, letting fall the veil, he exclaimed, " Fall before 
the august Senate of Freedom, Veil of Reason!" At the same time the 
goddess appeared, personified by a celebrated beauty, Madame Maillard 
of the opera, known in more than one character to most of the Conven- 
tion. 

The goddess, after being embraced by the president, was mounted 
on a magnificent car, and conducted, amidst an immense crowd, to the 
cathedral of Notre Dame, to take the place of the Deity. — "History of 
Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. 8. E., chap. 14, pars. 45, 46 
(Vol. Ill, pp. 21, 22), 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood d 
Sons, 1854. 

French Revolution, The Worship of " Reason." — Infidelity and 
atheism reigned supreme. The National Convention abolished the Sab- 
bath, and the leaders of the Paris Commune declared that they intended 
" to dethrone the King of heaven as well as the monarchs of the earth." 
Finally, November 10, 1793, the leaders of the Paris Commune — He- 
bert, Chaumette, Momoro, and the Prussian Anacharsis Clootz — pre- 
vailed upon the National Convention to decree the abolition of the Chris- 
tian religion in France and the substitution of the worship of Reason 
instead. Momoro's young and beautiful but prostitute wife, who had 
been a dancer, personated the Goddess of Reason; and as such she was 
enthroned on the high altar of the Cathedral of Notre Dame and wor- 
shiped by the members of the National Convention and the Paris 
Commune. 

Gobel, the constitutional bishop of Paris, and several other eccle- 
siastics were compelled publicly to apostatize from Roman Catholic 
Christianity and to accept the new worship of Reason. — " Library of 
Universal Hsitory" Vol. VIII, p. 2612. New York and Chicago: Union 
Book Company, 1900. 



1 Gobel's abjuration of Christianity was in these terms : " Today, while the 
Revolution strides rapidly to a happy close, as all opinions tend to a common 
political center — today there ought to be no public or national worship, saving 
that of liberty and sacred equality, as the sovereign people wish it so. Following 
my principles, I submit to the will of the people, and I come here to declare to 
you, that from this day I renounce the exercise of my functions as a minister of 
the Catholic religion. The citizens my vicars here present join me in this ; con- 
sequently we abandon our titles. May this example serve to consolidate the reign 
of liberty and equality. Vive la Republiquel" 



192 FRENCH REVOLUTION 

French Revolution, The Solitary Instance. — For the first time in 
the annals of mankind, a great nation had thrown off all religious prin- 
ciple, and openly defied the power of Heaven itself. — " History of 
Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 15, par. 24 (Vol. 
Ill, pp. 69, 70), 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 
1854. 

French Revolution, No Parallel in Its Defiance of Deity. — If we 
search the annals of the world, we shall not find even a private society 
or sect, much less a civil community and state, which, before our day, has 
in the most public manner proclaimed to all the nations around it, that 
there is no God! and made that position the basis of the constitution of 
its government: but in our day we not only read of it, but see it with 
our eyes; and that in a manner so perfectly consonant to all its 
various prophetic marks, that the unprejudiced infidel (if there be such 
a being) cannot mistake it. — "Brief Commentaries on Such Parts of the 
Revelation and Other Prophecies as Refer to the Present Times," Joseph 
Galloway, Vol. I, p. 64. London: Hatchard and Rivingtons, 1802. 

French Revolution, Formal Retraction of Atheism. — On the 
eighteenth Floreal (7th May) [1794], Robespierre induced the Conven- 
tion to decree its belief in a Supreme Being and in the immortality of 
the soul. On the twentieth Prairial (8th June), he celebrated, in one 
of the strangest pageants of history, the festival of the new Deity in 
France. Arrayed in a brilliant uniform, and carrying a bouquet of 
flowers and corn sheaves, Robespierre marched at the head of a pro- 
cession out of the Champ de Mars, burned the symbols of Atheism and 
Vice, and inaugurated the new religion. " Here," he cried, " is the 
Universe assembled. Nature, how sublime, how exquisite thy power! " 
— " The French Revolution," Charles Edward Mallet, p. 258. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. 

French Revolution, Regarding No God, yet Honoring a " Strange " 
God. — Rejecting alike both the true God of Scripture and the imaginary 
gods of the old mythology, he should toward the latter entertain no 
respect or religious devotion. From the worship of Jehovah he should 
atheistically apostatize; but his apostasy should not lead him back to 
the long abrogated paganism of his fathers. — " The Sacred Calendar of 
Prophecy," George Stanley Faber, B. D., book 3, chap. 4 (Vol. II, p. 163). 
London: W. E. Painter, 1844. 

Had the king adored his foreign god, really believing in the divinity 
of that god, as the old idolaters devoutly believed in the actual deity of 
their hero gods, he would not have fulfilled the prophecy: because it 
declares that the king should not regard any god, but that he should 
magnify himself above all. Yet if he had not adored a god unknown 
to his fathers in some manner, whatever that manner might be, he 
would equally have failed in accomplishing the prophecy: because it 
declares that he should worship a god. thus described. . . . With an open 
profession of atheism in his mouth, and with a direct attack upon all 
religion in his practice, he has adored a foreign deity unknown to his 
fathers, whom he nevertheless disbelieved to be a deity: and he has thus 
worshiped a god of his own, without regarding any god. — Id., p. 175. 

French Revolution, Regarding Not the " Desire of Women." — 
Nothing can be more evident than that " the desire of women " is some- 
thing homogeneous with "the God of gods" and "the gods of his fathers" 
and " every god." The whole connected clause descends from a general 
to particulars, employing those particulars to establish the general. . . . 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 193 

Hence it is obvious, unless the rules of just composition be entirely vio- 
lated, that " the desire of women," like " the God of gods " and " the gods 
of his fathers," must be subincluded in the generalizing phrase " every 
god." [p. 164] ..." Unto the gods of his fathers, he shall have no 
respect; and unto the desire of women, and unto every god, he shall 
have no respect." Such a collocation, I think, compels us to suppose 
that " the desire of women " is a god of some description or another, 
whether true or false. . . . The same verb of negation, "he shall have 
no respect," is alike applied to all the three particulars, " the gods of 
his fathers," and " the desire of women," and " every god," thus clearly 
pointing out and determining their homogeneity: the whole sentence is 
wound up by a sweeping declaration: " For, above all, shall he magnify 
himself." ... If, then, "the desire of women" be thus plainly determined, 
by the whole context under every aspect, to be something homogeneous 
with " the God of gods " and " the gods of his fathers " and " every 
god;" then, assuredly, "the desire of women" must be, not only a 
person real or imaginary, but likewise a person who is the object of 
religious worship, [p. 165] . . . 

They who interpret the phrase as relating to monastic and clerical 
celibacy, take for granted that it means "the desire to have women; " 
but, unfortunately for this system of exposition, the phrase is incapable 
of bearing any such signification. According to the Hebrew idiom, " the 
desire of women " denotes, not the desire to have women, but that which 
women desire to have. Nor, I believe, can a single exception to this 
mode of interpreting the phrase be discovered throughout the whole of 
the ancient Scriptures, [p. 166] . . . 

I conclude, both from the plain requirement of the context and from 
the invariable use of a very common Hebrew idiom, that by " the desire 
of women," we must understand some person who was eminently desired 
by women, and who is also an object of religious adoration. . . . The 
person whom Daniel styles " the desire of women," is he whom Haggai 
subsequently called " the Desire of all Nations." [p. 167] . . . 

The original annunciation of the promised Seed was delivered ex- 
clusively to Eve. It was her seed, not Adam's, that was to bruise the 
head of the serpent. To the advent of this Seed she impatiently looked 
forward; and such was her eager desire, that, upon the birth of her first 
child, forgetting that Cain was Adam's seed no less than her own, she 
joyfully exclaimed: "I have gotten the man, even Jehovah his very 
self." [p. 168] — " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," George Stanley 
Faber, B. D., book 3, chap. 4 (Vol. II, pp. 164-168). London: W. E. 
Painter, 1844. 

Note. — Mr. Faber cites the following illustrative texts : 1 Sam. 9 : 20 ; 23 : 
20 ; Ps. 10 : 3 ; 21 : 2 ; 102 : 10.— Eds. 

French Revolution, The God of Forces. — The god of fortresses is 
the personification of war, and the thought is this: he will regard no 
other god but only war; the taking of fortresses he will make his god; 
and he will worship this god above all the means of his gaining the 
world power. Of this god, war as the object of deification, it might be 
said that his fathers knew nothing, because no other king had made war 
his religion, his god to whom he offered up in sacrifice all gold, silver, 
precious stones, jewels. — " Commentary on the Book of Daniel" C. F. 
Keil, p. 466. (Clark's "Foreign Theological Library" Vol. XXXIV.) 
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 

French Revolution, A New Thing in the Massing of Armed 
Forces. — a. d. 1793. The Republic began. It declared that death was 
an eternal sleep; that Christianity was an imposture; and that there 
was no God! 
13 



194 FRENCH REVOLUTION 

In the same year it became military, raised the nation in arms by 
the Levee en Masse, and declared hostilities against Europe. Its civil 
and foreign wars, under both the republican and imperial governments, 
were marked by slaughter exceeding all within memory. — " The Apoca- 
lypse of St. John," Rev. George Groly, A. M., p. 89, 2d edition. London: 
G. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

French Revolution, Worship of Power. — He [Napoleon] is him- 
self " the Genius of Power," as he has allowed himself to be called by 
his servile flatterers, and he worships the god of war. We have the 
following declaration, in his speech to the Council of Ancients, on the 
10th of November, 1799: " I have always followed the God of War, and 
Fortune and the God of War are with me." — " Combined View of the 
Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and St. John," James Hatley Frere, Esq., 
p. 467. London: J. Hatchard, 1815. 

French Revolution, Worship of the God of Forces. — France was 
decimated for her cruelty; for twenty years the flower of her youth 
was marched away by a relentless power to the harvest of death; the 
snows of Russia revenged the guillotine of Paris. Allured by the phan- 
tom of military glory, they fell down and worshiped the power which 
was consuming them. — "History of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison. 
Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 19, par. 12 (Vol. HI, p. 245), 9th edition. Edin^ 
burgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

French Revolution, Gold, and Silver, and All Wealth for War. 
— The extraordinary movement which agitated France gave them good 
grounds for hoping that they might succeed in raising the whole male 
population for its defense, and that thus a much greater body might be 
brought into the field than the allies could possibly assemble for its sub- 
jugation. The magnitude of the expense was to them a matter of no 
consequence. The estates of the emigrants [the wealthy who had fled] 
afforded a vast and increasing fund, which greatly exceeded the amount 
of the public debt; while the unlimited issues of assignats, at whatever 
rate of discount they might pass, amply provided for all the present or 
probable wants of the treasury. Nor did these hopes prove fallacious; 
for such was the misery produced in France by the stoppage of all 
pacific employment consequent on the Revolution, and. such the terror 
produced by the Jacobin clubs and democratic municipalities in the 
interior, that the armies were filled without difficulty, and the republic 
derived additional external strength from the very intensity of its 
internal suffering. — Id., chap. 11, par. 12 (Vol. II, p. 204). 

French Revolution, Beginning of Modern World War. — Over for- 
eign countries, the military renown of France streamed like a comet, 
inspiring universal dread and distrust; and while it rendered indispen- 
sable similar preparations for resistance, it seemed as if peace had de- 
parted from the earth forever, and that its destinies were hereafter to 
be disposed of according to the law of brutal force alone. — "Life of 
Napoleon," Sir Walter Scott, Vol. VI, p. 116; cited in " The Signs of the 
Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. II, p. 204, 3d edition. Edinburgh: 
William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

French Revolution, Inauguration of Universal War. — Such is a 
detailed account of the causes that led to this great and universal war, 
which speedily embraced all the quarters of the globe, continued, with 
short interruptions, for more than twenty years, led to the occupation 
of almost all the capitals in continental Europe by foreign armies, and 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 195 

finally brought the Cossacks and the Tartars to the French metropolis. 
We shall search in vain in any former age of the world for a contest 
conducted on so gigantic a scale. — " History of Europe" Sir Archibald 
Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 9, par: 125 (Vol. II, p. 166), 9th edition. 
Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1853. 

French Revolution, The " Monomania of Military Glory." — The 
Revolution of 1830 was, in fact, but the accomplishment of that of 1789. 
It was the result of a struggle spread over the vicissitudes of forty 
years. From her first effort to win her freedom, the attention of France 
was called away by foreign hostilities in 1792; then came the despotism 
of anarchy; then successive warlike triumphs; and then, as their nat- 
ural consequence, the monomania of military glory. The dazzling 
tyranny of Napoleon had its fascination even for the many; and in the 
grandeur of his name, its mischievous influence was too much forgotten. 
— From a paper, " Three Days in Paris" in the Revolution of July 27-29, 
1830; in the Westminster Review, London, Oct. 1, 1830. 

. French Revolution, Pursuit or " Glory." — The influence of events 
was gradually creating an esprit militaire [military spirit] ; that saw in 
war the life of the state, the glory, the future of France. . . . The 
Convention, it is true, had set aside revolutionary propagandism; but 
it had substituted a more dangerous doctrine, the invasion of an 
enemy's country, as an act of duty and justice, for the affranchisement 
of lands which, according to its own declaration, were national. . . . 

The army was dominating the republic; ... it was, in fact, the 
nation, and in it lay the patriotism, the enthusiasm, the genius of 
France. The army, not the Directory, represented the real feeling of 
France from 1795 to 1799. The logic of events was pushing to the front 
a system based on military discipline, unity, and obedience, controlled 
by a single mind, and organized for a single purpose, — the glory of 
France. In the master of such a system lay the real power in France, 
and such a master was Napoleon Bonaparte. — " Historical Development 
of Modern Europe," Charles M. Andrews, Vol. I, pp. 33, 34. 

French Revolution, " Dividing the Land." — June 5 [1793] Decree 
of the French National Convention. 

Article I. The common lands shall be divided amongst the inhabit- 
ants, per head, without exception of age or sex, absent as well as 
present. 

Art. II. Landholders not inhabiting that country have no right to 
any share. 

Art. III. Every French citizen who inhabited the commune a twelve- 
month before the promulgation of the law of the 14th of August, 1792, 
or who shall not have been a year absent from that commune for the 
purpose of settling in another, shall enjoy the right of an inhabitant, 
and be entitled to a share. 

Art. IV. All farmers, servants of farmers, and other servants, and 
agents of citizens, are entitled to a share, provided they have the quali- 
fications required to be reputed inhabitants. 

Art. V. Every citizen is looked upon as an inhabitant in the place 
where he has a habitation, and consequently is entitled to a share. 

Art. VI. Fathers and mothers shall enjoy the shares of their chil- 
dren until they have attained their fourteenth year. 

Art. VII. Guardians and others who are intrusted with the care of 
orphans shall carefully watch over the preservation of the share which 
will become the property of the child under their care.— 'Annual Reg- 
ister for 1793" sec. " Political State of Europe" London. 



196 ' FRENCH REVOLUTION 



French Revolution, The Temporal Power of the Pope Overthrown. 
— One feature of Napoleon's Italian campaign had not been satis- 
factory to the Directory. He had spared the Pope. This circum- 
stance made the states of the church a kind of nucleus for all the ad- 
herents of the old system in Italy. It was judged necessary that this 
nest of malcontents should be broken up, and to this end General Ber- 
thier was ordered to march on Rome. The people of that ancient me- 
tropolis had caught the infection of liberty, and refused to support the 
Holy Father and his party. Berthier was welcomed ar the deliverer of 
Italy. The Roman Republic was proclaimed [Feb. 15, 1798]. The papal 
[temporal] power was overthrown, and Pope Pius VI retired to the 
convent of Siena. After a year he was taken to Briangon in the Alps, 
where he was imprisoned. At last, with the next change which ensued 
in the government of Paris, he was permitted to leave this frozen region 
and take up his residence at Valence, where he died in August of 1799. 

The republican soldiers were little disposed, when they captured the 
Eternal City, to spare its treasures or revere its priestly symbols. The 
personal property of the Pope was sold by auction. The robes of the 
priests and cardinals, rich in gold lace, were burned that the gold might 
be gathered from the ashes. The churches of Rome were pillaged, and 
a carnival of violence ensued which General Berthier was unable to 
control. The Romans revolted, and attempted to expel their deliverers; 
but General Massena, who was sent out to supersede Berthier, put down 
the insurrection in blood. — "History of the World," John Clark Rid- 
path, LL. D., look 20, chap. 119 (9 vol. ed., Vol. VI, pp. 685. 686). Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

French Revolution, Important Events of. — 

1788 

Assembly of the clergy protest. 

Aug. 8. Royal edict for the Assembling of the States-General in 
May next. 

The Constituent 
1789 

May 4. Meeting of the States-General at Versailles. The Third Estate, 

661 Deputies; Nobles, 285; Clergy, 308; total 1,254. 
July 14. The Bastile stormed and taken. 

Oct. 11. Formal proposal to seize the property of the clergy. 
Oct. 15. The archbishop of Paris leads the way in emigration. 
Nov. 2. Ecclesiastical property declared national property. 

1790 

Feb. 13. The bishop of Nancy demands that the Catholic religion be 
declared national; rejected. 

March 7. The Pope in a Consistory denounces the Revolution. 

April 13. The Pope gives his final decision against the Civil Constitu- 
tion of the Clergy. 

April 20. Large gathering of the Catholics at Nimes, to protest against 
the liberal measures of the Assembly. 

July 10. Letter from the Pope to Louis XVI, to dissuade him from sanc- 
tioning the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. 

Dec. 3. Louis XVI writes to the king of Prussia, invoking his help. 

1791 

Jan. 9. Marat, in his " Journal," urges the people to hoot the priests. 

April 2 and 4. Death and funeral of Mirabeau. 

June 9. Thouret proposes to forbid the publishing any act of the Court 

of Rome not confirmed by the Assembly. 
July 11. The remains of Voltaire transferred to the Pantheon. 
Sept. 26. The Pope accepts the resignation of Cardinal de Brienne. 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 197 



The Legislative and the Convention to the Proclamation of the Separation 
of Church and State 

1791 

Oct. 11. Lafayette's farewell proclamation. 

Nov. 12. Decree interdicting nonjuring priests from celebrating mass in 
buildings consecrated to official worship. 

1792 

March 19. The Pope in a new brief congratulates the nonjuring priests. 
April 6. The Legislative dissolves the teaching bodies. 

Prohibition of ecclesiastical costumes. 
May 25. Decree of transportation of those priests informed against by 

twenty citizens. 
Aug. 13. Imprisonment of the king and royal family in the temple. 

The Convention 

Sept. 22. Opening of the National Convention, Republic decreed. 
Nov. 16. Cambon presents to the Committee of Finances a decree that 

each sect should pay its own ministers. 
Dec. 11-16. Trial of the king. 
Dec. 14. Jacob Dupont, the atheist, proposes to abolish all religions. 

1793 

Jan. 21. King Louis XVI executed about ten o'clock in the morning. 
March 1. Thuriot demands the annulling of the Civil Constitution of the 

clergy. 
March 9. Revolutionary Tribunal decreed. 
March 18. Decree authorizing the execution within twenty-four hours of 

an emigrant or banished priest who should have returned to 

France. 
June 18. Discussion on liberty of worships. 
June 23. Robespierre's plan of Constitution decreed. 
July 13. Marat assassinated by Charlotte Corday. 
July 23. Danton demands that the decree to transport the refractory 

priests should not be put into execution. 
Aug. 5. New calendar voted. t 

Reign of Terror 

Sept. 5. Decree appointing a Revolutionary army of 6,000 men to crush 
the counter-revolution. 

Sept. 17. Law of the suspected. 

Oct. 3. Penalty of death within twenty-four hours decreed against every 
priest subject to transportation, returned to France, and favor- 
ing the counter-revolution. 

Oct. 16. Execution of the queen Marie Antoinette. 

Oct. 31. Execution of twenty-two Girondins, who sing the Marseillaise in 
chorus on their way to the scaffold. 

Nov. The Commune of Paris take the initiative in the atheistic 
movement. 

Nov. 3. Designations of the months altered. 

Nov. 10. Worship of Reason inaugurated. " Goddess of Reason " pre- 
sents herself at the Convention. 

Nov. 26. The Council of the Commune at Paris interdict all worship 
save that of Reason. 

Danton demands that there shall be no more anti-religious 
masquerades in the Convention. 

Dec. 5. Robespierre protests that the French respect liberty of worships. 



198 FRENCH REVOLUTION 



1794 

April 6. Couthon announces that the Committee of Public Safety had 

decreed a festival in honor of the Supreme Being. 
May 7. Robespierre reads his memorable report on the existence of the 
„ : Supreme Being. 

May 9. Festival in honor of the Supreme Being. 
July 28. Robespierre guillotined. 

: . . r End of the Reign of Terror 

Sept. 20. The regime of the payment of worships abolished. 

The Regime of the Separation of Church and State 

Sept. 21 Barre informs the Convention that the refractory priests had 

returned in great numbers. 
Nov. 4. An unknown deputy demands a respite in favor of 200 priests 

awaiting their transportation. 
Dec. 11. Gregoire upholds the cause of the persecuted priests. 
Dec. 21. Chenier presents his report on supplanting Christianity by civic 

festivals. 
Dec. 23. Noble speech of Gregoire in favor of the right of conscience. 

1795 

Jan. 6. Severe decree against the nonjuring priests who had returned to 
France. 

Jan. 12. Bill of Eschasseriaux, senr., to destroy " the dangerous illu- 
sions of fanaticism." 

Feb. 5. Report of Eschasseriaux, jun., attempting to supplant Chris- 
tianity. 

Feb. 21. Biossy d'Anglas's famous motion, claiming liberty of worships. 

April 13. The refractory clergy denounced with unheard-of violence. 

May 23. Report presented by Lanjuinais on the celebration of worship 
in public edifices. 

July 4. Separate article in the New Constitution devoted to the right 
.....of conscience. 

Aug. 17. The Republic pays no worship. 
The New Constitution adopted. 

Sept! 4. Decree of perpetual exile against the priests condemned to 
transportation. 

End of the National Convention 

Oct. 28. Directory established. 

1796 
The Directory 

July 15. The Pope's Brief recommending submission to the established 
powers. 

1797 

Feb. 17. Treaty of Tolentino, by which the Pope abandons the Lega- 
tions to France. 

Feb. 19. Napoleon writes to the Pope that he would have no more faith- 
ful ally than the Republican government. 

Sept. 5. Law of the 19th of Fructidor to transport every priest who 
should disturb the public tranquillity. 

1798 

Nov. 7. Circular of the Minister of Police causes the transportation of 

several priests. 
Nov. 18, Law enforcing the celebration of the Tenth-Day. 



GALATIANS 199 

Dec. 15. Gregoire complains of a circular of the Minister of the Interior, 
demanding the transfer of services to the Tenth-Day. 

1799 

Nov. 9. Fall of the Directory. 
Dec. 25. Bonaparte First Consul. 

1801 
The Concordat 

July 15. Signing of the Concordat. 

Aug. 6. Concordat presented to the Council of State. 

1802 

April 18. The Concordat is published. 

— " The Church and the French Revolution" E. de Pressense, D. D., 
pp. xxi-xxxi (abridged). London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1869. 

French Revolution.— Pages 17, 245, 267, 277, 384, 388, 389, 390. 

Fundamental Doctrines. — The fundamental doctrines of Chris- 
tianity, then, are those which lie at the basis of the Christian system, 
and without which its professed aim (the glory of God and the highest 
welfare of man) could not, by logical necessity and with subjective 
certainty, be evolved. . . . The statement in Romans 1: 1-6 (the divine 
existence, Scriptures, incarnation, grace, faith, and resurrection) ap- 
proaches nearest of any passage in Scripture to a comprehensive enu- 
meration of the fundamental doctrines. — The New Schaff-Herzog En- 
cyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Fundamental Doc- 
trines of Christianity," p. 412. 

Galatians, Doctrine of. — The grace of God the one source of sal- 
vation (Gal. 1:3; 2: 21; 5:4); the cross of Christ its sole ground (1:4; 
2: 19-21; 3: 13; 6: 14); faith in the good news its all-sufficient means 
(2:16, 20; 3:2, 5-9, 23-26; 5:5); the Spirit its effectuating power 
(3: 2-5; 4: 6, 7; 5:5, 16-25; 6:8) — hence emancipation from the Jew- 
ish law, and the full status of sons of God open to the Gentiles (2: 4, 
5, 15-19; 3: 10-14; 3: 28 to 4: 9, 26-31; 5: 18; 6: 15): these connected 
principles are at stake in the contention; they make up the doctrine o*f 
the epistle. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited 
by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Galatians, Epistle to the," 
p. 1157. 

Galatians and Romans. — The connection of Galatians with Ro- 
mans is patent; it is not sufficiently understood how pervasive that 
connection is and into what manifold detail it extends. The similarity 
of doctrine and doctrinal vocabulary manifest in Galatians 2: 13 to 6: 
16 and Romans 1: 16 to 8: 39 is accounted for by the Judaistic contro- 
versy on which Paul was engaged for so long, and by the fact that 
this discussion touched the heart of his gospel and raised questions in 
regard to which his mind was made up from the beginning (1: 15, 16), 
on which he would therefore always express himself in much the same 
way. Broadly speaking, the difference is that Romans is didactic and 
abstract, where Galatians is personal and polemical; that the former 
presents a measured and rounded development of conceptions pro- 
jected rapidly in the latter under the stress of controversy. The em- 
phasis lies in Romans on justification by faith; in Galatians on the 
freedom of the Christian man. — Id., p. 1158. 



200 GALILEO 

Galileo, Condemnation of. — Through the suggestion of the Do- 
minicans, Galileo was now summoned to Rome to account for his con- 
duct and opinions before the Inquisition. He was accused of having 
taught that the earth moves; that the sun is stationary; and of having 
attempted to reconcile these doctrines with the Scriptures. The sen- 
tence was that he must renounce these heretical opinions, and pledge 
himself that he would neither publish nor defend them for the future. 
In the event of his refusal he was to be imprisoned. With the fate of 
Bruno in his recollection, he assented to the required recantation, and 
gave the promise demanded. The Inquisition then proceeded to deal 
with the Copernican system, condemning it as heretical; the letters of 
Galileo, which had given rise to the trouble, were prohibited; also Kep- 
ler's epitome of the Copernican theory, and also the work of Coperni- 
cus. In their decree prohibiting this work, "De Revolutionibus" the 
Congregation of the Index, March 5, 1616, denounced the new system 
of the universe as " that false Pythagorean doctrine utterly contrary to 
the Holy Scriptures." . . . 

In 1632 he ventured on the publication of his work, entitled " The 
System of the World," its object being to establish the truth of the 
Copernican doctrine. . . . Galileo was therefore again summoned be- 
fore the Inquisition, the Tuscan ambassador expostulating against the 
inhumanity of thus dealing with an old man in ill health. But no 
such considerations were listened to, and Galileo was compelled to 
appear at Rome, February, 1633, and surrender himself to the Holy 
Office. . . . The trial being completed, Galileo was directed to appear, 
on June 22, to hear his sentence. Clothed in the penitential garment, 
he received judgment. His heretical offenses were specified, the pledges 
he had violated recited; he was declared to have brought upon himself 
strong suspicions of heresy, and to be liable to the penalties thereof; 
but from these he might be absolved if, with a sincere heart, he would 
abjure and curse his heresies. However, that his offenses might not 
altogether go unpunished, and that he might be a warning to others, 
he was condemned to imprisonment during the pleasure of the Inqui- 
sition, his dialogues were prohibited by public edict, and for three years 
he was directed to recite, once a week, the seven penitential psalms. . . . 
He died, January, 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, the pris- 
oner of the Inquisition. — "History of the Intellectual Development of 
Europe" John William Draper, M. £>.. LL. D„ Vol. II, pp. 262-265. New 
York: Harper & Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Galileo, Decree Concerning Teaching of. — By order of the Holy 
Office, Cardinal Bellarmine summoned him [Galileo] before him, and 
admonished him in the name of the Pope and of the Holy Office, under 
pain of imprisonment, that he must give up the opinion that the sun 
is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth moves, 
and must not hold, teach it, or defend it either by word or writing; 
otherwise proceedings would be taken against him in the Holy Office. 
Galileo submitted, and promised to obey. 

But it was not enough that Galileo should be personally warned 
against holding the heliocentric theory of the universe; the whole 
world must be similarly instructed; and this was done by another tri- 
bunal. On March 5, 1616, the Congregation of the Index, a committee 
of cardinals appointed by the Pope for the prevention of the circulation 
of dangerous books, published the following decree: 

" Since it has come to the knowledge of this Holy Congregation 
that the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether opposed to the divine 
Scripture, of the mobility of the earth, and the immobility of the sun, 
which Nicolas Copernicus, in his work, ' De Revolutionious Orbium 



GALLICANISM 201 



Cwlestium [On the Motions of the Heavenly Bodies],' and Didacus a 
Stunica, in his Commentary on Job, teach, is being promulgated and 
accepted by many, as may be seen from a printed letter of a certain 
Carmelite father (Foscarini), entitled, etc., wherein the said father 
has attempted to show that the said doctrine is consonant to truth, and 
not opposed to Holy Scripture; therefore, lest this opinion insinuate 
itself further to the damage of Catholic truth, this Congregation has 
decreed that the said books, Copernicus's ' Be Revolutionibus? and 
' Stunica on Job,' be suspended till they are corrected, but that the 
book of Foscarini the Carmelite be altogether prohibited and con- 
demned, and all other books that teach the same thing." — " The In- 
fallibility of the Church" George Salmon. B. B.. pp. 235. 236. New York: 
E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Galileo, Dropped from the Index. — At the beginning of the pres- 
ent century the astronomer Lalande made great exertions at Rome to 
have the names of Galileo, Copernicus, and Foscarini removed from the 
Index; but in vain. Accordingly, the Index for 1828 contains the names 
of these three culprits; but the prohibition against all books teaching 
the mobility of the earth was quietly dropped out of the later editions 
of the Index. It was only on the accession of Gregory XVI, the prede- 
cessor of Pius IX, that the important step was taken, and the attempt 
to insist on believing in the immobility of the earth was finally aban- 
doned. For the first time for some two hundred years an index of 
prohibited books was published, in which no confession of previous 
error was made, but the names of Galileo, Copernicus, and Foscarini 
were silently withdrawn. — Id., p. 238. 

Gallicanism. — This term is used to designate a certain group of 
religious opinions for some time peculiar to the Church of France, or 
Gallican Church, and the theological schools of that country. These 
opinions, in opposition to the ideas which were called in France " Ultra- 
montane," tended chiefly to a restraint of the Pope's authority in the 
church in favor of that of the bishops and the temporal ruler. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, art. " Gallicanism" p. 351. 

Gallicanism. — Gallicanism denotes the attitude, tending toward 
national independence, which was more or less widely prevalent in the 
Roman Catholic Church of France especially during the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries. — i The New S chaff -Her zog Encyclopedia of 
Religious Knowledge, Vol. IV., art. " Gallicanism" p. 424. 

Gallicanism and Infallibility. — One of its fundamental doctrines 
was, that the doctrinal decisions of the Pope were not to be regarded 
as final; that they might be reviewed and corrected, or even rejected, 
by a general council or by the church at large. A formal treatise of 
Bossuet in proof of this principle was a storehouse of arguments, 
largely drawn on in the controversies of the years 1869-70. But this 
principle of his was condemned with an anathema at the Vatican Coun- 
cil of the latter year. — " The Infallibility of the Church," George Sal- 
mon, B. D., p. 87. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Gallicanism, Universality a Characteristic of. — In this theory 
the Pope is only the leading bishop of Christendom, and is by no means 
a necessary organ in proclaiming infallible truth. Whatever doctrine 
the whole church agrees in is infallibly true. Of course this character- 
istic cannot be predicated of any doctrine from which the Pope dissents, 
since such a dissent would deprive the doctrine of that universality of 



202 GENESIS 

acceptance which the theory imposes as a condition; but if a Pope 
declares a doctrine, it is nevertheless not guaranteed as infallibly true 
if a council dissent; or even though Pope and council declare it, if it is 
not received by the bishops throughout the world. The important thing 
is, the universality of acceptance: the mode of promulgation is imma- 
terial. — " The Infallibility of the Church" George Salmon, D. D.. p. 
262. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Genesis of Greater Antiquity than Babylonian Narratives. — 
Genesis falls into two great divisions. Chapters 1 to 11: 9 contain the 
account of the creation of the world and the primitive history of man- 
kind. This portion concludes with the story of the deluge, and the ac- 
count of the scattering abroad, of the human race. These histories are 
most important, and contain narratives of the highest antiquity. 

For although recent discoveries have brought to light Babylonian 
narratives strikingly similar in form, the Hebrew narratives exhibit 
proofs of a still higher antiquity. — "An Introduction to the Old Testa- 
ment," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., Ph. D., p. 105. New York: 
Thomas Whittaker. 

Genseric— Pages 471, 490, 535, 538, 539, 590. 

Geographical Society. — Page 248. 

Gepidae.— Page 477. 

Goths.— Pages 386, 477-482. 

Grant, Gen. Ulysses S — Pages 167, 452. 

Great Wall of China.— Page 485. 

Greece, Historical Sketch of, to 500 b. c. — The beginnings of life 
in the iEgean world are unknown. The Oriental peoples were already 
far advanced in civilization when the first light breaks on this region. 
But by 2000 b. c. a high culture was produced in Crete under Egyptian 
influence, probably by a pre-Greek people. About 1500 b. c. this culture 
was diffused over the JEgean world, modified in many respects, and 
possessed by the Greeks who had migrated into Greece from the north. 
This so-called Mycenaean age was brought to an end by the descent of 
rude tribes from the north, which is called the Dorian migration. This 
cut off Greece from the outer world, and set in motion new forces of 
political and social organization. Changes from tribal life to local set- 
tlement created the city-state and put at its head the aristocratic 
government. 

When the newcomers had adjusted themselves to their new homes, 
commerce began to revive on the shores of the iEgean. The cities on 
the Asia Minor coast came forward. New relations with the Orient 
arose. Wealth gave leisure and opportunity for the new growth of 
literature and art and religion. Epic poetry reached its height in 
Homer. The Greeks began to know themselves as one people, the 
Hellenes, and to form their ideals of social, religious, and political 
life. . . . 

Two states rose above the others as the age drew to an end. Sparta 
illustrates the tendency to maintain and harden the old tribal system 
with its equality and its military bent. It grew by conquest, until it 
occupied two -fifths of the Peloponnesus and formed a political league 
embracing almost all the rest. Thus it was the leading Greek state. 



GREECE 203 



Athens went to the other extreme. Its lawgivers, Solon and Cleisthenes, 
led the way in the establishment of popular government. Pisistratus, 
the Athenian tyrant, gave the state a leading place among the commer- 
cial powers of the time. Thus by 500 b. c. the Greek world had reached 
a point at which, its political institutions fixed and its states firmly 
established, it was prepared to take its place and do its work in world 
politics. This place and work in the world were opened to it in the 
rapidly approaching complications with the Persian Empire. — "A His- 
tory of the Ancient World," George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 123- 
125. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Greece, Alexander "First King" or Imperial. — And it happened, 
after that Alexander, son of Philip the Macedonian, who came out gf the 
land of Chettiim, had smitten Darius king of the Persians and Medes, 
that he reigned in his stead, the first over Greece. — 1 Maccabees 1: 1. 

With Alexander the New Greece begins. — f( Story of Greece," Prof. 
J. A. Harrison, p. 499. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1890. 

Greece, Arrian on Alexander as Leader of All Grecia. — Alexan- 
der, then about twenty years of age, ascended his [Philip's] throne, and 
marched into Peloponnesus, where in a grand council of all the Greeks 
Of those parts, he requested to be made general of the intended expe- 
dition against the Persians (an honor which had been before conferred 
; on his father Philip). This was granted by all, except the Lacedaemo- 
nians, who alleged that by an ancient custom of theirs, deduced from 
their ancestors, the Lacedaemonians ought not to obey the orders of a 
foreign general, but themselves to have the command of any army 
raised for a foreign expedition. The Athenians were also busy in con- 
triving to bring some innovation about; but were so terrified at Alex- 
ander's approach, that they decreed him more honors than they had 
before promised his father. He then returned into Macedonia, to raise 
forces for his expedition into Asia. — "History of Alexander's Expedi- 
tion," Arrian, translated by Rooke, book 1, chap. 1 (Vol. I, p. 3). Lon- 
don, 1814. 

Greece, ' Alexander Formally Recognized as Imperial Head of. — 
The congress of the confederacy met at Corinth to elect Alexander ? gen- 
eral in his father's place. Alexander was chosen supreme general of the 
Greeks for the invasion of Asia; and it was as head of Hellas, descend- 
ant and successor of Achilles, rather than as Macedonian king, that 'he 
desired to go forth against Persia. . . . The welcome . . . and the vote, 
however perfunctory, which elected him leader of the Greeks, were the 
fitting prelude to the expansion of Hellas, and the diffusion of Hellenic 
civilization, which destiny had chosen him to accomplish. He was thus 
formally reeognized as what he in fullest verity was, the representative 
of Greece. — "History of Greece," J. B. Bury, Vol. II, p. 830. 

Greece, Alexander as Leader. — Alexander is the flower of the 
Greek race, the supreme figure in its gallery of heroes. In physical 
strength and beauty, in mental grasp and poise, in moral purpose and 
mastery, he was pre-eminent among the men of his time. Of high, 
almost sentimental, ideals of honor, a warm-hearted, genial companion 
and friend, the idol of his troops, fearless even to recklessness in the 
day of battle, he knew how to work tirelessly, to hold purposes with an 
iron resolution, to sweep all opposition from his path, and to deny him- 
self pitilessly for the fulfilment of his plans. To reach so high a station, 
to stand alone at the summit of human achievement, was for so young 



20 4 GREECE 

a man almost fatally dangerous. Alexander did not escape unharmed. 
Power made him sometimes arbitrary and cruel. Opposition drove him 
to crimes which are without excuse. ... In thirteen years of incessant 
activity he mastered the world and set it going in new paths. While 
accomplishing this task he made his name immortal. 

The greatness of Alexander as a general is clearly revealed in the 
full accounts of the battles he fought and the campaigns he carried, 
through to success. He was the mightiest conqueror the world had ever 
seen. But it has been reserved for modern scholars to emphasize the 
most splendid and enduring elements of his career: his genius for 
organization, his statesmanship, his far-reaching plans of government 
and administration. Like all his great predecessors in the field of arms, 
he was no mere fighter for the sake of fighting, nor did the lust of 
acquisition spur him on to useless and empty conquests. The crowning 
and decisive proof of this is seen in the cities which he founded. No 
conquest was complete until he had selected sites for new settlements, 
and these sites were chosen with an unerring insight into the oppor- 
tunities for trade as well as for defense. Sixteen Alexandrias all over 
the east go back to him as founder, the greatest of which was the 
Egyptian metropolis. It is said that he founded in all some seventy 
cities. Many of them were so wisely planted that they exist to this 
day as flourishing centers of commercial life. [pp. 242-244] . . . 

Alexander had had himself greeted as a son of Zeus by the oracle 
of Amon, which enjoyed a great repute in the entire Greek world in 
the fourth century b. c. In 324 b. c. he demanded that each city should 
enrol him in its circle of deities. This was done reluctantly in some 
places, as in Athens and Sparta, but in general it was done with enthu- 
siasm; for henceforth the cities could take orders from Alexander with- 
out loss of self-respect. To obey their gods was a duty, while on the 
other hand, to acknowledge the authority of an outside king would have 
been humiliating to places which in theory were free and self-governing. 
This was the way in which Alexander organized his vast empire, [pp. 
246, 247] — "A History of the Ancient World," George Stephen Good- 

l, Ph. D., pp. 242-247. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 



Greece, Universal Dominion. — In the tenth year after he had 
crossed the Hellespont, Alexander, having won his vast dominion, en- 
tered Babylon; and resting from his career in that oldest seat of earthly 
empire, he steadily surveyed tne mass of various nations which owned 
his sovereignty, and revolved in his mind the great work of breathing 
into this huge but inert body the living spirit of Greek civilization. In 
the bloom of youthful manhood, at the age of thirty-two, he paused 
from the fiery speed of his earlier course: and for the first time gave 
the nations an opportunity of offering their homage before his throne. 
They came from all the extremities of the earth, to propitiate his anger, 
to celebrate his greatness, or to solicit his protection. — " The History 
of Rome," Thomas Arnold, D. D., chap. 30, par. 1. New< York: D. Ap- 
pleton & Co., 1866. 

Greece, Appian on Alexander's Ambition. — He [Alexander] was 
never defeated, and he finished almost every war in one or two battles. 
... He overran almost the whole of Asia. To sum up Alexander's for- 
tune and power in a word, he acquired as much of the earth as he saw, 
and died while he was devising means to capture the rest. — " The Roman 
History," Appian of Alexandria, translated by Horace White; " The Civil 
Wars," book 2, chap. 21, par. 149 (Vol. II, p. 204). New York: The Mac- 
millan Company, 1899, 



GREECE 205 

Greece, Arrian on World-Empire. — I am persuaded, there was no 
nation, city, nor people then in being, whither his [Alexander's] name 
did not reach; for which reason, whatever origin he might boast of, or 
claim to himself, there seems to me to have been some divine hand 
presiding both over his birth and actions, insomuch that no mortal upon 
earth either excelled or equaled him. — " History of Alexander's Expedi- 
tion," Arrian, translated by Rooke, book 7, chap. SO (Vol. II, p. 185). 
London, 1814. 

Others [say of his plans of conquest just as he died] that he pro- 
posed to coast round Sicily, by the promontory Iapygium; for then it 
was that the Roman name began to spread far and wide, and gave him 
much umbrage. Thus are authors divided in their opinions concerning 
his ambitious designs. As for my part, I can neither tell for certain 
what he designed, nor care much to proceed to guess work. — Id., book 7, 
chap. 1. 

Wherever you fly [wrote Alexander to the retreating Darius], 
thither I will surely pursue you. — Id., book 2, chap. Id. 

" Vain in his hopes, the youth had grasped at all, 
And his vast thought took in the vanquished ball." 
— " Pharsalia," Lucan, Nicholas Rowe's translation, book 3. 

" Driven headlong on by Fate's resistless force, 
Through Asia's realms he took his dreadful course: 
His ruthless sword laid human nature waste, 
And desolation followed where he passed. . . . 

, " Ev'n to the utmost west he would have gone, 
Where Tethys' lap receives the setting sun." 

— Id., book 10. 

Greece, Goat a Symbol of. — A goat is very properly made the 
type of the Grecian or Macedonian Empire, because the Macedonians 
at first, about two hundred years before Daniel, were denominated 
iEgeadae, or the goat's people; and upon this occasion, as heathen au- 
thors report: Caranus, their first king, going with a great multitude of 
Greeks to seek new habitations in Macedonia, was commanded by the 
oracle to take the goats for his guides to empire; and afterward seeing 
a herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, 
and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns or 
standards, and called the city " iEgeae," or " the goat's town," and the 
people "iEgeadse," or " the goat's people." This observation is like- 
wise owing to the most excellent Mr. Mede; and to this may be added 
that the city JEgeas, or ^Egfe, was the usual burying place of the Mace- 
donian kings. It is also very remarkable that Alexander's son by 
Roxana was named Alexander iEgus, or " the son of the goat; " and 
some of Alexander's successors are represented on their coins with 
goat's horns. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies" Thomas Newton, 
Di D., pp. 266, 267. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Greece, Prophecy of Daniel Shown to Alexander. — When he 
[Jaddua, the high priest] understood that Alexander was not far from 
the city, he went out in procession, with the priests, and the multitude 
of the citizens. . . . Alexander approached by himself. . . . And when 
the book of Daniel was shown to him, wherein Daniel declared that one 
of the Greeks should destroy the empire of the Persians, he supposed 



206 GREECE 

that himself was the person intended. And as he was then glad, he 
dismissed the multitude for the present; but the next day he called 
them to him, and bade them ask what favors they pleased of him. Ac- 
cordingly the high priest desired that they might enjoy the laws of 
their forefathers, and might pay no tribute the seventh year. This 
was readily granted. And when they entreated that he would permit 
the Jews in Babylon and Media to enjoy their own laws also, he will- 
ingly promised to do hereafter what they desired. — Josephus, " An- 
tiquities of the Jews," Whiston's translation, book 11, chap. 8, pars. 5, 6 
(Vol. I, p. 417 J. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Greece, Rapidity of Conquest. — The empire of Alexander was 
splendid in its magnitude, in its armies, in the success and rapidity of 
his conquests, and it wanted little of being boundless and unexampled, 
yet in its shortness of duration it was like a brilliant flash of lightning. 
Although broken into several satrapies, even the parts were splendid. — 
" The Roman History," Appian of Alexandria, translated by Horace 
White, Preface, par. 10 (Vol. I, p. 5). New York: The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1899. 

[Alexander] who shot like a star, with incredible swiftness, from 
the rising to the setting sun, was meditating to bring the luster of his 
arms into Italy. . . . He had heard of the Roman power in Italy. — 
" Morals," Plutarch, article on " Fortune of the Romans," par. 13. 

Greece, Its Swift Progress Portrayed in Prophecy. — The rapidity 
of Alexander's conquests is vividly portrayed by the progress of the 
he-goat. Rapidly crossing the Hellespont with 40,000 Greek troops, 
Alexander gained his first victory over the Persian armies at the 
Granicus, b. c. 334, and overran in that year and part of the next the 
whole of Asia Minor. He took by siege several important cities, while 
other cities opened their gates at the mere summons of the conqueror. 
Alexander gained a decisive victory over Darius Codomanus, who com- 
manded in person, at the battle of Issus in November of the next year 
(b. c. 333). He then invaded Phoenicia and captured Tyre, thus de- 
stroying the base from which a Persian fleet might have operated. 
Palestine submitted to his authority. He besieged Gaza, overran Egypt, 
and, turning northward to Babylon, defeated Darius in the decisive 
battle of Arbela, in b. c. 331. Ere b. c. 330, Alexander nad taken pos- 
session of Babylon and Susa, burned Persepolis, and put an end to the 
Persian Empire. Thus did the he-goat with its one horn cast down the 
two-horned ram to the ground and trample upon it. — " Daniel and His 
Prophecies ," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., pp. 174, 175. London: 
Williams and Norgate, 1906. 

Greece, Significance of Alexander's Conquest. — Nor should it be 
forgotten that the true significance and only value of Alexander's cor 
quest lay beyond the horizon of his ambition and intention; and that 
by carrying the language and civilization of Greece to Asia, and bring- 
ing together the Oriental and Occidental world, it prepared the way for 
the introduction of the universal religion of Christ, who occupies the 
central position in history, all the preceding ages looking toward him 
as the fulfilment of their hopes and aspirations, all succeeding ages 
starting from him to carry out the design of his coming. — " The Person 
of Christ," Philip Schaff, D. D., LL. D., p. 31. New York: American 
Tract Society, copyright 1913. 

Greece, Alexander's Victory over Medo-Persia. — From Egypt 
Alexander retraced his steps to Syria and marched eastward. At Ar- 



GREECE 207 

bela, not far from the ancient Nineveh, his farther advance was dis- 
puted by Darius with an immense army, numbering, if we may rely 
upon our authorities, over a million men. The vast Persian host was 
overthrown with enormous slaughter. Darius fled from the field, as he 
had done at Issus, and later was treacherously killed by an attendant. 

The battle of Arbela [331 b. c] was one of the decisive combats 
of history. It marked the end of the long struggle between the East 
and the West, between Persia and Greece, and prepared the way for the 
spread of Hellenic civilization over all Western Asia. 

From the field of Arbela Alexander marched south to Babylon, 
which opened its gates to him without opposition. Susa was next 
entered by the conqueror. Here he seized incredible quantities of gold 
and silver ($57,000,000, it is said), the treasure of the Great King. — 
''General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, pp. 153, 154. Boston: Ginn 
& Co., 1906. 

Greece, Alexander's Power "Broken" ("When He was Strong." 
Dan. 8: 8). — As he was now on his return to Babylon, from the remot- 
est shores of the ocean, he received advice that ambassadors from 
Carthage, and the other cities of Africa, as also from Spain, Sicily, 
Gaul, Sardinia, and some places of Italy, attended his coming there. 
So much was the whole world awed by the terror of his name, that all 
nations came to pay their obedience to him, as one that was designed 
by fate to be their monarch. For this reason as he was hastening to 
Babylon, with a design, as one would think, to celebrate the Convention 
of the whole universe, a Chaldean soothsayer advised him not to enter 
that city. — " History of the World," Justin (Junianus Justinus), book 12, 
chap. IS. London: John Matthews, 1713. 

Greece, The Death of Alexander (323 b. a). — In the midst of his 
vast projects Alexander was seized by a fever, brought on doubtless by 
his insane excesses, and died at Babylon, 323 b. c, in the thirty-second 
year of his age. His soldiers could not let him die without seeing him. 
The watchers of the palace were obliged to open the doors to them, and 
the veterans of a hundred battlefields filed sorrowfully past the couch 
of their dying commander. His body was carried first to Memphis, but 
afterward to Alexandria, in Egypt, and there inclosed in a golden 
coffin, over which was raised a splendid mausoleum. His ambition for 
celestial honors was gratified in his death; for in Egypt and elsewhere 
temples were dedicated to him, and divine worship was paid to his 
statues. — "General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 155. Boston: 
Ginn and Company, 1906. 

Greece, Alexander Removed " in the Flower of His Age." — Being 
thus taken off in the flower of his age, and in the height of his victories. 
. ■. .The conquered nations could not believe the report. — "History of 
the World," Justin ( Junianus Justinus), book 13, chap. 1. London: 
John Matthews, 1713. 

Greece, Alexander's Uncompleted Work. — The work was every- 
where incomplete. Who could expect that this god should perish, and 
so young, in the strength of his age and mental vigor? His death 
struck the world with stupor. — " History of Greece," Jean Victor Duruy, 
Vol. IV, chap. 33, p. 215. Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1891. 

Greece, Alexander's Fall at Summit of Greatness. — Now, when 
he [Alexander] seemed to be at the summit of worldly greatness and 
prosperity, that space of life which he might have run through by the 
course of nature was cut short by the determination of fate. — " Histor- 
ical Library" Diodorus Siculus, book 17, chap. 12. 



208 GREECE 

Greece, Influence of Alexander's Conquests on. — His genius and 
energy in war, in organization, and in planting colonies was marvelous. 
His mind expanded rapidly with the progress of his conquests. First 
king of Macedon, next captain-general of Hellas, then emperor of Persia, 
he aspired finally to be lord of the whole earth. His object was not to 
Hellenize the world, but to blend the continents in one nation and one 
civilization. But the dizzy height of power to which he had climbed 
disturbed his mental poise; in an outburst of passion he murdered his 
dearest friend; his lust for worship grew upon him till he bade the 
manly Macedonians grovel before him like servile Asiatics, and sent an 
order to the Greeks to recognize him as a god. Year by year he grew 
more egotistical and more despotic and violent. 

It would be idle to speculate on what he might have accomplished 
had he lived to old age. We must judge him by his actual achieve- 
ments. His conquests stimulated exploration and discovery, introduc- 
ing a great age of scientific invention. They tended to break down the 
barrier between Greek and barbarian, and they gave Hellenic civiliza- 
tion to the world. People of widely separated countries became better 
acquainted with one another, and thus acquired a more liberal spirit 
and a broader view of mankind. The building up of an empire far 
greater than the Persian was itself a stage in the growth of the idea 
that all men are brothers. It is a fact, too, that Alexander's conquests 
made easier the growth of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, the 
conquest conferred no lasting benefit on the masses of the conquered. 
— "A History of the Ancient World" George Willis Botsford, Ph. D„ 
v. 284. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1911. 

It would not be easy to name any other period of ten years in the 
history of the world beside the reign of Alexander in which as momen- 
tous a change passed over as large a part of the earth — a change which 
made such difference in the face of things. Suddenly the pageant of 
the greatest empire ever known had been swept away. . . . 

In the spring of 323 before Christ the whole order of things from 
the Adriatic away to the mountains of Central Asia, and the dusty 
plains of the Punjab, rested upon a single will, a single brain, nurtured 
in Hellenic thought. Then the hand of God, as if trying some fantastic 
experiment, plucked this man away. — " House of Seleucus," E. R. Bevan 
Vol. I, p. 28. 

Greece, Alexander's Empire Left " Nor to His Posterity." — The 
family of Alexander had a most tragical end: 1. His wife Statira was 
murdered soon after his death by his other wife Roxana. 2. His 
brother Aridseus, who succeeded him, was killed, together with his wife 
Euridice, by command of Olympias, Alexander's mother, after he had 
been king about six years and some months. 3. Olympias herself was 
killed by the soldiers in revenge. 4. Alexander ^]gus, his son, together 
with his mother Roxana, was slain by order of Cassander. 5. Two years 
after, his other son Hercules, with his mother Barsine, was privately 
murdered by Polysperchon; so that in fifteen years after his death not 
one of his family or posterity remained alive! — " A Commentary and 
Critical Notes," Adam Clarke, LL. D., on Dan. 11:4. New York: Lane 
and Scott, 1850. 

Now all the seed royal being extinct, and no successor remaining, 
every one of the captains who had possessed themselves of provinces 
or cities took upon themselves the titles and styles of kings. — " Histor- 
ical Library,'" Diodorus Siculus, book 19, chap. 7. 

Greece, Alexander's Empire, Partition of. — The empire of the 
goat was in its full strength when Alexander died of a fever at Babylon. 



GREECE 20 9 

He was succeeded in the throne by his natural brother, Philip Aridseus, 
and by his own two sons, Alexander yEgus and Hercules; but in the 
space of about fifteen years they were all murdered, and then the first 
horn, or kingdom, was entirely broken. The royal family being thus 
extinct, the governors of provinces, who had usurped the power, as- 
sumed the title of kings; and by the defeat and death of Antigonus in 
the battle of Ipsus, they were reduced to four, Cassander, Lysimachus, 
Ptolemy, and Seleucus, who parted Alexander's dominions between 
them, and divided and settled them into four kingdoms. These four 
kingdoms are the " four notable horns," which came up in the room 
of the first great horn; and are the same as the "four heads of the 
leopard " in the former vision. " Four kingdoms shall stand up out 
of the nation, but not in his power;" they were to be kingdoms of 
Greeks, not of Alexander's own family, but only of his nation; and 
neither were they to be equal to him in power and dominion, as an em- 
pire united is certainly more powerful than the same empire divided, 
and the whole is greater than any of the parts. They were likewise to 
extend "toward the four winds of heaven; " and in the partition of 
the empire, Cassander held Macedon, and Greece, and the western 
parts; Lysimachus had Thrace, Bithynia, and the northern regions; 
Ptolemy possessed Egypt, and the southern countries; and Seleucus 
obtained Syria, and the eastern provinces. Thus were they divided 
" toward the four winds of heaven." — " Dissertations on the Prophe- 
cies," Thomas Newton, D. D., pp. 275, 276. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Greece, Divided Toward the Four Winds (Dan. 8: 8; 11: 4). — 
When Alexander died, the authority passed to his generals, all trained 
in war, yet none qualified to fill the place of the master. As his son 
was but an infant, and as the generals began to fight among themselves 
for the first place, the empire naturally fell to pieces. The decisive 
battle among these generals was fought at Ipsus in Phrygia (301 b. c). 
This was one of the most important battles of ancient times, as it 
determined the history of the empire till it fell under the power of Rome. 

The victors divided the empire into kingdoms for themselves: 
Seleucus received Asia >from Phrygia to India; western Asia Minor and 
Thrace fell to Lysimachus; Ptolemy became king of Egypt; and Cas- 
sander, already governor of Macedon, was now recognized as sovereign. 
In this way four kingdoms arose from the empire. Somewhat later 
Lysimachus was killed and his realm divided. While most of his Asi- 
atic possessions were annexed to the kingdom of Seleucus, barbarous 
tribes, including many Gauls, seized the interior of Thrace and threat- 
ened the Greek cities along the coast. — 'A History of the Ancient 
World," George Willis Botsford, Ph. D., pp. 296, 297. New York: The 
Macmillan Company, 1911. 

Greece, Four " Notable " Divisions. — The vast empire created by 
Alexander's unparalleled conquests was distracted by the wranglings 
and wars of his successors, and before the close of the fourth century 
before Christ, had become broken up into many fragments. Besides 
minor states, four well-defined and important monarchies arose out of 
the ruins. . . . Their rulers were Lysimachus, Cassander, Seleucus Ni- 
cator, and Ptolemy, who had each assumed the title of king. The great 
horn was broken; and instead of it came up four notable ones toward 
the four winds of heaven. — " The Eastern Nations and Greece," Philip 
Van Ness Myers, chap. 27, pp. 286, 287. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1904. 

A quadripartite division of Alexander's dominions was recognized, 
Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria (or Southwestern Asia) be- 
14 



210 GREECE 



coming thenceforth distinct political entities. — " The Sixth Great Ori- 
ental Monarchy ," George Rawlinson, M. A., chap. 3, p. 30. New York: 
Dodd, Mead <& Go. 

Greece, The Pour Divisions Reduced to Three. — The result of the 
battle of Ipsus was not, however, the establishment of a more perma- 
nent division of the empire. We shall see later the number of kings 
again reduced; at present they are four; soon they will be only three. 

— " History of Greece" Jean Victor Duruy, chap. 34, Vol. IV, p. 296. 
Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1891. 

There were three great kingdoms — i Macedonia, Egypt, Syria — 
which lasted each under its own dynasty, till Rome swallowed them up. 

— "Alexander's Empire,'" J. P. Mahaffy, p. 89. New York: G. P. Put- 
nam's Sons, 1898. 

Greece, Outline History of Three Divisions. — 230. Macedonia 
(323-146 B. C.J. — Macedonia was one of the first countries east of the 
Adriatic to come in hostile contact with the great military republic of 
the West. After much intrigue and a series of wars, the country was 
finally brought into subjection to the Italian power and made into a 
Roman province (146 b. a). 

231. Syria, or the Kingdom of the Selucidw (312-65 B. C.J. — Under 
its first ruler this kingdom comprised nominally almost all the coun- 
tries of Asia conquered by Alexander, thus stretching from the Helles- 
pont to the Indus; but in reality the monarchy embraced only Asia 
Minor, Syria, and the old Assyria and Babylonia. Its rulers were called 
Selucidse, from the founder of the kingdom, Seleucus Nicator. 

Seleucus Nicator (312-281 b. c), besides being a ruler of unusual 
ability, was a most liberal patron of learning and art. He is declared 
to have been " the greatest founder of cities that ever lived." Through- 
out his dominions he founded a vast number, some of which endured 
for many centuries, and were known far and wide as homes and centers 
of Hellenistic civilization. 

The successors of Seleucus Nicator led the kingdom through check- 
ered fortunes. On different sides provinces fell away and became inde- 
pendent states. Antiochus III (223-187 b. a), called "the Great," raised 
the kingdom for a short time into great prominence; but finally the 
country was overrun by the Roman legions and was made a part of 
the Roman Republic (63 b. a). 

232. Kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt (323-30 B. C.J. — The Grseco- 
Egyptian empire of the Ptolemies was by far the most important, in its 
influence upon the civilization of the world, of all the kingdoms that 
owed their origin to the conquests of Alexander. The founder of the 
house and dynasty was Ptolemy I, surnamed Soter (323-283 b. a), a 
companion of Alexander. 

Under Ptolemy, Alexandria became the great depot of exchange for 
the productions of the world. At the entrance of the harbor stood the 
Pharos, or lighthouse, — the first structure of its kind. This edifice was 
reckoned one of the Seven Wonders. 

But it was not alone the exchange of material products that was 
comprehended in Ptolemy's scheme. His aim was to make his capital 
the intellectual center of the world, — the place where the arts, sciences, 
literatures, and even the religions of the world should meet and mingle. 
He founded the famous Museum, a sort of college, which became the 
" University of the East," and established the renowned Alexandrian 
Library. He encouraged poets, artists, philosophers, and teachers in all 
departments of learning to settle in Alexandria by conferring upon 



GREECE 211 

them immunities and privileges, and by gifts and a munificent patron- 
age. His court embraced the learning and genius of the age. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247 b. c.) followed closely in the foot- 
steps of his father. He added largely to the royal library, and extended 
to scholars the same liberal patronage that his father had before him. 
It was under his direction that the translation into Greek of the Hebrew 
Testament was made. 

Altogether the Ptolemies reigned in Egypt almost exactly three 
centuries (323-30 b. a). The story of the beautiful but dissolute Cleo- 
patra, the last of the house of the Ptolemies, belongs properly to the 
history of Rome, which city was now interfering in the affairs of the 
Orient. In the year 30 b. c, the year which marks the death of Cleo- 
patra, Egypt was made a Roman province. — " General History" Philip 
Van Ness Myers, pp. 157-159. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. 

Greece, Its Two Strong Divisions (Dan. 11: 5). — Soon after Alex- 
ander's death, his generals formed a compact for the government of his 
empire; but it was soon broken, and out of his conquests four kingdoms 
arose, of which the most important were those of Seleucus in Asia, and 
of Ptolemy in Africa. — " Bible Atlas," Rev. Jesse L. Hurlbut, D. D., p. 95. 
Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co. 

Greece, The Southern Kingdom Strong. — During the reign of its 
[Egypt's] second monarch, Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 b. a), its 
capital, Alexandria, was the London of the ancient world. Its only rival 
in trade and commerce was its neighbor to the west, Carthage. The 
golden age of the Ptolemies coincides with the one epoch in the history 
of the world in which Africa was the leader in business enterprise, in 
money power, in naval strength, in luxury, in science, and, till the real 
test came, in political prestige and influence. The commercial aristoc- 
racy of Carthage and the enlightened despots of Alexandria had the 
Mediterranean divided between them. — " Greek Imperialism" W. 8. 
Ferguson, p. 155. Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1913. 

Greece, The Northern Kingdom Strongest. — Of the four powers 
thus established [at Ipsus, 301 b. c], the most important, and that with 
which we are here especially concerned, was the kingdom of Syria (as 
it was called), or that ruled for 247 years by the Selucidse. Seleucus 
Nrcator, the founder of this kingdom, was one of Alexander's officers. 
— " The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy," George Rawlinson, M. A., 
chap. 3, p. 31. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Greece, A Great Dominion. — The Syrian was undoubtedly the 
greatest of the kingdoms into which the Macedonian monarchy became 
broken up; and Seleucus Nicator, its first ruler, was a more powerful 
sovereign than Ptolemy Lagi. Seleucus ruled from the Mediterranean 
to the Indus and from the Jaxartes to the Indian Ocean, having thus a 
territory five or six times as large as that of Ptolemy. His dominion 
was emphatically " a great dominion." It was the representative in 
Western Asia of the great monarchy which had existed in that region 
from the time of Nimrod, and exceeded in dimensions every such mon- 
archy except the Persian. Seleucus and Ptolemy Lagi maintained on 
the whole friendly relations; and the struggle between the kings of 
the north and of the south was deferred in the reigns of their succes- 
sors. — " Egypt and Babylon," George Raivlinson, M. A., p. 207. New 
York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Greece, Appian on the Kingdom of Seleucus. — At this division 
[301 b. c] all Syria from the Euphrates to the sea, also inland Phrygia, 



212 GREECE 



fell to the lot of Seleucus. Always lying in wait for the neighboring 
nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Meso- 
potamia, Armenia, the so-called Seleucid Cappadocia, the Persians, 
Parthians, Bactrians, Arabs, Tapryi, Sogdiani, Arachates, Hyrcanians, 
and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far 
as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most 
extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from 
Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. — " The Roman History" 
Appian of Alexandria, translated by Horace White, " The Foreign Wars," 
book 11, chap. 9, par. 55 (Vol. I. p. 314). New York: The Macmillan 
Company, 1899. 

Greece, The North Becomes the Territory of Seleucus. — He 
[Seleucus] then [312 b. c] proceeded to conquer Susiana, Media, and 
the eastern provinces of Alexander's empire to the banks of the Oxus 
and the Indus. He carried on war, too, with an Indian king, Sandra- 
cottus or Chandragupta. In 306 he assumed the title of king, and in 
302 he again joined Lysimachus, Cassander, and Ptolemy against Antig- 
onus; and the victory at Ipsus in 301 was largely due to his general- 
ship. By this victory he acquired half of Asia Minor and all Syria. 
After capturing Demetrius in 286 b. c, Seleucus declared war on Ly- 
simachus, and defeated and slew him at Corupedion. This victory made 
Seleucus master of all Asia, and left the throne of Macedonia vacant. 
Seleucus crossed the Hellespont to seize it; but he was murdered in 
Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He 
was a great conqueror, and founded many cities. . . . These foundations 
were centers of Greek life and culture; and two of them, Antioch in 
Syria and Seleucia on the Tigris, ranked among the greatest cities of 
the world. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, art. "Seleucus," p. 91. 

Greece, Capitol of Seleucus Removed to Antioch. — The empire of 
Seleucus might have been conveniently ruled from the site of the 
ancient Nineveh, or from either of the two still existing and still 
flourishing cities of Susa and Babylon. . . . Babylon was Seleucus's first 
choice; and there his court was held for some years previously to his 
march against Antigonus. But either certain disadvantages were found 
to attach to Babylon as a residence, or the mere love of variety and 
change caused him very shortly to repent of his selection, and to 
transfer his capital to another site. He founded, and built with great 
rapidity, the city of Seleucia upon the Tigris, at the distance of about 
forty miles from Babylon, and had transferred thither the seat of gov- 
ernment even before b. c. 301. . . . 

But after Ipsus a further change was made. . . . Seleucus once 
more transferred the seat of empire, exchanging this time the valley of 
the Tigris for that of the Orontes, and the central position of Lower 
Mesopotamia for almost the extreme western point of his vast terri- 
tories. Antioch arose in extraordinary beauty and magnificence during 
the first few years that succeeded Ipsus, and Seleucus in a short time 
made it his ordinary residence. The change weakened the ties which 
bound the empire together, offended the bulk of the Asiatics, who saw 
their monarch withdraw from them into a remote region, and particu- 
larly loosened the grasp of the government on those more eastern dis- 
tricts which were at once farthest from the new metropolis and least 
assimilated to the Hellenic character. Among the causes which led to 
the disintegration of the Seleucid kingdom, there is none that deserves 
so well to be considered the main cause as this. — " The Sixth Great Ori- 
ental Monarchy," George Rawlinson, M. A., chap. 3, pp. 34, 35. New 
York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 



GREECE 213 

Greece, Warfare over Palestine. — It was the fond dream of each 
" successor " of Alexander that in his person might, perhaps, be one day 
united all the territories of the great conqueror. Seleucus would have 
felt that he sacrificed his most cherished hopes if he had allowed the 
West to go its own way, and had contented himself with consolidating 
a great power in the regions east of the Euphrates. 

And the policy of the founder of the house was followed by his 
successors. The three Seleucid sovereigns who reigned prior to the 
Parthian revolt were, one and all, engaged in frequent, if not continual, 
wars with the monarchs of Egypt and Asia Minor. The first Seleucus, 
by his claim to the sovereignty of Lower Syria, established a ground of 
constant contention with the Ptolemies; and though he did not prosecute 
the claim to the extent of actual hostility, yet in the reign of his son, 
Antiochus I, called Soter, the smothered quarrel broke out. — " The 
Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy," George Raivlinson, M. A., chap. 3, 
p. 37. Neio York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 

The Ptolemies gained Cyrene and Cyprus, and struggled hard with 
the Syrian kings for the possession of Phoenicia; Palestine was as of 
old the battlefield for the king of the north and the king of the south. 
The Ptolemies even held Seleucia at the mouth of the Orontes for some 
time. The history of these times is lost in its detail. — The Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XV, art. "Macedonian Empire,'' 1 p. 144, 9th edition. 

Greece, Outline History of Conflicts of the Kings of North and 
South. — Ptolemy became master of Palestine in 312 b. c, and though, 
as Josephus complains, he may have disgraced his title, Soter [Pre- 
server], by momentary severity at the outset, later he created in the 
minds of the Jews the impression that in Palestine or in Egypt he was 

— in deed as well as in name — their preserver. Since 315 b. c. Pales- 
tine had been occupied by the forces of Antigonus. Ptolemy's successful 
forward movement was undertaken by the advice of Seleucus (Diodorus 
xix. 80 sqq.), who followed it up by regaining possession of Babylonia. 
So the Seleucid era began in 312 b. c. (cf. Maccabees 1: 10) and the 
dynasty of Seleucus justified the "prophecy" of Daniel (11: 5): "And 
the king of the south [Ptolemy] shall be strong, but one of his captains 
[Seleucus] shall be strong above him and have dominion." . . . 

But when Seleucus came to claim Palestine as part of his share, 
he found his old chief Ptolemy in possession and retired under protest. 
From 301 b. c. to 198 b. c. Palestine remained, with short interruptions, 
in the hands of the Ptolemies. . . . 

Halfway through this century (249 b. c.) the desultory warfare 
between Egypt and the Seleucid power came to a temporary end (Dan. 
11: 6). Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, gave his daughter Berenice with a 
great dowry to Antiochus II, Theos. When Ptolemy died (247 B. a), 
Antiochus's divorced wife Laodice was restored to favor, and Antiochus 
died suddenly in order that she might regain her power. Berenice and 
her son were likewise removed from the path pi her son Seleucus. In 
the vain hope of protecting his sister Berenice, the new king of Egypt, 
Ptolemy III Euergetes I, invaded the Seleucid territory, "entered the 
fortress of the king of the north " (Dan. 11: 7 sqq.), and only returned 

— laden with spoils, images captured from Egypt by Cambyses, and 
captives (Jerome on Daniel loc. cit.) — to put down a domestic rebellion. 
Seleucus reconquered northern Syria without much difficulty (Justin 
xxxvii. 2, 1), but on an attempt to seize Palestine he was signally de- 
feated by Ptolemy (Justin xxvii. 2, 4). 

In 223 b. c. Antiochus III the Great came to the throne of the 
Seleucid Empire and set about extending its boundaries in different di- 



214 GREECE 

rections. His first attempt on Palestine (221 b. c.) failed; the second 
succeeded by the treachery of Ptolemy's lieutenant, who had been re- 
called to Alexandria in consequence of his successful resistance to the 
earlier invasion. But in spite of this assistance the conquest of Coele- 
Syria was not quickly achieved; and when Antiochus advanced in 
218 b. c. he was opposed by the Egyptians on land and sea. Neverthe- 
less he made his way into Palestine, planted garrisons at Philoteria on 
the Sea of Galilee and Scythopolis, and finally stormed Rabbath-ammon 
(Philadelphia) which was held by partisans of Egypt. [Dan. 11: 10.] 
Early in 217 b. c. Ptolemy Philopater led his forces toward Raphia, 
which with Gaza was now in the hands of Antiochus, and drove the 
invaders back. The great multitude was given into his hand, but he 
was not to be strengthened permanently by his triumph (Dan. 11: 11 
sqq.). Polybius describes his triumphal progress (v. 86): "All the 
cities vied with one another in returning to their allegiance. The in- 
habitants of those parts are always ready to accommodate themselves 
to the situation of the moment and prompt to pay the courtesies re- 
quired by the occasion. And in this case it was natural enough because 
of their deep-seated affection for the royal house of Alexandria." 

When Ptolemy Philopater died, in 205 b. c, Antiochus and Philip 
of Macedon, his nominal friends, made a secret compact for the division 
of his possessions outside Egypt. The time had come of which Daniel 
(11: 13 sqq.) says: "The king of the north shall return after certain 
years with a great army and with much riches. And in those times 
there shall many stand up against the king of the south." . . . Pales- 
tine was apparently allotted to Antiochus and he came to take it, while 
Philip created a diversion in Thrace and Asia Minor. . . . But in the 
year 200 b. c. Rome intervened with an embassy, which declared war 
upon Philip and directed Antiochus and Ptolemy to make peace (Polyb. 
xvi. 27). And in 198 b. c. Antiochus heard that Scopas, Ptolemy's hired 
commander-in-chief, had retaken Coele-Syria (Polyb. xvi. 39) and had 
subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. For these sufficient 
reasons Antiochus hurried back and defeated Scopas at Paneas, which 
was known later as Csesarea Philippi (Polyb. xvi. 18 sqq.). After his 
victory he took formal possession of Batanam, Samaria, Abila, and 
Gadara; " and after a little the Jews who dwelt round about the shrine 
called Jerusalem came over to him" (Polyb. xvi. 39). Only Gaza with- 
stood him, as it withstood Alexander; and Polybius (xvi. 40) pauses to 
praise their fidelity to Ptolemy. The siege of Gaza was famous; but in 
the end the city was taken by storm [thus " fenced cities " were taken. 
Dan. 11: 15], and Antiochus, secure at last of the province, which his 
ancestors had so long coveted, was at peace with Ptolemy, as the Roman 
embassy directed. . . . But war between Rome and Antiochus was clearly 
inevitable — and Antiochus was joined by Hannibal. After much di- 
plomacy, Antiochus advanced into Greece, and Rome declared war upon 
him in 191 b. c. (Livy xxxvi. 1). He was defeated on the seas and 
driven first out of Greece and then out of Asia Minor. His army was 
practically destroyed at Magnesia, and he was forced to accept the terms 
of peace, which the Romans had offered and he had refused before the 
battle. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XX, art. " Palestine," pp. 
618, 619, 11th edition. 

Note. — In this article explanatory insertions in brackets [] are by the 
publishers of this book, while those in curves are in the Encyclopedia article 
itself. — Eds. 

Greece, Two Greek Nations Fighting over Palestine. — Backward 
and forward came the armies of these two Greek nations, from Egypt 
and from Asia, and often they met in the shock of battle right in the 



GREECE 215 



heart of Palestine. The house of Ptolemy, after generations of war- 
fare, won something like a permanent supremacy, and for one hundred 
years Jerusalem was subject to the Egyptian Greeks. After a century 
the house of Seleucid won, and then Jerusalem was subject to that 
hou-e. The one hundred years of subjection to the house of Ptolemy 
brings us through the pre-Maccabean times up to the Maccabean times. 
It was during Israel's subjection to the house of Seleucid that the Mac- 
cabees asserted themselves. — "Between the Testaments, or Interbiblical 
History," Rev. David Gregg, D. D., LL. D., p. 52. New York: Funk and 
Wagnalls Company, 1907. 

Greece, Antiochus Epiphanes. — Thus things were when Antiochus 
Epiphanes came to the throne of the house of Seleucid [b. c. 175]. He 
was a man of reckless vehemence; vehemence was his temperament. 
His surname was Epiphanes — " God made manifest." Popular wit 
changed it to Epimanes, " the madman." Popular wit was keen and 
true. As Antiochus was an intense Hellenist, he saw in his kingdom a 
field in which to operate as the crowned apostle of Hellenism. As Jeru- 
salem seemed to have some Hellenistic tendencies, he began his work 
of proselytizing there. He put an evil man over Jerusalem. The 
theater and the gymnasium were introduced. He entered the temple 
and robbed it of all its treasures. He appropriated the golden altar, 
and the golden candlesticks, and the golden censers, and the golden 
cups to pour withal; and scaled off the adorning gold which was on the 
face of the temple. He transformed the Holy City into a Greek gar- 
rison, and then turned the sacred temple of Jehovah into a temple of 
Olympian Zeus. The services of the temple were recast in Greek forms, 
with an image of a god which bore the features of Antiochus himself. 
In the sacred precincts he slaughtered swine, and sprinkled the blood 
on everything counted holy. The two Maccabean psalms in the Hebrew 
Psalter, the 74th and 79th, reflect the horrors of the situation. It is 
not strange that, amid these fearful calamities, when imagination was 
at full tension and hearts were cloven with anxiety, portents are re- 
ported. In 2 Mac. 5: 5-10 we read: "Through all the city, for the 
space almost of forty days, there were seen horsemen galloping through 
the air, and squadrons of cavalry in array." 

A fearful persecution was now decreed by Antiochus. All sacred 
books were destroyed, and merely to possess a copy of God's law was 
declared to be a capital offense. Sabbath keeping, circumcision, and all 
Mosaic ordinances were forbidden on the pain of death. The people 
were compelled to eat the flesh of swine. Instead of the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, Antiochus instituted Bacchanalian processions; and old and 
grave Israelites were compelled to join the processions wearing joy 
wreaths around their heads. Commissioners were instructed to destroy 
Judaism root and branch, and to insist that all the inhabitants of 
Palestine duly conform to pagan rites. — Id., pp. 64-66. 

Greece, Antiochus Epiphanes Impossible. — He [Antiochus Epiph- 
anes] was a man of an extraordinary character. Dean Stanley calls 
him one of those strange characters in whom an eccentricity touching 
insanity on the left and genius on the right combined with absolute 
power and lawless passion to produce a portentous result, thus bearing 
out the two names by which he was known — Epiphanes, " the brilliant," 
and Epimanes, " the madman." He was " a fantastic creature, without 
dignity or self-control, who caricatured the manners and dress of the 
august Roman magistrates, startled young revelers by bursting in on 
them with pipe and horn, tumbled with the bathers on the slippery 
marble pavement, and in the procession which he organized at Daphne, 



216 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

appeared riding in and out on a hack pony, playing the part of chief 
waiter, mountebank, and jester." — "Egypt and Babylon'' George Raw- 
linson, M. A., p. 215. New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Greece.— Pages 86, 156, 331, 464, 465. 

Gregory VII.— Pages 243, 257, 356, 361, 362, 368, 384, 412, 413, 
486, 506, 543, 598. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol a " Mocker." — It can be demon- 
strated that every action of alcohol in the body is an action on tissue 
cells, and is paralytic in its effect, the cells of the brain suffering in the 
inverse order of their development, the last developed suffering first and 
most, the first developed suffering last and least. ... If this is true, why 
do not all believe it? For two reasons: Because alcohol mocks those 
who take it, and enriches those who make it. Wine is a mocker. It 
promises what it does not give. It gives one and takes ten. But this is 
its primary deception. Its secondary deception is the crave for more 
that it ultimately engenders. Like morphia, it creates a craving for 
itself. — W. A. Chappie, M. D.; cited in "Shall I Drink?" Joseph H. 
Crooker, pp. 9, 10. New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1914. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol a Habit-Forming Drug. — Scien- 
tists differ as to the fractional value of alcohol as a food. Physicians 
differ upon the minor value of alcohol as a medicine. Scientific and 
medical men agree that alcohol is a drug, and that it belongs to the 
group of habit-forming drugs which beget pleasurable but destructive 
effects. All of them agree that alcohol predisposes the user to disease, 
and is a common cause of insanity. All of them agree that the habitual 
and even moderate use of alcohol induces tissue handicapped by a nerv- 
ous system prone to insanity, epilepsy, and other major faults. — Rich- 
ard Olding Beard, M. D., Professor of Physiology, University of Minne- 
sota; quoted in the Pioneer, Toronto, May 26, 1916. 

Health and Temperance, Scientific Congress on Nature of Alco- 
hol. — In the summer of 1909 an international conference on alcoholism 
was held in London, to which most of the great nations sent scientific 
men or delegates. Comparing the results of investigation made in all 
parts of the world, finding that these results agreed, representative 
medical leaders of the conference drew up a report in the form of a 
statement defining the nature of alcohol, as follows: 

" Exact laboratory, Clinical, and pathological research has demon- 
strated that alcohol is a dehydrating, protoplasmic poison, and its use as 
a beverage is destructive and degenerating to the human organism. Its 
effects upon the cells and tissues of the body are depressive, narcotic, 
and anesthetic. Therefore, therapeutically, its use should be limited 
and restricted in the same way as the use of other poisonous drugs." — 
'• Speech of Hon. Richmond P. Hobson, in the House of Representatives, 
Feb. 2, 1911" pp. 2, 3. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol Paralyzes the Powers of Re- 
sistance. — Nearly all the diseases of mankind and nearly all the deaths 
hang upon the vitality and vigor of the white blood corpuscles. Under 
the microscope it was found that even a moderate drink of alcoholic 
beverage passing quickly into the blood paralyzes the white blood cor- 
puscles. They behave like drunken men. In pursuit they cannot catch 
the disease germs. In conflict they cannot hold the disease germs for 
devouring, and they cannot operate in great phalanxes, as they do when 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 217 

sober, against such powerful germs as those of consumption. Every 
time a man takes a drink of alcoholic beverage, he lays himself open 
for a time to contracting diseases. Every time a man takes a drink, he 
puts his life in peril. No wonder the mortality statistics show, as they 
do, that a total abstainer has nearly twice the security and hold on life 
that the average drinker has, and about three times the hold of heavy 
drinkers. — Speech of Hon. Richmond P. Hobson, in the House of Rep- 
resentatives, Feb. 2, 1911, p. 4. Washington, D. C: Government Printing 
Office, 1912. 

Health and Temperance, Railroads and the Use of Alcoholic 
Drink. — We received answers from ten railroads having over 400,000 
employees. . . . There has been a marked change in attitude among 
these corporations since the government study of twenty years ago. 
At that time there was a large number of railroad organizations that 
had no rule in regard to the use of alcohol and made no attempt to 
reduce its consumption among their employees. Now, apparently, it is 
difficult for a man to secure a position in the operating branches unless 
he is a teetotaler; and any employee is liable to lose his position if he 
indulges in intoxicants or frequents places where alcoholic beverages 
are sold. — " Railroads and the Use of Alcohol," in the Monthly Bulletin 
of the Department of Health of the City of New York, June, 1916, pp. 
160-162. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol and Degeneracy. — The physi- 
cians in charge of our insane asylums and our institutions for the care 
of the mentally deficient, have given us a tremendous amount of statis- 
tical information during the past few years; and under the heading of 
the principal causes of insanity, apoplexy, mental deficiency, moral de- 
generacy, and criminal tendencies, alcohol is given the prime etiological 
place. — " The Baneful Influences of Alcohol," J. Wallace Beveridge, 
M. D., in Medical Times, September, 1914, p. 281. 

Health and Temperance, Constitutional Amendment. — 
Article XVIII 
Liquor Prohibition Amendment 

1. After one year from the ratification of this Article the manufac- 
ture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the impor- 
tation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States 
and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage pur- 
poses is hereby prohibited. 

2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power 
to enforce this Article by appropriate legislation. 

3. This Article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been rati- 
fied as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the 
several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from 
the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. — The 
World Almanac and Encyclopedia, 1921. p. 637. 

Note. — Official announcement of the adoption of this Amendment bv 45 
States was made by Secretary of State Lansing on Feb. 25, 1919. Eds. 

Health and Temperance, Prohibition, First Year of. — An official 
of the Anti-Saloon League states: 

" The most revolutionary social reform known in the history of 
the world has been in operation for one year, and there has been no 
uprising, no refusal to work or play on account of it, no bankruptcy 
of the Federal Government, no terrible slump in real estate, none of the 



218 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 



other dire catastrophes that were predicted. On the other hand, even 
partial enforcement has proved a benefit and often a blessing. 

" There has been a ' crime wave,' but it was worse in wet Europe. 
Prohibition has mitigated the rigors of financial readjustment and pre- 
vented more serious labor troubles. 

" There is no phase of the recent violation of law that has hit the 
Eastern States that was not experienced in the pioneer prohibition 
States. It was outgrown there. It' will subside here just in propor- 
tion as the spirit of real Americanism prevails. 

" It will take a long time to make prohibition fully effective, but 
the American people will never again legalize the liquor traffic, because 
prohibition has already prohibited far better than regulation ever 
regulated." — Dr. Frank Crane, in an editorial, "The First Year of 
Prohibition" in Current Opinion, March, 1921, p. 318. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol Not a Pood. — It is quite cer- 
tain now that the taking of alcohol does not make one less apt to freeze, 
but more so, and that it does not yield any such quantity of energy as 
to be at all compensatory for the injury it may otherwise produce. I 
have stated on the witness stand, in answer to a question, that I con- 
sidered alcohol to be a food because a certain quantity of it is burned 
in the body and results in the production of heat and energy. In the 
light of the investigations which have been made, and from theoretical 
conditions, I am inclined to the opinion that the effort to rid the body 
of alcohol, even in the relatively small quantities I have mentioned, 
perhaps consumes a great deal more energy than is furnished by its 
combustion, and that upon the whole alcohol cannot be regarded as 
a food even in the limited sense above specified. It is without question 
a substance which does not nourish the body, build tissue, or repair 
waste, and it is quite likely that its value either as a food or medi- 
cine has been greatly overestimated. — Harvey W. Wiley, M. D., art. on 
" Bromatotherap% r," in the Monthly Cyclopedia and Medical Bulletin, 
Philadelphia, October, 1911, pp. 577, 578. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol Not a Remedy. — Both as a 
means of prevention of disease and as a remedy for disease, alcohol is 
rapidly falling into disrepute, and bids fair to become a mere memory 
in the materia medica and in pharmacopoeia. — Ibid. 

Health and Temperance, Alcohol, American Medical Association 
Opposed to the Use of. — At the meeting of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation held on June 6, 1917, Dr. Charles H. Mayo, the noted surgeon, 
in his presidential address, stated that the only legitimate use for al- 
cohol was in the arts and sciences, and that its use in medicine had be- 
come greatly restricted because other less menacing drugs and remedial 
measures could be used instead. . . . 

At a later meeting the House of Delegates of the American Medical 
Association passed the following resolution: 

"Whereas, We believe that the use of alcohol is detrimental to 
the human economy; and, 

" Whereas, Its use in therapeutics as a tonic or stimulant or for 
food has no scientific value; therefore, 

" Be it resolved, That the American Medical Association is opposed 
to the use of alcohol as a beverage; and, 

" Be it further resolved, That the use of alcohol as a therapeutic 
agent should be further discouraged." — " How to Live," Prof. Irving 
Fisher and Eugene Lyman Fish, M. D., p. 329. New York: Funk and 
Wagnalls Company, 1919. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 219 



Health and Temperance, Alcohol, Harmful Influence of. — The 
laboratory and the life insurance records simply give exact expression 
to what has long been a matter of common knowledge to the employer 
of labor and to leaders and commanders of men: to wit, that the in- 
fluence of alcohol on any large group of men, whether they be artisans 
or soldiers, is harmful and lowers the efficiency of the group. — " How 
to Live'' Prof. Irving Fisher and Eugene Lyman Fisk, M. D., p. 319. 
New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1919. 

Health and Temperance, Lincoln's Plan for Reform. — " Merwin, 
we have cleared up, with the help of the people, a colossal job. Slavery 
is abolished. After reconstruction, the next great question will be the 
overthrow and abolition of the liquor traffic; and you know, Merwin, 
that my head and heart and hand and purse will go into that work. In 
1842 — less than a quarter of a century ago — I predicted, under the 
influence of God's Spirit, that the time would come when there would be 
neither a slave nor a drunkard in the land. Thank God, I have lived to 
see one of those prophecies fulfilled. I hope to see the other realized." 
Major Merwin was so impressed by this remarkable statement that he 
said, "Mr. Lincoln, shall I publish this from you?" "Yes," was his 
prompt and emphatic reply, "publish it as wide as the daylight shines." 
— "Latest Light on Aoraham Lincoln''' Ervin S. Chapman, D. D., p. 174. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Note. — Major Merwin started for New York immediately after this conver- 
sation, and the next morning heard that Lincoln had been shot. — Eds. 

Health and Temperance, The Liquor Traffic. — I hate it for the 
load it straps to labor's back, for its wounds to genius. I hate it for 
the human wrecks it has caused. I hate it for the almshouses it peo- 
ples, for the prisons it fills, for the insanity it begets, for its countless 
graves in potter's fields. 

I hate it for the mental ruin it imposes upon its victims, for its 
spiritual blight, for its moral degradation. I hate it for the crimes it 
has committed. I hate it for the homes it has destroyed. I hate it for 
the hearts it has broken. I hate it for the grief it causes womanhood 
— the scalding tears, the hopes deferred, the strangled aspirations. I 
hate it for its heartless cruelty to the aged, the infirm, and the helpless, 
for the shadow it throws upon the lives of children. 

I hate it as virtue hates vice, as truth hates error, as righteousness 
hates sin, as justice hates wrong, as liberty hates tyranny, as freedom 
hates oppression.— Ex- Governor J. Frank Hanly, of Indiana: cited in 
" The Shadow of the Bottle,' 1 p. 30. 

Health and Temperance, Cardinal Gibbons on Intemperance. — 
The great curse of the laboring man is intemperance. It has brought 
more desolation to the wage-earners than strikes, or war, or sickness, or 
death. It is a more unrelenting tyrant than the grasping monopolist. 
It has caused little children to be hungry and cold, to grow up among 
evil associates, to be reared without the knowledge of God. It has 
broken up more homes and wrecked more lives than any other curse on 
the face of the earth. — Cardinal Giodons, of Baltimore; cited in "The 
Shadow of the Bottle," p. 102. * 

Health and Temperance, Nansen on Tea, Coffee, and Other Stim- 
ulants. — My experience, however, leads me to take a decided stand 
against the use of stimulants and narcotics of all kinds, from tea and 
coffee on the one hand, to tobacco and alcoholic drinks on the other. 
It must be a sound principle at all times that one should live in as nat- 



220 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

ural and simple a way as possible, and especially must this be the case 
when the life is a life of severe exertion in an extremely cold climate. 
The idea that one gains by stimulating the body and mind by artificial 
means betrays, in my opinion, not only ignorance of the simplest physio- 
logical laws, but also a want of experience, or perhaps a want of capacity 
to learn from experience by observation. It seems indeed quite simple 
and obvious that one can get nothing in this life without paying 
for it in one way or another, and that artificial stimulants, even if 
they had not the directly injurious effect which they undoubtedly have, 
can produce nothing but a temporary excitement followed by a corre- 
sponding reaction. — " First Grossing of Finland," Fridtjof Nansen, pp. 
40, 41. 

Health and Temperance, John Wesley's Letter on Tea. — " But I 
cannot leave it off; for it helps my health. Nothing else agrees with 
me." I answer, First, will nothing else agree with you? I know not 
how to believe that. . . . Secondly, if in fact nothing else will, if tea 
has already weakened your stomach and impaired your digestion to 
such a degree, it has hurt you more than you are aware; it has preju- 
diced your health extremely. You have need to abhor it as deadly poi- 
son, and to renounce it from this very hour. . . . How few understand, 
" Whether ye eat or drink, or whatever ye do, do all to the glory of 
God." And how glad ought you to be of a fair occasion to observe that 
though the kingdom of God does not consist in meats and drinks, yet 
without exact temperance in these, we cannot have either righteousness 
or peace or joy in the Holy Ghost. — " Letter to a Friend on Tea," John 
Wesley, dated Dec. 10, 1748. (Tract in British Museum Library.) 

Health and Temperance, Tea, Increase of Uric Acid Diseases 
Due to. — In taking tea, man is taking pure poison and no nourishment 
whatever; and with the introduction and diffusion of tea and coffee 
throughout the land, there has come about a very great increase of all 
uric acid diseases. — " Uric Acid in the Causation of Disease," Dr. Alex. 
Haig, p. 804. 

Health and Temperance, Coffee, a Stimulant. — Coffee acts espe- 
cially as a stimulant. If one feels tired because of! physical or mental 
exertion, that is nature's signal that one should rest. If instead of 
resting the tired person drinks a cup of strong coffee, the feeling of 
fatigue will disappear, and he may then undertake additional labor. 
Such labor, however, is done at the expense of tissues already exhausted, 
and cannot be regarded as healthful exertion. It is far better to rest 
when you feel tired than to drive away signals of distress by taking 
any stimulant, even so mild as coffee. — " Health Reader," Harvey W. 
Wiley, M. D., formerly Chief Chemist of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, p. 237. New York: Rand McNally & Co. 

The use of tea and coffee tends to establish a habit. Some people 
begin their day by drinking one, two, or more cups of strong tea or 
coffee. If for any reason they are deprived of this stimulant, they are 
miserable the rest of the morning. Very soon they have a headache, and 
do not feel inclined to do anything but find fault. Whenever you eat 
or drink anything which has practically no food value, and you are 
made unhappy when forced to do without it, you may be sure its 
use has become a habit and is injurious. — Id., p. 238. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco. Injurious Effects of. — It leads 
to impaired nutrition of the nerve centers. 

It is a fertile cause of neuralgia, vertigo, and indigestion. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 221 



It irritates the mouth and throat, and thus destroys the purity of 
the voice. 

By excitation of the optic nerves it provokes amaurosis and other 
defects of vision. 

It causes a tremulous hand and an intermittent pulse. 

One of its conspicuous effects is to develop irritability of the heart. 

It retards the cell change upon which the development of the ado- 
lescent depends. 

It will be remembered that when the Boer War broke out, 11,000 
volunteered for service in the Manchester District alone: 8.000 of whom 
were at once rejected as physically unfit, and only 1,200 finally passed 
the doctors. The chief cause of unfitness was proved to be smoking by 
boys and young men. — Dr. A. E. Gilson, of the United States Navy; 
quoted in Youth's Instructor, Washington, D. C, Aug. 28. 1917. 

Health and Temperance, The Cigarette and Railway Service. — 
George Baumhoff, superintendent of the Lindell Railway, St. Louis, once 
said: " Under no circumstances will I hire a man who smokes cigarettes. 
He is as dangerous at the front end of a motor as the man who drinks; 
in fact, he is more dangerous. His nerves are bound to give way at a 
critical moment. A motorman needs his nerve all the time, and a ciga- 
rette smoker cannot stand the strain." — New York Journal, May 19, 
1911. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco in Arctic Cold. — Tobacco is 
equally or more objectionable in polar work. It affects the wind en- 
durance of a man, particularly in low temperatures, adds an extra and 
entirely unnecessary article to the outfit, vitiates the atmosphere of 
tent or igloo, and, when the supply gives out, renders the user a nui- 
sance to himself and those about him. — " The Secrets of Polar Travel," 
Rear- Admiral Robert E. Peary, p. 77. 

Health and Temperance, Nansen on Tobacco. — Though tobacco is 
less destructive than alcohol, still, whether it is smoked or chewed, it 
has an extremely harmful effect upon men who are engaged in severe 
physical exertion, and not least so when the supply of food is not abun- 
dant. Tobacco has not only an injurious influence upon the digestion, 
but it lessens the strength of the body, and reduces nervous power, 
capacity for endurance, and tenacity of purpose. — " First Crossing of 
Greenland." Fridtjof Nansen, p. 41. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Indictment of. — Tobacco is not 
a food. It is a drug. A healthy human being can get along without 
it. One who has never used it is better off, his health has a surer 
foundation, and his life expectancy is greater than in the case of one 
who is a habitual user. 

Hence the weed has no standing whatever in the court of Science, 
Hygiene, and Sound Sense. 

Its use causes many disorders. It often affects the throat in- 
juriously, and many singers, actors, and public speakers have found it 
necessary to abstain. 

It sometimes has a disastrous effect upon the nervous system. Many 
highly strung and sensitive persons have found that it makes them 
nervous and irritable. 

It also has in some cases a bad influence upon the heart; the "to- 
bacco heart " is well known to physicians. 

It sometimes injures the eyes. 

These are the principal points in the indictment against tobacco. — 
Br. Frank Crane, in an editorial, " Shall Tobacco Be Prohibited? " in 
Current Opinion. March. 1921. p. 316. 



222 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Effects of Use of. — Twenty- 
four years' experience in teaching hygiene and physical education to 
boys and young men has convinced me that tobacco is injurious to 
growing youths. The class of boys and young men coming under my 
observation includes very few who begin smoking before the age of 
sixteen or who smoke excessively. 

The effects produced by the use of tobacco vary over wide limits 
according to the individual's temperament, the age when he begins 
smoking, and the quantity of tobacco consumed. It is difficult in many 
cases to determine accurately the effects produced by tobacco, because 
such factors as lack of exercise, insufficient sleep, and abuse of coffee, 
tea, and other drugs, are often present in individuals who use tobacco. 

The effects which may be attributed at least in part to the use of 
tobacco by adolescents are: rapid and irregular pulse (100-120); poor 
circulation, manifested by pallor of skin and cold extremities; poor 
"wind" and lack of endurance; nervousness and irritability. These 
abnormal conditions are most marked in youths who are of a nervous 
temperament, lead an unhygienic life, and use much tobacco. Some 
cases have come under my observation where the excessive use of to- 
bacco was undoubtedly the chief cause in producing unfavorable symp- 
toms. This was proved by the rapid and marked improvement which 
took place when the use of tobacco was discontinued. — George L. Med- 
ian, M. A., M. D., art. " The Effects of Tobacco on Boys,'" in Medical 
Times, June, 1914. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Effects of Use of. — Just as 
alcohol lessens the power of resistance and makes the chances for re- 
covery less in the different diseases, so does tobacco. It also predis- 
poses us to disease. For the above reasons we should know a great 
deal more about its effect than we do. I am aware of the fact that it 
is a more popular weed to use than to write about and discuss. Hare 
says that tobacco is not only a frequent cause of insomnia, but is 
one of the most influential factors in the production of disturbances 
peculiar to falling asleep and awakening. The insomnia of tobacco is 
apt to take the form of early waking, but not quite so early as that of 
the neurotic individual. The latter waking usually comes on soon after 
midnight; tobacco insomnia about two hours later. In every case of 
insomnia tobacco should be thought of as a possible cause. . . . Tobacco 
is the cause of a great many headaches, diagnosed as migraine. It is 
also the cause or a great many cases of brachial and scapular neuralgia, 
diagnosed as rheumatism. It is also the indirect cause of a great many 
of the occupation neuroses. It is the cause of a great deal of so-called 
indigestion. It causes an inflammation of the eustachian tubes, and 
impairs the sense of hearing. It causes amaurosis and amblyopia. It 
causes stomatitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, and bronchitis, the secondary 
effects being cancer of the mouth, and a cough which predisposes the 
individual to tuberculosis. It causes insomnia, which leads to the use 
of stronger narcotics. The tobacco user, if r>nt a neurasthenic to begin 
with, always acquires neurasthenia. — R. L. White, M. D., art. " The Ef- 
fect of the Habitual Use of Tobacco" in So. Medical Journal, Jan. 1, 1915. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Nervous Breakdown Due to. — 
The effects of tobacco poisoning upon the growing organisms of the 
young are far greater than upon adults, yet it can easily be demon- 
strated that the tobacco habit in all forms so seriously affects the nerve 
centers as to create muscular tremor, general languor, with general de- 
pression of the nervous and circulatory functions. It enfeebles the 
action of the heart, inhibits cerebral activity, and thus limits the ca- 
pacity for thought. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 223 

In persons long accustomed to its use, amaurosis, with limited 
color perception, and contracted field of vision, are commonly observed. 
There can be no doubt that many of the cases of so-called nervous break- 
down, attributed to overwork, are really due to tobacco poisoning. — 
Dudley 8. Reynolds, A. M., M. D., in Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 
July, 1902. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Poisons in. — Few people realize 
that so many ingredients in tobacco and tobacco smoke are deadly 
poisons. " Few people know that one drop of nicotine on the unbroken 
skin of a rabbit will produce death. (Hobart Amory Hare: Fisk Prize 
Dissertation, No. 34, p. 1884, A. S. Dixon: Proceedings of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Nov. 11, 1884.) Two drops on the 
tongue of a dog or cat will prove fatal; moreover, fatal poisonings have 
occurred in man from swallowing tobacco and even from external ap- 
plication of strong solutions. — " How to Live," Prof. Irving Fisher and 
Eugene Lyynan Fisk, M. D., p. 352. New York: Funk and Wagnalls 
Company, 1919. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Depressing Effect of. — At 
Yale and at Amherst it has been found, by actual measurement, that 
students not using tobacco during the college course had gained over 
the users of tobacco in weight, height, growth of chest, and lung ca- 
pacity. 

Professor Pack, of the University of Utah, finds that tobacco-using 
athletes are distinctly inferior to those who abstain. Professor Lom- 
bard, of the University of Michigan, finds that tobacco lessens the 
power of voluntary muscles, presumably because of the depressing ef- 
fect on the central nervous system. — Id., p. 82. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Moderate Use of, Injurious. — 
An unprejudiced inquiry into the mental and physiological effects of 
tobacco smoking establishes the conviction that this habit, even in 
moderation, is definitely and permanently injurious to both mind and 
body. So many, indeed, are the scientific facts that point directly to 
this conclusion that it is difficult to select the most important ones. . . . 
We are not speaking of excessive use, but of moderate use. . . . 

All agree that tobacco is a poison, to be used in moderation, if at 
all. This article is written to remind its readers of the very simple 
proposition that the habitual smoking of tobacco in moderation will, 
if given time enough, produce similar results in the heart, brain, stom- 
ach, lungs, and other vital organs to those brought about more rapidly 
by smoking to excess. . . . 

The following are well recognized direct results of moderate habit- 
ual smoking: Tobacco blindness, a most stubborn form of permanent 
affection of the eyes; cancer of the lips and of the tongue and of the 
throat, diseases almost wholly confined to smokers. Bouchard of Paris, 
. an authority on diseases of the heart and blood vessels, names tobacco 
as one of the leading causes of these deadly maladies, which have in- 
creased enormously in the last ten years. Ten per cent of all smokers 
have albumen in the urine. Dr. Wright of London showed that nicotine 
lowers the powers of resistance of the human body against tuberculosis, 
and post-mortem examinations at Phipps Institute showed that smokers 
are twice as subject to tuberculosis as nonsmokers. Standard works on 
the practice of medicine in relation to the cause of Bright's disease, 
arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, and other maladies -involving the heart 
and blood vessels, indicate that the death rate from these diseases dur- 
ing the past thirty or forty years has kept even pace with the increase 
in the use of tobacco. . . . 



224 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

At Yale University, Dr. J. W. Seaver gives the following results 
of tobacco tests among the students: 

Nonsmokers during the four years of college life gained, in height, 
weight, and chest measurement, 18 per cent more than regular smokers, 
and 12 per cent more than irregular smokers. 

In actual lung capacity — and this fact is very significant — the 
nonsmokers gained 50 per cent over regular smokers, and 35 per cent 
over irregular smokers. 

In regard to the effects of smoking on the nervous system, Dr. J. 
Leonard Corning, the eminent nerve specialist of this city [New York], 
declared that tobacco smoking causes nervousness, dyspepsia, tremu- 
lousness, listlessness, a distaste for work, and a difficulty in concentrat- 
ing attention upon a task when once it has been begun. He relates this 
habit also to arteriosclerosis, and even to insanity. — Edward H. Cleve- 
land, M. A., art. " A Review of Authorities Opposed to Tobacco" Chaplain 
of Riverside Hospital, New York, in Medical Times, June, 1914. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, A Physician's Testimony Con- 
cerning. — The effects on the heart are multifarious. The initial slow- 
ing of the beat found in experimental work does not often appear 
clinically, no doubt, because the later stage has been entered upon be- 
fore the opportunity for medical observation is given. As a rule the 
beat is accelerated, and this acceleration of the beat may be present as 
a persistent condition without any symptoms to correspond. In in- 
surance work, various observers have noted a higher average rate in 
smokers than in nonsmokers. Troitzki noted this in a large proportion 
of 600 smokers whom he investigated. Another observer — a Russian 
— dealing with insurance proposers, found an average pulse rate of 
71.55 in nonsmokers, against one of 81.24 in smokers. 

Nicolai and Stachelin made observations on themselves. They 
smoked six or eight strong cigars a day for several months, then gave 
up smoking except for an occasional cigar, and at the end of the se- 
mester repeated their records. Their average pulse rate during the 
abstinence period was 74.5 as compared with 81.8 while they were smok- 
ing. Another very common condition is an irregularity due to extra sys- 
toles. But, beyond this, their observations proved that the functional 
efficiency of the whole arterial system was definitely impaired. The ac- 
celeration of the pulse, which occurred after the performance of a meas- 
ured amount of work with the ergograph, was very much greater during 
the smoking period — in fact, the minimum acceleration during the 
smoking period was greater than the maximum during the time of 
abstinence, while recovery to the normal rate was much slower. 

It is in changed reactions such as these that we may probably find the 
key to, at all events, some part of the impaired efficiency of the cardio- 
vascular system, which by general consent is a common result of ex- 
cessive smoking. It is more than possible, too, that these imperfec- 
tions of functions are the precursors, if their cause is persisted in, of 
organic disease of the vessels. — H. G. Turney, M. D., "The Medical 
Aspects of Smoking," art. in the Medical Magazine, September, 1913, 
pp. 549, 555, 559. 

Note. — From statements made in other parts of this article it appears that 
Dr. Turney, the writer, was a " moderate " smoker, but he frankly states some 
facts concerning the effectsi of tobacco upon the health. — Eds. 

Health and Temperance, Tobacco, Effect of, upon School Boys. — 
Among the very interesting results gained by an examination of the 
records of over five hundred private school boys, few are more inter- 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 225 

esting than those concerned with the effects of tobacco smoking, and 
particularly cigarette smoking. These records take boys from twelve 
years of age to seventeen, inclusive, many unusual circumstances mak- 
ing it possible to obtain a large number of very personal data, facts* of 
which their parents may be — and probably are, after the usual manner 
of parents — quite ignorant. 

The first point to excite attention is the large number of those 
smoking. It must be remembered, of course, that many cases were un- 
known, from reluctance on the part of the boys to " incriminate " them- 
selves. Nevertheless, it was found that among these five hundred boys, 
15 per cent of the twelve-year-old boys either were smoking at the time 
the record was taken, or had smoked; 20 per cent of those thirteen years 
old; 38 per cent of those fourteen; 29 per cent of those fifteen; 57 per 
cent of those sixteen; and 71 per cent of those seventeen. In connection 
with this large percentage much might be said concerning the laxity of 
the laws which are supposed to regulate the sale of tobacco to boys. 
Now these were private school boys, who are generally supposed 
to have a better " looking after " than the public school boys. It is 
therefore a natural inference that the percentages in the public schools 
must be considerably larger. But even if the number of smokers is only 
half as large, or even a quarter, it constitutes a very grave problem 
indeed. 

The record cards of these boys carried their school grades, as well 
as their physical characteristics, and were made solely for the private 
use of the writer. Let us see how the school grades of the nonsmokers 
compare with those of the smokers. These grades are, of course, on the 
basis of 100 per cent, a rather cumbrous system, but handy. The grades 
average as follows: 

Age 12 13 14 15 16 17 

Grade of nonsmokers 83 90 89 84 87 85 

Grade of smokers ... 73 75 73 75 75 68 

If these figures are correct, and the writer has every reason to be- 
lieve them an underestimate, cigarette smoking must have a serious 
effect on a boy's mental development. Indeed, the writer has noticed 
that the " backward " boys in a class were almost always smokers, some- 
times of long standing. Of course there are other habits among boys 
which tend to draw them to the bottom of the class, but in my expe- 
rience boys possessing such habits are almost always smokers, though 
whether the smoking is the cause or merely an attendant phenomenon 
in such cases might be difficult to determine. Certain it is, however, 
that a boy's energy is bound to be more or less weakened by the con- 
stant use of a narcotic, so that we can easily believe that smoking may 
be the forerunner, if not the support, of other vices even more un- 
pleasant. — Charles Keen Taylor, art. " The Boy and the Cigarette," 
in the Psychological Clinic, March 15, 1910. 

Health and Temperance, Drugs, A Revolution in Use of. — The 

nineteenth century has witnessed a revolution in the treatment of 
disease, and the growth of a new school of medicine. The old schools 
— regular and homeopathic — put their trust in drugs, to give which was 
the alpha and the omega of their practice. For every symptom there 
were a score or more of medicines — vile, nauseous compounds in one 
case; bland, harmless dilutions in the other. The characteristic of the 
New School is firm faith in a few good, well-tried drugs, little or none 
in the great mass of medicines still in general use. Imperative drugging 
— the ordering of medicine in any and every malady — is no longer re- 
garded as the chief function of the doctor. Naturally, when the entire 
conception of the disease was changed, there came a corresponding 
15 



226 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

change in our therapeutics. In no respect is this more strikingly shown 
than our present treatment of fever — say, of the common typhoid 
fever. During the first quarter of the century the patients were bled, 
blistered, purged, and vomited, and dosed with mercury, antimony, and 
other compounds to meet special symptoms. During the second quarter 
the same, with variations in different countries. After 1850 bleeding 
became less frequent, and the experiments of the Paris and Vienna 
schools began to shake the belief in the control of fever by drugs. Dur- 
ing the last quarter sensible doctors have reached the conclusion that 
typhoid fever is not a disease to be treated with medicines, but that 
in a large proportion of all cases diet, nursing, and bathing meet the 
indications. — " ^Equanimitas," William Osier, M. D., F. R. S., chap. 
XIII (Medicine in the Nineteenth Century), pp. 267, 268. London: 
H. K. Lewis, 1906. 

Health and Temperance, Drugs Relegated to Secondary Place. — 
After some consideration I have deemed that the first and perhaps most 
outstanding fact in regard to drugs as a whole is the position which 
they at present hold in modern therapeutics. Years ago they were 
deemed to be of the first importance; without them there was no ther- 
apy. Today, with the exception of the few which have a definite spe- 
cific action on some of the discovered causes of disease, drugs in general 
have been relegated to a distinctly secondary place. For the cure of 
disease the physician today places more confidence in fresh air; on rest, 
either systematic or local; on a carefully arranged dietary which will 
afford a sufficient number of calories with the proper proportion of pro- 
teids, carbohydrates, and fats to supply most perfectly the wants of the 
organism without unduly taxing any weakened or suffering organ; and 
on a rational application of the principles of hydrotherapy. 

Certainly, with the exception of the few diseases for which we have 
specific treatment, I know of none in which, if I had to make a choice 
between the use of these remedial measures and the use of drugs, I 
would not invariably choose the use of the former. — A. D. Blackader, 
B. A., M. D., art. " Drugs and Medicinal Agents Considered from the 
Professional, Economic, and National Standpoints," in the Canada Lan- 
cet, Toronto, August, 1916, p. 540. 

Health and Temperance, Drugs, Evil or Self-Drugging. — There 
is another evil almost as great as that of patent medicines. It is the 
practice of self-drugging. Many men and women consume large quan- 
tities of antipyrin and of phenacetin [and of aspirin] and of many other 
similar drugs. They buy them in the tablet form, and take one or more 
tablets whenever they feel so inclined. Immense harm is done by this 
practice, for the persistent and indiscriminate use of these drugs affects 
injuriously many tissues of the body, and renders those who indulge 
in them peevish and restless and incapable of sustained effort. . . . 

Probably the most harmful form of self-medication is the custom 
of taking narcotics. Opium, morphia, chloral, and cocaine are the chief 
drugs of this class which are taken. Unfortunately, only too many 
commence to take these poisons without understanding that once the 
practice has been begun, it degenerates rapidly into a habit, from which 
it is almost impossible to escape by any effort of the will. . . . Before 
any one commences the practice of taking any narcotic, whether it be 
for pain or sleeplessness, he should realize that he is about to become 
a slave, and that release from his servitude is unlikely. — " Medical Sci- 
ence of Today" Wilmott Evans, M. D., B. Sc, pp. 188, 189. Philadelphia: 
J. B. Lippincott Company, 1912. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 227 



Health and Temperance, Drugs, Lack of Efficacy of. — Before 
the first decade of your life as a practitioner has passed, perhaps before 
you have made a year's acquaintance with the sick-room, you will have 
iearned that though senna will purge, and ipecac vomit, and calomel 
salivate, and opium stupefy, yet that neither senna, ipecac, calomel, 
nor opium will cure disease except in rare instances. It is this popu- 
lar belief in the efficacy of drugs which gives point to the apologue of 
D'Alembert: "Nature (says the philosopher) is fighting with disease; 
a blind man, armed with a club, that is the physician, comes to settle 
the difference. He first tries to make peace; when he cannot accomplish 
this, he lifts his club and strikes at random; if he strikes the disease, 
he kills the disease; if he strikes nature, he kills nature." 

In order to understand the therapeutic value of drugs, it is im- 
portant for you to know, on the one hand, what disease is, and what 
laws it obeys; and, on the other hand, what means, besides drugs, are 
at your disposal for the treatment of it. — " The Relation of Drugs to 
Treatment" Edward H. Clark, M. D., p. 6. Boston: David Clapp. 1856. 

Health and Temperance, Drugs, Oliver Wendell Holmes on. — 
With regard to the exhibition of drugs as a part of your medical treat- 
ment, the golden rule is, he sparing. Many remedies you give would 
make a well person so ill that he would send for you at once if he 
had taken one of your doses accidentally. It is not quite fair to give 
such things to a sick man, unless it is clear that they will do more good 
than the very considerable harm you know they will cause. Be very 
gracious with children especially. I have seen old men shiver at the 
recollection of the rhubarb and jalap of infancy. You may depend 
upon it that half the success of homeopathy is. due to the sweet peace 
it has brought into the nursery. Between the gurgling down of loath- 
some mixtures and the saccharine deliquescence of a minute globule, 
what tender mother could for a moment hesitate? — Valedictory Ad- 
dress, delivered by Oliver Wendell Holmes, M. D., printed in Boston 
Medical and Surgical Journal, March 25, 1858, pp. 158, 159. 

Health and Temperance, Drugs, Secondary Effects of. — We 
know that the injection into the body of certain toxic substances may 
produce a certain primary reaction, but we know little of the second- 
ary or remote effects when such substances are introduced into the 
circulation or are given hypodermatically. We know less about the 
primary effects of the introduction of many other toxic substances now 
used for therapeutic purposes, and nothing of their secondary or remote 
action. No doubt many of them in their secondary effects do the body 
permanent harm, and thus may reduce the natural resistance against 
disease. — John F. Anderson, M. D., art. "Some Unhealthy Tendencies 
in Therapeutics," in Journal of the American Medical Association, July 
4, 1914, p. 1. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, The Daily Ration of Water. 
— About four and a half pints of water are given off from the body 
daily in the various excreta and exhalations. About one sixth of this 
loss is replenished by the combination of oxygen and hydrogen in the 
tissues. The remainder is replaced most conveniently from foods, bev- 
erages, and lastly from drinking water in a pure state when it retains 
all of its solvent properties. If one reckons about half of the whole 
weight of solid food taken consists of water, then the amount required 
to be added to the diet in an actually fluid form varies from four to six 
glasses, depending somewhat upon the season, amount, and variety of 
food and exercise taken. — " Dietotherapy," William Edward Fitch. 
M. D., Major Med. Res. Corps, U. S. A.. Vol. I, p. 248. New York; 
D. Appleton & Co., 1918, 



228 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Danger of Overeating. — In a 
country so rich as ours and so abundantly supplied with food, there is 
a very large percentage of our people who are overgenerous to them- 
selves in the amount of food which they eat. I have said in other 
places, and I think it is true, that probably fifty people die of overeat- 
ing in our country where one dies of starvation. — " Not. by Bread 
Alone" Harvey W. Wiley, M. D., p. 178. New York: Hearst's Inter- 
national Library Company. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Milk as a Food. — Whole milk 
contains everything necessary for growth and maintenance, — protein, 
fat, milk-sugar, salts, water, and the unknown but invaluable accessory 
substances. It is of such prime importance that each family should 
have this admirable food that I have suggested that no family of five 
should ever buy meat until they have bought three quarts of milk. — 
"Food in War Time" Graham Lusk, p. 13. Philadelphia: W. B. Saun- 
ders Company, 1918. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Chemistry of Nutrition Ap- 
plied. — The ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet ... is not the result of early hu- 
man exigency, as were the other kinds of diet, but has been devised re- 
cently as a result of studies in the chemistry of nutrition; that eggs, 
milks, cereals, nuts, and legumes afford an ample source of nitrogenous 
foods has been amply demonstrated. — "Nutrition and Dietetics." Win- 
field Scott Hall. Ph. D.. M. D.. p. 46 [The Ovo-Lacto-Vegetarian Diet]. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1913. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Change of Views on. — Views 
on dietetics have altered very considerably within the past few years. 
It is not very long ago that it was an article of faith that those who 
used a great deal of muscular energy required large quantities of protein 
in the form of meat, although it had long been observed that Italians 
and other Southern people did hard manual labor on a largely vegetable 
and fat diet, and that the Japanese performed strenuous work mainly 
on rice. Now meat and protein food generally appear to be relegated 
to their proper place in the nutritional scale. — Editorial in the Medical 
Record, Aug. 9. 1919. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Necessity of Fruits and Vege- 
tables. — Science today tells us that we may live under the most beau- 
tiful conditions, we may feast on bread, meat, eggs, rice, cocoa, oat- 
meal, and such like foods for a short time, but unless we take fruits 
or fresh vegetables — fruits being the best — we shall get listless, with 
leaden face, etc., until we die in a few months at the longest; and it 
follows that if we would keep ourselves and our children with clear 
skins, bright intellects, good digestion, rich colored, healthy blood, and 
strength for work, we must regularly take fruit and vegetables, and look 
upon them as actually more necessary for the support of good health 
than any other article of diet. — < Harry Benjafteld r M. B., art. "Fruit 
as a Food and Medicine," in Popular Science Monthly, September, 1895. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Value of Fruit as a Food. — 
A ship's crew had any amount of fresh meat, new bread, tea, coffee, 
etc., aboard, but no fruit nor vegetables. As days went by the men 
grew haggard, breathless, and weak, with violent, tearing rheumatic 
pains in the joints. Then the gums grew spongy, the blood broke 
through its veins, and the whole system was demoralized and dying. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 229 

In short, they were dying of scurvy. A fruit ship passing sent aboard 
a good supply of oranges and lemons, which were greedily eaten by the 
sufferers. Mark the result: though they still went on eating the same 
food, the addition of fruit to their diet made all the difference between 
life and death. In a few days their gums began to heal, the blood be- 
came healthy, natural color came in their faces, and strength came to 
the limbs so lately racked with pain. This is, perhaps, an extreme il- 
lustration, but I am satisfied that in a lesser degree the want of fruit is 
responsible for much of the illness in the world. — Harry Benjafield, 
M. B., art. " Fruit as a Food and, Medicine'' in Popular Science Monthly, 
September, 1895. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Vegetarianism, and Nutrition. 
— Apart from practical experience, it is now very evident, from our 
knowledge of the compounds of plants and from our studies of metab- 
olism, that a vegetable diet can and does perform the complete round of 
nutritive functions. — "Principles of Human Nutrition," Whitman H. 
Jordan, p. 248. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Meat Not a Necessity. — At 
a recent meeting of the Interallied Council of Physiologists it was de- 
cided that meat was not a physiological necessity. The following 
statement was made: " It is not thought desirable to fix a minimum 
meat ration, in view of the fact that no absolute physiological need 
exists for meat, since the proteins of meat can be replaced by other pro- 
teins of animal origin, such as those contained in milk, cheese, and 
eggs, as well as by proteins of vegetable origin. — "How to Live," Prof. 
Irving Fisher and Eugene Lyman Fisk, M. D., p. 40. New York: Funk 
and W agnails Company, 1919. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Warning Against Too Much 
Liquid. — A warning should perhaps be entered against the theory some- 
times heard that it is a good thing to take a great deal of liquid, the 
idea being that it flushes out the system and carries away impurities. 
The plan may perhaps be useful under certain conditions, but it can 
scarcely recommend itself as a regular practice. To flood the system 
with unnecessary liquid is to produce a watery condition of the blood, 
to induce abnormal perspiration, to throw extra work on the kidneys, 
and by increasing the volume of the blood, to raise the blood pressure 
and thus tax the heart. — " Food and Health," pp. 122-124. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Recent Changes in the Sys- 
tem of Diet. — Our whole system of diet, therefore, has to be recon- 
structed from the discoveries of the last fifteen or twenty years. These 
discoveries have particularly emphasized the food value of the ex- 
ternal coatings and germs of the cereals. This value rests not alone 
in their content of ordinary digestible foods, but exists particularly 
by reason of the water-soluble vitamine contained therein. Perhaps 
there is no point in medicine so confusing and conflicting as the diet- 
aries prescribed by the attending physician in case of illness, and like- 
wise for children and grown persons as a preventive of disease. The 
very foods that have been most denatured, and therefore are least whole- 
some and assimilable, are constantly prescribed by physicians for the 
well as for those who are ill. The functions of leaf vegetables, for in- 
stance, so important in dietetics, and carrying as they do the chief 
fat-soluble vitamines, are those that the phvsician too often neglects. — 
Dr, Harvey W. Wiley, quoted in the Literary Digest, June 7. 1919. 



23 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Vegetarian Diet Preferable. 
— That it is easily possible to sustain life on the products of the veg- 
etable kingdom, needs no demonstration for physiologists, even if a 
majority of the human race were not constantly engaged in demon- 
strating it; and my researches show, not only that it is possible, but 
that it is infinitely preferable in every way, and produces superior 
powers of both mind and body. — " Uric Acid in the Causation of Dis- 
ease," Dr. Alex. Haig, p. 864. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Influence of Meat Diet in 
Developing Appendicitis. — -A meat diet is of great influence in the de- 
velopment of appendicitis. ... In neighborhoods in which vegetable 
feeding prevails, sailors seldom fall sick, but do so soon after their 
appointment to the marines, probably as a result of the increase of 
flesh foods. The crews of the ships on the Pacific Ocean (with the ex- 
ception of those near Australia) very seldom eat flesh meat but much 
fruit, and show a percentage of only 0.3 per 1,000 cases of diseases of 
the appendix; while those of the Kiautchan district (in which meat is 
very cheap, and is eaten in abundance, while fruits are scarce, thus 
making conditions just the opposite) have a percentage of 3.8 per 1,000 
cases. — " Statistics upon the Increase of Appendicitis and Its Causes" 
Dr. Hennig ; paper presented at the Fifteenth International Congress 
of Hygiene and Demography, Washington, D. C, September, 1912. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Analysis of Wheat. — The 
elements of both animal and vegetable foods are derived from the earth, 
air, and water. ... It is known at the present time that life cannot be 
maintained on foods deficient in organic salts. It is also recognized by 
research workers that something more is essential for the maintenance, 
growth, and well-being of man than protein, fat, and carbohydrate. Un- 
less food contains sufficient mineral matter, no matter how well bal- 
anced the ration may be in the ternary food elements, nor how large 
quantities are ingested, nor how high the caloric value, there will be 
malnutrition. In Forster's experiments, dogs and pigeons fed on de- 
mineralized food died earlier than those that were entirely deprived 
of food. 

composition of the parts of wheat grain, percentages 

Proportion Nitrog- Starch Cellu- Mineral 

of Grain Water enous Fat & Sugar lose Matter 

Bran 13.5 12.5 16.4 3.5 43.6 18.0 6.0 

Endosperm .... 85.0 13.0 10.5 .8 74.3 .7 .7 

Germ 1.5 12.5 35.7 13.1 31.2 1.2 5.7 

ANALYSIS OF WHEAT AND THE PRODUCTS OF ROLLER MILLING, PERCENTAGES 

Protein Fat Starch Ash 

Wheat as it enters the mill 14.18 2.61 69.94 1.91 

Patent Roller Pfoc. high grade .... 11.20 1.00 74.70 0.50 

— " Dietotherapy," William Edward Fitch, M. D., Major Med. Res. Corps, 
U. S. A., Vol. I, pp. 53, 260, 379, 381. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1918. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Fine Flour a Cause of Dis- 
ease. — If finely ground white flour could be stricken from our dietary, 
many intestinal and malnutritional diseases would disappear. It is sel- 
dom well masticated; it creates a fecal mass which packs in the as- 
cending colon, and unless peristalsis is very good, causes constipation, 

— Southern Practitioner and Review, Octooer, 1915. 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 231 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Value of Whole-Wheat Flour. 

— The reason white bread as a sole article of diet will not support life, 
is because the highly milled flour from which it is made does not con- 
tain enough vitamines. The process of high milling to make fine 
flour removes them, leaving them in the bran and other rejected por- 
tions. The whole-wheat flour contains all vitamines and fully supports 
life. — Indiana State Board of Health, November, 1918. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Pkoteins of Grains. — The 
proteins of wheat, corn, and oats appear to be about equally efficient 
in adult nutrition, and need only be supplemented with small amounts 
of milk in order to be fully as efficient as the proteins of ordinary mixed 
diets have been found to be in earlier investigations. — H. C. Sherman, 
art. " The Proteins of Wheat, Corn, and Oats," in Journal of Biological 
Chemistry, January, 1920, p. 109. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Vitamines in Green Vege- 
tables. — The newer studies indicating the richness of many types of 
plant tissues in those nutritive properties termed vitamines, place the 
dietary importance of the green vegetables in an entirely new light. 
It emphasizes their use to supplement the refined foods of the modern 
food industry, which furnish products rich in proteins, fats, and car- 
bohydrates, but in many cases comparatively deficient in the vitamines. 
The facts cited in the present investigation, along with others recently 
published, serve as an added reminder that the fat-soluble vitamine 
need not be sought solely in foods known to be rich in fats. — Thomas 
B. Osborne and LaFayette B. Mendel, art. " Nutritive Value of Green 
Foods," in Journal of Biological Chemistry, April, 1920, p. 558. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Diet in Preventing and Treat- 
ing Disease. -- Diet as a means of preventing disease is of greater im- 
portance than diet in the treatment of disease, that is, if we believe in 
the adage that prevention is better than cure. In the opinion of many 
authorities, diet in the treatment of disease is more effective than treat- 
ment by drugs. — " Dietotherapy," William Edward Fitch, M. D., formerly 
Lecturer on Surgery. Fordham University School of Medicine, New 
York, Vol. Ill, p. 5. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1918. 

Health and Temperance, Dietetics, Value of Vegetables as Food. 

— One of the useful qualities of fresh vegetables undoubtedly is that 
they prevent man from eating too much. This may sound paradoxical, 
yet will appear justified, if we remember that bulky, yet less nourishing 
as they are, they soon provoke a feeling of satiety. It seems that by a 
special dispensation of Providence they appear on our tables during the 
summer months, when the excessive heat reduces our daily needs al- 
most automatically and without giving cause for alarm. Green vegeta- 
bles are essentially a summer food, the same as the dry legumes are 
intended for the winter; and both, though endowed with different 
calorific values, furnish an abundance in mineral compounds. — " What 
Shall I Eat?" Dr. F. X Gouraud, formerly Chief of the Laboratory of 
the Medical Faculty of Paris, p. 21. New York: Rebman Company*. 

Health and Temperance, Natural Methods in Treating Disease. 

— One of the most striking characteristics of the modern treatment of 
disease is the return to what used to be called the natural methods — 
diet, exercise, bathing, and massage. There probably never has been 
a period in the history of the profession when the value of diet in the 



23 2 HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 

prevention and the cure of disease was more fully recognized. — 2Equa- 
nim.itas ," William Osier, M. D., F. R. S., chap. XIII (Medicine in the 
Nineteenth Century), p. 269. London: H. E. Lewis, 1906. 

Health and Temperance, The Three " Bads." — It is well to remem- 
ber that the seed is not everything — the seed is everywhere — it is the 
soil that is important. Now, how do we prepare the ground for the seed 
that it may grow to tuberculosis? There are the three "bads" — bad 
food, leading to ill-nutrition, which is the great preparation of the 
ground; bad air, in wretched habitations and miserable cabins; and 
bad drink, alcohol. Those are the three " B's " for you to remember 
with reference to the preparation of the soil for consumption. And 
just as a farmer has not his crop of grain unless he cultivates the 
ground properly and prepares it and fertilizes it, so the great majority 
do not get tuberculosis if they avoid these three " B's," and do not 
cultivate a body-soil proper for its growth. — " Tuberculosis : Exhibition 
and Conferences," William Osier, p. 6. Oxford: Printed for Private 
Circulation by Horace Hart (in Collected Reprints, Sixth Series, 1907- 
1920). 

Health and Temperance, Patients, Pills, and Plasters. — The 
popular notion of a physician is of one who knows the " appropriate 
remedy " — that is the conventional phrase — for everybody's ailment. 
A man has a " disease " — a headache, or a stomach ache, or the gravel, 
the stone, or the quinsy; and he goes to the doctor to get " something 
to take " which is good for these several disorders. He tells us what 
is the matter, and we are to find the cure. Modern patients are much 
like ancient ones: they expect to have a pill prescribed or plaister laid 
on the place, followed by a relaxation from work or more generous diet; 
and when they are bidden " to wash and be clean," they sometimes " go 
away in a rage." — P. H. Pye-Smith, M. D., F. R. S., art. "Rational) 
Therapeutics," in the Practitioner, London, April, 1894, p. 243. 

Health and Temperance, Growing Importance of Hydrotherapy. 
— ' The term " therapeutics " should include all agents of service in 
combating disease, — hydrotherapy, mechanotherapy, heat, light, elec- 
tricity, climate, mineral waters, etc. The growing importance of hydro- 
therapy as a therapeutic agent is apparent in the fact that many of 
the European universities now give special courses in hydrotherapy. — 
J. W. Bell, M. D., art. " The Need of a More Rational Therapy," in North- 
western Lancet, Aug. 15, 1905, p. 292. 

Health and Temperance, Use of Natural Agencies in Disease. — 
Sound health needs for its continuance a regular exercise of the differ- 
ent parts of the body and adequate nutrition for growth and repair. 
When these elemental conditions are not properly and regularly sup- 
plied, it leads to disease. Then the way to cure is to right that which 
is wrong, using natural agencies rather than artificial. The greatest 
success in curing the sick is to give scientific attention to such matters 
as belong strictly to the actual necessities of life forces. The materia 
medica is not required to support vital functions in health, and the 
question is: How far is it useful when the body is sick? ... In some 
future day it is certain that drugs and chemicals will form no part of 
a scientific therapy. This is sure to be the case, for truth is finally cer- 
tain to prevail. From the physical standpoint the materia medica con- 
fers no important favor upon either the healthy or sick body. . . . 

The principal influence or relation of materia medica to cure of 
bodily disease lies in the fact that drugs supply material upon which 



HEALTH AND TEMPERANCE 233 

to rest the mind while other agencies are at work in eliminating dis- 
ease from the system, and to the drug is frequently given the credit. 
Every physician knows this explanation is in accordance with the facts 
of the case. Experience teaches that to satisfy the mind of the patient, 
harmless medicines are fully able to be a substitute for the disagreeable 
and dangerous ones; besides they confer the real or supposed help to 
nature and never an injury. — Elmer Lee, A. M., M. D., Ph. D., art. 
" How Far Does a Scientific Therapy Depend upon the Materia Medico, 
in the Cure of Disease? " in Journal of the American Medical Associa- 
tion, Oct. 8. 1S98, p. 826. 

Health and Temperance, Advantages of Water Treatment in 
Fevers. — Antipyretics, including antipyrin, antifebrin (acetanilid), 
phenacetin, and others of the same class, which act by producing copi- 
ous perspiration, are no substitutes for the baths, for while they re- 
duce temperature, their effect is but temporary, and their continuous 
employment too depressing to the patient. Moreover, they are purely 
antipyretic, and lack the tonic influence to the nervous and muscular 
systems which characterizes the cold tub baths. Quinine, formerly 
used in massive doses for its antipyretic effect, has been replaced by 
the more modern agents. — " The Practice of Medicine," James Tyson, 
M. D., p. 45. Philadelphia: P. BlaJciston's Son & Co., 1907. 

Health and Temperance, Benefits of Physiological Therapy. — 
Physiological therapy may not be as quick, it may not be as simple, it 
may not be as cheap, but it certainly is more rational and more suc- 
cessful than symptomatic treatment, because it restores the parts to 
their previously normal physiological status. 

Surgery with its brilliant results saves life and makes possible a 
comfortable existence, but seldom does it restore the normal physiologi- 
cal condition of the parts. It should therefore be invoked only when 
physiological therapy fails. — Albert C. Geyser, M. D., art. "Physiological 
Versus Symptomatic Therapy," in New York Medical Journal, Jan. 1, 
1916, p. 21. 

Health and Temperance, Usefulness of Water. — There is cer- 
tainly no milder and safer chemical than water,, yet it is one of our 
most useful drugs. — A. L. Benedict, A. M., M. D., art. " The Wise Choice 
of Therapeutic Measures," in the Therapeutic Gazette, Jan. 15, 1918, 
p. 89. 

Health and Temperance, Some Physiological Treatments. — The 
older doctors used to say that the best cure for sciatica was six weeks 
in bed. That was physiological, because rest is the greatest natural 
physiological, therapeutic measure that we possess. It took the system 
six weeks to rid itself of the accumulated poison, provided that the 
entire system was allowed to take part in the cure. When such a 
patient recovered, he was cured; his treatment did not lay the founda- 
tion of a future Bright's disease or rheumatoid condition by allowing 
the poisons to increase. Some of the older doctors bled such patients 
if they were plethoric, thereby removing and diluting the existing 
poison. That was heroic but physiological treatment. Some doctors 
starved their sciatic patients for a period of ten to fifteen days. This 
was an uncomfortable, but a physiological treatment. 

All of these three methods — rest, bleeding, and starvation — ac- 
complished the same thing, the removal of the toxic material from the 
system; again showing that "it is not the agent but the reaction of 



23 4 HEBREWS 



living cells to an agent that must guide us in the selection of our 
therapeutic agents." — Albert C. Geyser, M. D., art. "Physiological Ver- 
sus Symptomatic Therapy," in New York Medical Journal, Jan. 1, 1918, 
p. 19. 

Health and Temperance, Pellagea, Cause of. — The prevalence 
of pellagra in certain parts of the South rather than in other sections 
Of the country is probably closely connected with the development of 
the modern milling industry. This places in the grocery store the 
degerminated and decorticated part of the grain. The rise of the sugar 
industry offers for human consumption both sugar and molasses in 
quantities unheard of until recent years. 

The widespread practice of growing a cash crop (cotton), and of 
depending on the retail store for the greater part of the food supply 
rather than of engaging in diversified farming, appears to be in great 
measure responsible for the existence of pellagra. The food products 
which can be handled commercially without hazard are not in general 
satisfactory foodstuffs unless properly supplemented with certain others 
which correct their deficiencies. — E. V. McCollum, N. Simmonds, and H. 
T. Parsons, art. " Pellagra-Producing Diets," in Journal of Biology and 
Chemistry, May, 1919, p. 125. 

Hebrews, History of. — In the annals of the Hebrew nation we 
have authentic narratives written by contemporaries, and these writing 
under the guidance of inspiration. What they have delivered to us 
comes accordingly under a double sanction. They were aided by divine 
inspiration in recording facts upon which, as mere human witnesses, 
their evidence would be valid. But as the narrative comes with an 
authority which no other writing can possess, so in the matters related 
it has a character of its own. The history of the Israelites is the 
history of miraculous interpositions. Their passage out of Egypt was 
miraculous. Their entrance into the Promised Land was miraculous. 
Their prosperous and their adverse fortunes in that land, their servi- 
tudes and their deliverances, their conquests and their captivities, were 
all miraculous. The entire history, from the call of Abraham to the 
building of the sacred temple, was a series of miracles. It is so much 
the object of the sacred historians to describe these, that little else is 
recorded. The ordinary events and transactions, what constitutes the 
civil history of other states, are either very briefly told or omitted alto- 
gether; the incidental mention of these facts being always subordinate 
to the main design of registering the extraordinary manifestations of 
divine power. For these reasons the history of the Hebrews cannot be 
treated like the history of any other nation; and he who should attempt 
to write their history, divesting it of its miraculous character, would 
find himself without materials. — " Fasti Hellenici," Henry Fynes Clin- 
ton, M. A., Vol. I, pp. 283, 284. London: Oxford University Press, 1834. 

Heresy. — A view or opinion not in accord with the prevalent stand- 
ards. The Greek word hairesis, meaning originally a choice, then a 
self-chosen belief, is applied by the Fathers as early as the third cen- 
tury to a deviation from the fundamental Christian faith, which was 
punished by exclusion from the church. From the end of the fourth 
century the emperors accepted the view that they were bound to use 
their temporal power against heretics for the maintenance of purity of 
doctrine; Theodosius the Great attempted to exterminate heretics by a 
system of penalties > which was extended by his successors and main- 
tained by Justinian. Any deviation from the orthodox belief might be 
punished by infamy, incapacity to hold office or give testimony, banish- 



HERESY 235 



ment, and confiscation of property; the death penalty was only pre- 
scribed for certain sects, such as the Manichean. The severer pun- 
ishments were imposed on the leaders of heretical sects, or for the 
conferring and receiving of orders within them and for public gather- 
ings. 

This legislation was not accepted in the Merovingian kingdom, 
which left it to the church to combat heresy with spiritual weapons; 
the Visigothic law, on the other hand, took the same standpoint as the 
Roman. The Carolingian period provided penalties for the practice of 
paganism; but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the rise and 
spread of heretical sects, especially the Cathari, led to active eccle- 
siastical legislation against heresy. As early as the eleventh century, 
the secular authorities in France and Germany had punished individual 
heretics with death, and the councils of the twelfth declared them bound 
to use their power in this way. 

While Frederick I and II, and Louis VIII, IX, and X of France 
were enacting laws of this kind, the ecclesiastical view that heresy 
came by right before the church's tribunal led to the erection of special 
church courts with a procedure of their own. 

In the present Roman Catholic practice, heresy is the wilful holding 
by a baptized person of doctrines which contradict any article of faith 
defined by the Catholic Church, or which have been condemned by a 
pope or a general council as heretical, provided that the holder knows 
the right faith and makes open profession of his departure from it. 
. . . Theoretically, the Roman Catholic Church still holds to the old 
severe legislation, and as late as 1878 Leo XIII confirmed a ruling of 
the cardinal vicar based on these principles in relation to those who 
attended Protestant services in Rome. But the altered position of the 
church in modern times permits only the imposition of ecclesiastical 
penalties. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge, Vol. V, art. "Heresy," pp. 234, 235. 

Heresy, Guilt of, Defined. — The theory [of fundamental arti- 
cles] is repugnant to the nature of Christian faith as understood by the 
church. According to her teaching, the essential note of this faith lies 
in the complete and unhesitating acceptance of the whole depositum on 
the ground that it is the revealed word of God. The conscious rejection 
of a single article of this deposit is sufficient to render a man guilty of 
heresy. The question is not as to the relative importance of the article 
in question, but solely as to whether it has been revealed by God to 
man. . . . The Catholic Church knows of one and only one test to de- 
termine this question of membership in Christ's body. This test does 
not lie in the acceptance of this or that particular doctrine, but in com- 
munion with the apostolic hierarchy. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Yol. 
VI, art. "Fundamental Articles," p. 320. 

Heresy a Crime. — In all these states [into which the Roman Em- 
pire was divided] heresy was generally regarded as a crime, not less 
opposed to public order and to the good of society than to the honor of 
God and of religion. With such severity was it punished, that during 
many centuries its partisans or abettors dared not appear; and hardly a 
single example of it appears in the kingdoms of France, Spain, or Eng- 
land, from the conversion of these kingdoms to the Catholic faith until 
the close of the ninth century.* An obstinate heretic was immediately 



1 Thomassin, " Traite des tdits," Vol. I, chap. 57, note 2 ; Vol. II, chap. 13, 
note 1 ; etc. Lihgard, " Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," chap. 6, p. 226. 
Daniel, "Hist, de France/' Vol. IV, p. 153. 



236 HERESY 

prosecuted by the two powers, and cut off from society as a rotten mem- 
ber; exile or perpetual imprisonment was the ordinary penalty of his 
impiety. It was thus that a Monothelite heretic was treated in France 
in the year 639; and some other innovators who endeavored to pervert 
the people.2 — "Library of Translations: The Power of the Pope During 
the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. G.J, Vol. I, p. 86. London: G. Dolman, 
1853. 

Heresy and the Deposing Power. — In 1876 Cardinal Manning 
" committed the work of editing " Cardinal Allen's Letters to the 
Brompton Oratorians. The book was published in 1882. In the intro- 
duction to this volume it is affirmed that " the relation which ought to 
exist between the Church [of Rome] and a temporal sovereign " (p. 26) 
is that which obtained " in the Middle Ages." That relation is de- 
scribed in the introduction in the following terms: 

" It was chiefly in the case of heresy that the Pope had recourse to 
his deposing power. Other sins might be tolerated for a time in a 
sovereign, and their evil effects abated by lesser remedies; but not so 
heresy, which, under the protection of an heretical sovereign, will soon 
pervert a nation. Hence the greatness of the evil calls for prompt and 
unsparing measures. No monarch so manifestly uses his authority for 
the destruction, not the good, of the commonwealth as the heretical 
prince. No one, therefore, so justly deserves to lose his throne as he. 
It was, in fact, an axiom in those days that the heretic, whatever his 
degree, was an enemy and alien to the Christian commonwealth, and 
that, so long as he continued in heresy, he had no part or lot with 
Christian men. . . . Hence no one saw ground for complaint when the 
church punished heretics or delivered them over to the civil power for 
punishment, and men greeted as an act of supreme justice the solemn 
deposition of an heretical king" (p. 27). — "Notes on the Papal Claims," 
Arthur Brinckman, p. 213. London: A. R. Mowbray & Go., 1910. 

Heresy, To Deny Both Temporal and Spiritual Power to the 
Roman Catholic Church. — All those are branded with the error of 
heresy who take away from the Roman Church, the chair of Peter, one 
of the two swords, and concede only the spiritual. — " Annales Ecclesias- 
tici," Gcesare Baronio, Ann. 1053 (The Ecclesiastical Annals of Gcesar 
Baronius, for the year 1053), sec. 14. 

Heresy, To Deny Primacy of Peter. — It is a pernicious heresy to 
deny that the primacy of blessed Peter was instituted by Christ. — " De 
Romano Pontifice," Bellarm., Tom. I, lib. 1, cap. x, par. 2 (On the Roman 
Pontiff, Bellarmine, Vol. I, book 1, chap. 10, par. 2). 

Heretics Defined. — 28. What is a heretic? 

A heretic is any baptized person, professing Christianity, and choos- 
ing for himself what to believe and what not to believe as he pleases, 
in obstinate opposition to any particular truth which he knows is taught 
by the Catholic Church as a truth revealed by God. . . . 

30. How many kinds of heretics (Protestants) are there? 

There are three kinds of heretics: 

(1) Those who are guilty of the sin of heresy. 

(2) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy, but commit 
other grievous sins. 

(3) Those who are not guilty of the sin of heresy and live up to 
the dictates of their conscience. . . . 



2 Fleury, "Hist. Eccl./' Vol. VIII, book 37, note 40. "Hist, de I'figlise 
GalUcane," Vol. Ill, ann. 639. 



HERETICS 237 

38. Can a Christian be saved, who has left the true church of Christ, 
the Holy Catholic Church? 

No; because the church of Christ is the kingdom of God on earth, 
and he who leaves that kingdom, shuts himself out from the kingdom 
of Christ in heaven. 

39. Have Protestants left the true church of Christ? 
Protestants left the true church of Christ, in their founders, who 

left the Catholic Church, either through pride, or through the passion 
of lust and covetousness. 

40. Who were the first Protestants? 
The first Protestants were: 

(1) Martin Luther, a bad German priest, who left his convent, 
broke the solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, which he 
had made to God, married a nun, and became the founder of the 
Lutherans. 

(2) Henry VIII, a bad Catholic king of England, who murdered 
his wives, and founded the Episcopalian or Anglican Church. 

(3) John Calvin, a wicked French Catholic, who was the founder 
of the Calvinists. 

(4) John Knox, a bad Scottish priest, who was the founder of the 
Presbyterians or Puritans. 

41. What great crime did these wicked men commit? 

Those authors of heresies rebelled against the church of Jesus 
Christ, and caused a great number of their Catholic countrymen to 
follow their bad example. 

42. What will be the punishment of those who wilfully rebel 
against the Holy Catholic Church? 

Those who wilfully rebel against the Holy Catholic Church, will, 
like Lucifer and the other rebellious angels, be cast into the everlast- 
ing flames of hell. — " Familiar Explanation of Catholic Doctrine" Rev. 
M. Miiller (R. G.), No. IV, pp. 170, 171, 176, 177. New York: Benziger 
Brothers, Printers to the Holy Apostolic See. 

A heretic is one who is baptized and claims to be a Christian, but 
does not believe all the truths that our Lord has taught. He accepts 
only a portion of the doctrine of Christ and rejects the remainder, and, 
hence, is a rebellious child of the church. By baptism he belongs to the 
true church, but does not submit to its teaching, and is therefore an 
outcast child, disinherited until he returns to the faith. — Benziger' s 
Magazine (R. G), September, 1915. 

i Heretics, Keeping Faith with. — No one is obliged to keep faith 
with excommunicated persons until they have been reconciled. — The De 
cretum of Gratian,^ part 2, case 15, ques. 6, par. 5. 

Christians should not regard the sanctity of an oath toward him 
who is the enemy of God and who tramples under feet the decrees of 
the church. — From the Anathema of Gregory IX against Frederick II 
of Germany, " History of the Popes," De Gormenin, Vol. I, p. 470. 

It pertains also to the punishment and to the hatred of heretics 
that faith given to them must not be kept; for if faith is not to be 
kept with tyrants, pirates, and other public robbers because they slay 



1 Gratian's collection obtained great authority and superseded all other 
collections ; yet it remained a private compilation, was never clothed with an 
official character, or approved by the Holy See. — "Elements of Ecclesiastical 
Law" Rev. S. B. Smith, D. D. (R. C), book 1, part 1, chap. 9, par. 156 (Vol I 
p. 69). New York: Benziger Brothers, 1877. 



238 HERETICS 

the body, much less is it to be kept with obstinate heretics because they 
slay the soul. 

Rightly, therefore, were certain heretics consigned to lawful flames 
by the judgment of the grave Council of Constance, although their 
safety had been promised to them; and blessed Thomas [St. Thomas 
Aquinas] likewise holds, that an intractable heretic is to be delivered 
up to the judges, notwithstanding the faith and oath by which he may 
have bound a Catholic. — Simanca [a Portuguese Roman Catholic 
bishop], "On Catholic Institutions;" cited in "Delineation of Roman 
Catholicism, ," Rev. Charles Elliott, D. D., p. 572, footnote. London: John 
Mason, 1844. 

Yet further, it [the General Synod of Trent] promises in true and 
good faith, all guile and deceit being excluded, that the said synod will 
neither openly nor covertly seek for any opportunity, nor make use of, 
nor suffer any one to make use of, any authority, power, right, or stat- 
ute, privilege of laws or canons, or of any councils soever, especially 
those of Constance and Siena, under what form soever of words ex- 
pressed; to the prejudice in any way of this public faith, and most full 
security, and of the public and free hearing, granted by this said synod 
to the above-named; as it suspends the force of the aforesaid [acts] in 
this instance and for this occasion. — Extract from a decree of the eight- 
eenth session of the Council of Trent; "History of the Councils,'" Labbe 
and Cossart (R. C.J, Vol. XIV, col. 844. 

Heretics and Safe-Conducts. — This present sacred synod [of Con- 
stance] declares that whatsoever safe-conduct, granted by the emperor, 
kings, or other secular princes to heretics, or such as are defamed for 
heresy, and by whatsoever bond they have obliged themselves to the 
observance of it, no prejudice can arise, no impediment can or ought 
to be put to the Catholic faith, or other ecclesiastical jurisdiction, but 
that (notwithstanding the safe-conduct) it may be lawful for any com- 
petent and ecclesiastical judge to inquire into the errors of such persons, 
and duly otherways proceed against them, and punish them so far as 
justice shall require, if they shall pertinaciously refuse to revoke their 
errors; yea, though they come to the place of judgment, relying upon 
such safe-conduct, and would not otherwise come thither; nor doth he 
who so promiseth, remain obliged in anything, when he has done what 
lies in him. — The Council of Constance (1414-18), Nineteenth Session; 
" History of the Cowicils," Labbe and Cossart (R. C), Vol. XII, cols. 
169, 170. 

Heretics, Safe-Conduct of Huss. — " The Holy Synod [of Con- 
stance] decrees: Forasmuch as certain persons presumptuously or with 
a sinister intention, or wishing to be wise above what is right, not only 
calumniate the emperor, but also this Sacred Council with slanderous 
tongues, publicly and secretly saying or insinuating that the safe- 
conduct given by the most invincible Prince Sigismund, king of the 
Romans, Hungary, etc., to John Huss, the Heresiarch, of execrable mem- 
ory, was unduly violated, contrary to justice or honor; although the 
said John Huss, by obstinately impugning the orthodox faith, forfeited 
all safe-conduct and privileges, and no faith or promise was to be kept 
with him by natural law, either human or divine, to the prejudice of 
the Catholic faith; therefore, the said Holy Synod declares by the tenor 
of these presents, that the said most Invincible Prince, notwithstanding 
the said safe-conduct, did what he could and what became his Imperial 
Majesty, with respect to the said John Huss; and it enjoins and forbids 
all and singular Christians of whatever dignity, grade, pre-eminence, 
condition, state, or sex, henceforth to slander or in any way disparage 
the Sacred Council or the Imperial Majesty for their deeds in the mat- 



HERETICS 23 9 

ter of John Huss: and it decrees that whosoever transgresses this com- 
mand, shall be punished without pardon as an abettor of heresy, and 
guilty of high treason." 

Such is the second decree of the Sacred Ecumenical Synod of Con- 
stance, concerning John Huss. — " Sequel to Letters to M. Gondon, On 
the Destructive Character of the Church of Rome" Chr. Wordsworth, 
D. D., pp. 151-153. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Heretics, Lord Acton on Keeping Faith with. — In the religious 
struggle a frenzy had been kindled which made weakness violent, and 
turned good men into prodigies of ferocity; and at Rome, where every 
loss inflicted on Catholicism and every wound was felt, the belief that, 
in dealing with heretics, murder is better than toleration prevailed 
for half a century. The predecessor of Gregory had been Inquisitor- 
General. In his eyes Protestants were worse than pagans, and Luther- 
ans more dangerous than other Protestants. 

The Capuchin preacher, Pistoja, bore witness that men were hanged 
and quartered almost daily at Rome; and Pius declared that he would 
release a culprit guilty of a hundred murders rather than one obstinate 
heretic. He seriously contemplated razing the town of Faenza because 
it was infested with religious error, and he recommended a similar 
expedient to the king of France. He adjured him to hold no intercourse 
with the Huguenots, to make no terms with them, and not to observe 
the terms he had made. He required that they should be pursued to 
the death, that not one should be spared under any pretense, that all 
prisoners should suffer death. He threatened Charles with the punish- 
ment of Saul when he forebore to exterminate the Amalekites. He told 
him that it was his mission to avenge the injuries of the Lord, and that 
nothing is more cruel than mercy to the impious. When he sanctioned 
the murder of Elizabeth, he proposed that it should be done in execu- 
tion of his sentence against her. It became usual with those who medi- 
tated assassination or regicide on the plea of religion, to look upon the 
representatives of Rome as their natural advisers. . . . 

The theory which was framed to justify these practices has done 
more than plots and massacres to cast discredit on the Catholics. This 
theory was as follows: Confirmed heretics must be rigorously punished 
whenever it can be done without the probability of greater evil to reli- 
gion. Where that is feared, the penalty may be suspended or delayed 
for a season, provided it be inflicted whenever the danger is past. 
Treaties made with heretics, and promises given to them, must not be 
kept, because sinful promises do not bind, and no agreement is lawful 
which may injure religion or ecclesiastical authority. No civil power 
may enter into engagements which impede the free scope of the church's 
law. It is part of the punishment of heretics that faith shall not be 
kept with them. It is even mercy to kill them, that they may sin no 
more. — " The History of Freedom" John Emerich Edward Daloerg- 
Acton (R. CJ, pp. 138-141. London: Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Heretics, Facts Concerning Keeping Faith with. — The third 
Lateran Council, which was held at Rome in 1167 [1179] under the pon- 
tificate of Alexander III, and which all papists admit to be infallible, 
decreed in its sixteenth canon, that " oaths made against the interest 
and benefit of the church are not so much to be considered as oaths, but 
as perjuries." i The fourth or great Lateran Council absolved from 
their oath of allegiance the subjects of heretical princes. 

The Council of Constance, which was holden in 1414, expressly 
decreed that no faith was to be kept with heretics. The words of this 



1 " Non quasi juramenta, sed quasi perjuria. 



240 HERETICS 

decree, as preserved by M. L'Enfant, in his learned history of that 
famous council, are, that " by no law, natural or divine, is it obligatory 
to keep faith with heretics, to the prejudice of the Catholic faith." 2 
This fearful doctrine the council ratified in a manner not less fearful, 
in the blood of John Huss. It is well known that this Reformer came 
to the council trusting in a safe-conduct, which had been given him 
under the hand of the emperor Sigismund. The document in the 
amplest terms guaranteed the safety of Huss, in his journey to Con- 
stance, in his stay there, and in his return home. Notwithstanding, he 
was seized, imprisoned, condemned, and burnt alive, at the instigation 
of the council, by the very man who had so solemnly guaranteed his 
safety. 

When the Council of Trent assembled in the sixteenth century, it 
was exceedingly desirous of obtaining the presence of the Protestants at 
its deliberations. Accordingly, it issued numerous equivocal safe-con- 
ducts, all of which the Protestants, mindful of the fate of Huss, rejected. 
At last the council decreed, that for this time, and in this instance, the 
safe-conduct should not be violated, and that no " authority, power, 
statute, or decree, and especially that of the Councils of Constance and 
Siena," should be employed against them. In this enactment of the 
Council of Trent, canons, decrees, and laws, to the prejudice of safe- 
conducts to heretics, are expressly recognized as already existing. These 
decrees are not revoked or abjured by the council; they are only sus- 
pended for the time, — " pro hac vice." This is a plain declaration, that 
on all other occasions Rome means to act upon them, and will, when- 
ever she has the power. There has been no general council since; and 
as no decree of the Pope has repudiated the doctrine of these decrees 
and canons, they must be regarded as still in force. — " The Papacy," 
Rev. J. A. Wylie, pp. 379-381. Published under the auspices of the 
Evangelical Alliance, Edinburgh, 1851; Johnstone and Hunter, printers. 

Heretics, Sentenced to Death by the Church. — Therefore we 
conclude that the church cannot of itself put to death any one, but 
nevertheless it has the right to sentence obstinate or relapsed heretics, 
not only to corporal punishments, but also to condemn to capital 
punishment, if it shall have judged it expedient; whence those enemies 
of the faith equally err from the truth who falsely charge that the 
church has of itself consigned some heretics to the pyre, and many 
Catholic apologists, who think that all sentences of death must be 
attributed to the secular power, or timidly concede that the church, 
yielding to the spirit of the times, has deviated a little in this matter. 
History surely testifies that the Roman Inquisition, if not in express 
words, at least in equivalent terms, has sentenced heretics to capital 
punishment, to be inflicted without fail by the secular arm, with mani- 
fold censures lest it fail of its duty; who, then, would dare to say that- 
the church has erred in so serious a matter? — " De Stabilitate et Pro- 
gressu Dogmatis," Fr. Alexius M. Lepicier, 0. S. M. (R. C), p. 203. 
Printed at the official printing office in Rome, 1910. 

Heretics, Extermination of, Justified.— With regard to heretics 
two elements are to be considered, one element on their side, and the 
other on the part of the church. On their side is the sin whereby they 
have deserved, not only to be separated from the church by excommu- 
nication, but also to be banished from the world by death. For it is 
a much heavier offense to corrupt the faith, whereby the ljfe of the soul 



2 " Nee aliqua sibi fides, aut promissio de jure naturali, divmo, et Jiumano, 
fuerit in pre judicium Catholicce fldei observanda." 



HERETICS 241 

is sustained, than to tamper with the coinage, which is an aid to tem- 
poral life. Hence if coiners or other malefactors are at once handed 
over by secular princes to a just death, much more may heretics, im- 
mediately they are convicted of heresy, be not only excommunicated, 
but also justly done to die. But on the part of the church is mercy in 
view of the conversion of them that err; and therefore she does not 
condemn at once, but " after the first and second admonition," as the 
apostle teaches. After that, however, if the man is still found perti- 
nacious, the church, having no hope of his conversion, provides for the 
safety of others, cutting him off from the church by the sentence of 
excommunication; and further she leaves him to the secular tribunal 
to be exterminated from the world by death. — "Aquinas Ethicus; or, 
The Moral Teaching of St. Thomas," Joseph Rickaby, S. J. (R. C.J, Vol. I, 
pp. 332, 333. London: Burns and Oates, 1892. 

Heretics, To Be Put to Death. — In actual fact, the church at first 
dealt more leniently with heretics, excommunicating them, confiscating 
their property . . . till at last she was compelled to inflict the extreme 
penalty; "secondly, experience shows (says Bellarm., ' Be Laicis? I, 
3, c. 21) that there is no other remedy: for the church gradually ad- 
vanced, and tried every means, first excommunication alone, then a 
pecuniary fine was added, then exile, finally she was compelled to 
fall back on death [the capitals here are the author's own]. Heretics 
despise excommunication and say that that bolt is powerless; if you 
threaten them with a pecuniary fine, they neither fear God nor respect 
men, knowing that they will find fools enough to believe them and sup- 
port them. If you imprison them or send them into exile, they corrupt 
those near them with their words and those at a distance with their 

bOOkS. SO THE ONLY REMEDY IS TO SEND THEM SOON TO THEIR OWN PLACE " 

[capitals are the author's]. The society of the church and its public 
order, against the disturbance of which there are many ecclesiastical 
charges, must necessarily be preserved, that men's souls may be sanc- 
tified by the true faith and good works, and that they may gain eternal 
salvation. — "Institutions Juris Ecclesiastici Publici" (Institutes of 
Public Ecclesiastical Law), P. Marianus de Luca, 8. J. (R. &.), Profes- 
sor in the Gregorian University of Rome, Vol. I, p. 143. 1901. 

Note. — This work was highly recommended by Pope Leo XIII. — Eds. 

Heretics, To Be Punished with Death. — He who publicly avows 
a heresy and tries to pervert others by word or example, speaking abso- 
lutely, can not only be excommunicated but even justly put to death, 
lest he ruin others by pestilential contagion; for a bad man is worse 
than a wild beast, and does more harm, as Aristotle says. Hence, as it 
is not wrong to kill a wild beast which does great harm, so it must be 
right to deprive of his harmful life a heretic who withdraws from di- 
vine truth and plots against the salvation of others. — " De Stabilitate et 
Progressu Dogmatis," Fr. Alexius M. Lepicier, 0. 8. M. (R.C.), p. 194. 
Printed at the official printing office in Rome, 1910. 

Heretics, Edicts of Constantine Against. — Some years later, that 
is, about 325, Arius having been condemned in the Council of Nice, 
Constantine published several edicts branding him as infamous, con- 
demning him and the bishops of his party to exile, ordering all his 
writings to be burned, compelling his partisans to deliver them up, and 
threatening with capital punishment all who refused. All private per- 
sons, moreover, who persisted in this error, were condemned to pay, in 
addition to their capitation tax, the tax of ten other persons. In the 
following year, a new edict restricted to the Catholics the immunities 
16 



242 HERETICS 

conferred on the clergy, and ordered that heretics and schismatics, in- 
stead of enjoying that immunity, should be subjected to heavier burdens 
than others. From this law the emperor excepted the Novatians, whom, 
it would appear, he did not regard at the time as being absolutely 
condemned; but, becoming afterward better informed about that sect, 
he prohibited them, as well as the Valentinians, Marcionites, and all 
others, to hold any meetings, public or private; ordered that their 
churches should be given to the Catholics, that their other places of 
assembly should be confiscated, and that all their books should be dili- 
gently searched for and destroyed. — "Library of Translations: The 
Power of the Pope During the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. G), Vol. I, 
p. 78. London: G. Dolman, 1853. 

Heretics, Justinian's Law Against. — We declare forever infa- 
mous, and deprived of their rights, and condemned to exile, all heretics 
of either sex, whatever be their name; their property shall be confis- 
cated without hope of restoration, or of being transmitted to their chil- 
dren by hereditary succession, because crimes which attack the majesty 
of God are infinitely more grievous than those which attack the majesty 
of earthly princes. With regard to those who are strongly suspected of 
heresy, if, after having been ordered by the church, they do not demon- 
strate their innocence by suitable testimony, they also shall be de- 
clared infamous, and condemned to exile. — Codex Justinianus, lib. 1, 
tit. 5, n. 19; cited in "Library of Translations: The Power of the Pope 
During the Middle Ages" M. Gosselin (R. G), Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. Lon- 
don: G. Dolman, 1853. 

Heretics, To Be Extirpated by Princes. — > Temporal princes shall be 
reminded and exhorted, and if need be, compelled by spiritual censures, 
to discharge every one of their functions; and that, as they desire to 
be reckoned and held faithful, so, for the defense of the faith, let them 
publicly make oath that they will endeavor, bona fide with all their 
might, to extirpate from their territories all heretics marked by the 
church; so that when any one is about to assume any authority, whether 
spiritual or temporal, he shall be held bound to confirm his title by this 
oath. And if a temporal prince, being required and admonished by the 
church, shall neglect to purge his kingdom from this heretical pravity, 
the metropolitan and other provincial bishops shall bind him in fetters 
of excommunication; and if he obstinately refuse to make satisfaction 
this shall be notified within a year to the Supreme Pontiff, that then 
he may declare his subjects absolved from their allegiance, and leave 
their lands to be occupied by Catholics, who, the heretics being exter- 
minated, may possess them unchallenged, and preserve them in the 
purity of the faith. — " The Decretals of Gregory IX" book 5, title 7. 
chap. 13. 

Heretics, Protestants Declared To Be. — In the eyes of the church, 
Protestants are heretics pure and simple; and if the name be offensive, 
it's nothing more than the offensiveness of truth. . . . 

We do not question the possibility of good faith, or of the theo- 
logical distinction between material and formal heresy. That there are 
among Protestants material heretics, those who in invincible ignorance 
deny some dogmas of faith while honestly believing themselves to be 
in possession of the whole deposit, is not for us or even for the church 
to positively affirm or deny. Only the all-seeing Searcher of hearts can 
know aught of that. But in our opinion, the assertion that Protestants 
in general are not to be considered as heretics, as men who have volun- 
tarily, in one or other of the many ways in which an act can be volun- 



HILDEBRAND 243 

tary, refused the lignt, merits unqualified condemnation as militating 
against the present economy of salvation as well as against the effi- 
ciency of the means that God infallibly gives to all who do what lies 
in their power to come into the possession of the truth. 

In this, as in all other matters of doctrine, the church alone is to 
be our guide. That the church has ever regarded Protestants as here- 
tics, has ever called them heretics, has ever conducted herself toward 
them as heretics, is undeniably true, and it ill becomes us to dictate to 
the church that her terms are " only partly true " and " unnecessarily 
offensive." 

We abominate these spineless Catholics who adopt such methods of 
kinship and co-operation with Protestants in view of their conversion. 
— The Western Watchman (R. C), Jan. 27, 1916. 

Heretics.— Pages 120, 182, 236, 415. 

Heiuli.— Pages 483-485, 594, 596. 

Higher Criticism Contrasted with Lower. — Criticism of Scrip- 
ture ("Biblical criticism") is usually divided into what is called 
" lower or textual criticism " and " higher criticism " — ■ the latter a 
phrase round which many misleading associations gather. Lower 
criticism deals strictly with the text of Scripture, endeavoring to 
ascertain what the real text of each book was as it came from the hands 
of its author; higher criticism concerns itself with the resultant prob- 
lems of age, authorship, sources, simple or composite character, his- 
torical worth, relation to period of origin, etc. The former — textual 
criticism — has a well-defined field in which it is possible to apply 
exact canons of judgment: the latter — higher criticism — while inval- 
uable as an aid in the domain of Biblical introduction (date, author- 
ship, genuineness, contents, destination, etc.) manifestly tends to 
widen out inimitably into regions where exact science cannot follow 
it, where, often, the critic's imagination is his only law . — The Inter- 
national Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., 
Vol. II, art. " Criticism of the Bible," p. 749. 

Hildebrand, Dictates of. — There is a document known as Greg- 
ory's " Dictate " (Dictatus) which may be regarded as embodying the 
principles of his system. The origin of this piece is, indeed, uncertain. 
Some have supposed it to have been drawn up by the Pope himself; and 
here again we have a consent between the extreme Romanists, who 
think both him and the Dictate perfectly right, and the extreme Prot- 
estants, who abominate both Gregory and the principles ascribed to him 
in that document. Others hold, not only that it was not drawn up by 
Gregory, but that it is an enemy's misrepresentation of him; but this 
view would seem to have been devised, merely in order to save the 
Pope's credit, by writers of the Gallican school, who disliked the Dic- 
tate, but had no wish to quarrel with Gregory's memory. Gieseler says 
that the propositions in the Dictate look much as if they were the head- 
ings and summaries of a set of canons passed at some Roman council 
held under Gregory; and this view of their origin seems very probable. 
But, however the paper may have come into existence, it seems to be 
certain — notwithstanding the denial of the Gallican writers whom I 
have mentioned — that there is nothing in the Dictate but what might 
be paralleled from the unquestioned writings of Gregory himself, or 
from the actions in which his principles were exemplified. — " Plain Lec- 
tures on the Growth of the Papal Power," James Graigie Robertson, M. A., 
pp. 204, 205. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 



2 44 HISTORY 

Hildebrand, Dictates of, A Pew of the More Important Ones. — 

1. That the Romish Church was founded by our Lord alone. 

2. That the Roman Pontiff alone is justly styled universal. 

3. That he alone can depose bishops and restore them. 
9. That all princes should kiss his feet only. 

12. That it is lawful for him to depose emperors. 

18. That his sentence is not to be reviewed by any one; while he 
alone can review the decisions of all others. 

19. That he can be judged by no one. 

22. That the Romish Church never erred; nor will it, according to 
the Scriptures, ever err. 

27. That he can absolve subjects from their allegiance to unright- 
eous rulers. — " Dictates " in " Annates Ecclesiastici," Ccesare Baronio, 
Ann. 1076, sees. 31-33; cited in Gieseler's " Ecclesiastical History," period 
3, div. 3, par. 47, note 3. 

Hildebrand (Gregory the Great). — Pages 373, 376. 

Hippolytus. — Page 182. 

History, Old Testament, Authentic Character of. — The monu- 
mental records of past ages, — Assyrian/Babylonian, Egyptian, Persian, 
Phoenician,— the writings of historians who have based their histories 
on contemporary annals, as Manetho, Berosus, Dius, Menander, Nico- 
las of Damascus; the descriptions given by eyewitnesses of the Oriental 
manners and customs; the proofs obtained by modern research of the 
condition of art in the time and country, — all combine to confirm, 
illustrate, and establish the veracity of the writers who have delivered 
to us, in the Pentateuch, in Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings and Chron- 
icles, Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah, the history of the chosen people. 
That history stands firm against all the assaults made upon it; and 
the more light that is thrown by research and discovery upon the times 
and countries with which it deals, the more apparent becomes its 
authentic and matter-of-fact character. — - " The Historical Evidences of 
the Truth of the Scripture Records/* George Rawlinson, M. A., pp. 153, 
154. New York: John B. Alden, 1883. 
■ 

History, God in. — The ebb and flow in the life of humanity is a 
marvelous thing, and the special moment at which a man is born has, 
in relation to the great tides that mark the onward movement of so- 
ciety, a special and peculiar significance. And what do these things 
signify but that changes do not come unbidden, — - that the inspiration of 
the Almighty is a factor in human destiny, and that the God who works 
in history fulfils himself in many ways?— "The Philosophy of the 
Christian Religion," Andrew' Martin Fairdairn, M. A.. D. D., LL. D., p. 
226. New York: George H. Doran Company, copyright 1902. 

History.— Pages 82, 85, 86, 234, 425. 

Horns, Ten.— Pages 593-596. 

Huguenots.— Pages 239, 320, 323, 405, 406. 

Huns.— .Pages 485, 594. 

Huss, John— Page 238. 

Hydrotherapy.— Pages 232, 233. 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 245 

Idolatry.— Pages 191-194, 319, 373, 430, 553. 
Immortality.— Pages 344, 346. 

Increase of Knowledge, Study of Peophecy as Time of End Ap- 
proached. — But I may say, that I did not out of choice apply myself 
to the study of the prophecies: I found myself forced to it by a kind 
of violence, which I could not resist. 

Two things led me to it: 1. The cruel and horrible persecution 
[revival of persecution in Prance, preceding Revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes. — Eds.], which at this day makes such terrible ravage and deso- 
lation in the church: endeavoring some consolation under the deepest 
sorrow I ever felt, by searching into the grounds, we may have to hope 
for a speedy deliverance of the church, and not finding them other 
where, I inquired after them in the prophecies, which foretell the des- 
tiny of the church, and the most remarkable changes through which she 
is to pass. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies,'' Peter 
Jurieu, "Advice" pp. 6, 7. London, 1687. 

Increase of Knowledge, Sir Isaac Newton on. — But in the very 
end, the prophecy should be so far interpreted as to convince many. 
Then, saith Daniel, many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be 
increased. For the gospel must be preached in all nations before the 
great tribulation, and end of the world. . . . An angel must fly through 
the midst of heaven with the everlasting gospel to preach to all nations, 
before Babylon falls, and the Son of man reaps his harvest. The two 
prophets must ascend up to heaven in a cloud, before the kingdoms of 
this world become the kingdoms of Christ. 'Tis therefore a part of 
this prophecy, that it should not be understood before the last age of 
the world; and therefore it makes for the credit of the prophecy, that 
it is not yet understood. But if the last age, the age of opening these 
things, be now approaching, as by the great successes of late interpret- 
ers it seems to be, we have more encouragement than ever to look into 
these things. If the general preaching of the gospel be approaching, it 
is to us and our posterity that those words mainly belong: " In the time 
of the end the wise shall understand, but none of the wicked shall 
understand." Dan. 12: 4, 10. "Blessed is he that readeth, and they 
that hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are 
written therein." Apoc. 1:3. — " Observations upon the Prophecies of 
Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac Newton, part 2, 
chap. 1, pp. 250, 251. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Increase of Knowledge, Events of French Revolution Lead to 
Prophetic Study. — The prophecies respecting the downfall of the anti- 
Christian usurpations, must have their accomplishment in some era; 
it may be the present. It is therefore surely worth our while to inquire 
how far the predictions of God's Word will agree with the rise and 
progress of known events. 

Thus it has appeared to me, and the more I examine and think 
upon the subject, the more I am convinced that the last days spoken of 
by God's servants the prophets, are fast approaching.—" The Signs of 
the Times; or, The Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in France," J. Bi- 
cheno, M. A., p. 9. London: Johnson, Matthews, Knott, 1799. 

■But the consequences of this terrible convulsion to the church were 
most important and beneficial. She was thereby shaken out of the sloth 
which had crept over her; was driven in her terror to the Scriptures, 
her only anchor and pole-star; and found, to her joy, that they were no 



246 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

longer a sealed book, but that the mystery of God was drawing to its 
close, and that the events of every year explained something previously 
unknown. Multitudes, no doubt, thus strengthened their faith, who 
have never published the results; but many did immediately publish, 
and the sudden perspicuity of interpretation is very observable. — The 
Morning Watch, or Quarterly Journal on Prophecy, December, 1829, 
Vol. I, p. 540. London: James Nisbet. 

Increase of Knowledge, Unsealing the Book of Prophecy. — The 
wonderful events which have taken place since the year 1792, have so 
much increased the number of facts forming prophetic data, as to have 
introduced a new era for prophetic history; and writers of the present 
day, in their attempts to elucidate the prophecies, possess advantages 
very superior to those enjoyed Dy their predecessors. — " Combined View 
of the Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and St. John," James Hatley Frere, 
Esq., p. 2. London, 1815. 

Increase of Knowledge, John Wesley on Prophecies About to Be 
Fulfilled. — " Happy is he that readeth, and they that hear the words 
of this prophecy." Some have miserably handled this book. Hence 
others are afraid to touch it. And while they desire to know all things 
else, reject only the knowledge of those which God hath shown. They 
inquire after anything rather than this: as if it were written, Happy is 
he that doth not read this prophecy. Nay, but happy is he that readeth, 
and they that hear and keep the words thereof: especially at this time, 
when so considerable a part of them is on the point of being fulfilled. 
— " Explanatory Notes on the New Testament," John Wesley, on Rev. 
1:3. Philadelphia: John Dickens, 1791. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Knowledge of Salvation. — "Many 
shall run to and fro," hither and thither, like couriers in the time of 
war, and "knowledge shall be increased: " knowledge of the most im- 
portant kind, the knowledge of God's salvation. Then, those who are 
wise themselves, shall endeavor to enlighten others; to "turn them 
from darkness to light," and from sin to righteousness. — " The Cottage 
Bible," Thomas Williams's note on Daniel 12:1-13 (Vol. II, p. 937). 
Hartford: Case, Tiffany <& Co., 1853. 

Increase of Knowledge, Sir Isaac Newton on Opening of Proph- 
ecies. — Among the interpreters of the last age there is scarce one of 
note who hath not made some discovery worth knowing; and thence I 
seem to gather that God is about opening these mysteries. The success 
of others put me upon considering it; and if I have done anything which 
may be useful to following writers, I have my design. — " Observations 
upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir 
Isaac Newton, part 2, chap. 1, p. 253. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 
1733. 

Increase of Knowledge, Accompanied by World Travel. — The nat- 
ural meaning [of the phrase, "many shall run to and fro." Dan. 12: 4. 
— Eds.] must be upheld, i. e., wandering to and fro. — " Daniel and Its 
Critics," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., p. 209. London: Williams 
and Norgate, 1906. 

Why should not that expression be used in the sense in which it is 
employed in Jeremiah 5: 1, namely, of rapid movement hither and 
thither? — " Daniel and His Prophecies," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, 
D. D., p. 321. London: Williams and Norgate, 1906. 



INCREASE OF KNOAVLEDGE 247 

Increase of Knowledge, Spirit Animating Columbus. — In the 
execution of my enterprise to the Indies, human reason, mathematics, 
and maps of the world have served me nothing. It has accomplished 
simply that which the prophet Isaiah had predicted, — that before the 
end of the world all the prophecies should have their accomplishment. 
— Christopher Columbus, quoted in " Examen Critique" A. von Hum- 
boldt, Vol. I, pp. 15-19; cited in " The Reign of Christ on Earth," Dan- 
iel T. Taylor, p. 294. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

In a letter to his sovereign, dated Jamaica, July 7, 1503, Columbus, 
after saying he must hasten and finish up his work of divine in- 
spiration, namely, the opening up of the whole earth to the spread of 
Christianity preparatory to the coming of the Lord, added as follows: 
" According to my calculations there remain now to the end of the 
world but one hundred and fifty years! " How very striking it is that 
the great discoverer of the earth's Western Hemisphere should have 
been impelled to his task and have enthusiastically performed it all 
under a deep and solemn conviction of the fast approaching, and, we 
may say, the actual imminence of the Great Consummation. — Id. 
(Taylor), p. 295. 

Increase of Knowledge, Era Long Foreseen. — Nor should the 
prophecy of Daniel be forgotten, touching the last ages of the world: 
"Many shall go to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased;" 
clearly intimating that the thorough passage of the world (which now 
by so many distant voyages seems to be accomplished, or in course of 
accomplishment), and the advancement of the sciences, are destined by 
fate, that is, by divine Providence, to meet in the same age. — " Novum 
Organum," Francis Bacon (died 1626), book 1, p. xciii; in Bacon's 
Works, Vol. IV, p. 92. Spedding and Ellis. 

Increase of Knowledge, Jurieu, on Invention of Sea Compass. — 
Why did God reserve the invention of the sea compass to these last 
times? why was it not known three or four hundred years ago, what 
it was to sail upon the ocean far from the shore? was there less curios- 
ity, covetousness, or industry among men formerly than now? for what 
reason would God that one half of the world should live in ignorance 
of the other for so long a time? Why hath God in these latter days 
more visibly favored the designs which men have always had, to en- 
rich themselves by commerce and trade, going in pursuit of riches to 
the end of the world? For my own part, I cannot but look upon this 
as a work of a most wise Providence, discovering to us unknown peo- 
ple, whose conversion he intends to bring about within a short time. — 
" The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, 
" Advice" p. 13. London, 1687. 

Increase of Knowledge, All Lands Now Explored. — The same 
task [the penetration of every unknown tract, to which eighteenth-cen- 
tury explorers set themselves.— Eds.] has occupied modern explorers, 
who pride themselves on not passing over in their surveys the smallest 
corner of the earth, or the tiniest islet. With a similar enthusiasm are 
imbued the intrepid navigators who penetrate the ice-bound solitudes 
of the two poles, and tear away the last fragments of the veil which 
has so long hidden from us the extremities of the globe. 

All then is now known, classed, catalogued, and labeled! Will the 
results of so much toil be buried in some carefully laid down atlas, to 
be sought only by professional savants? No! it is reserved to our use, 
and to develop the resources of the globe, conquered for us by our fa- 



248 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

thers at the cost of so much danger and fatigue. Our heritage is too 
grand to be relinquished. We have at our command all the facilities 
of modern science for surveying, clearing, and working our property. 
No more lands lying fallow, no more impassable deserts, no more use- 
less streams, no more unfathomable seas, no more inaccessible moun- 
tains! We suppress the obstacles nature throws in our way. The isth- 
muses of Panama and Suez are in our way; we cut through them. — 
" Great Explorers of the Nineteenth Century''' Jules Verne, p. 378. 

Increase of Knowledge, Travel and Spread of Information. — One 
very remarkable feature of this Day of God defies adequate description. 
We might call it acceleration, concentration, condensation; but there is 
no fit word for it. Centuries are practically crowded into years, and 
years into days. Travel is so rapid that what would have taken months, 
one hundred years ago, is now easily accomplished in weeks, perhaps 
in days. We keep in touch, day by day, with the whole world, so that 
in the morning papers we read the news from Japan and China, India 
and Africa, as naturally as from London and Dublin, New York and 
Chicago. So much can be done in a brief space of time and over a 
vast space of territory, that practically time and space are annihilated, 
and nothing seems any longer impossible to human achievement. The 
last fifty years have brought to the race an absolutely new era and 
epoch, abundant illustrations of which it would be easy to adduce. — 
" The Modern Mission Century," Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., p. 44. New 
York: The Baker and Taylor Company, 1901. 

Increase of Knowledge, Spread of Geographical Study. — The 
first [geographical society] was founded at Paris in 1821, the second 
at Berlin in 1828, and the third, which is now the most influential, at 
London in 1830. The largest is the National Geographic Society at Wash- 
ington, which had 30,000 members in 1908. There were in 1901 no less 
than 89 active geographical societies in Europe, with more than 60,000 
members, 6 in Asia, 8 in North America, 5 in South America, 3 in 
Africa, and 4 in Australia, — 115 altogether. There are also more than 
150 different geographical journals or magazines published regularly in 
all parts of the world. It may safely be said that this argues a more 
widespread interest in geography than exists in any other science. — 
"International Geography," H. R. Mill, p. 12. New York: D. Appleton 
& Co., 1909. 

Increase of Knowledge, " A Century of Wonders." — The nine- 
teenth century is conceded to be a century of wonders. Judged by hu- 
man progress along the highway of scientific discovery and invention, 
and by the general widening out of the horizon of human knowledge, 
it is not only unsurpassed, but it leaves all previous centuries far be- 
hind. Mr. Gladstone thought that a single decade of years might be 
found, within its limits, during which the race had advanced farther 
than during five hundred decades preceding. This estimate is probably 
not an exaggeration; but, if so, what must be true of the whole century! 

The catalogue of its achievements is both long and lustrous. In 
modes of travel, it has given us the railway and steamship, and come 
near to aerial navigation [now achieved]; in labor-saving machinery, 
it has invaded every department of handiwork; in transmission of 
thou^Jit and intelligence, it has bequeathed us the telegraph, ocean cable, 
ana telephone, and, last of all, wireless telegraphy; in the department 
of fire and light, the lucifer match, gas, and electricity; in the new ap- 
plication of light, photography, the Rontgen ray, and the miracle of 
spectrum analysis; in the department of physics, the conservation of en- 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 249 

ergy and the molecular theory of gases, and solidified air; in the appli- 
cation of physical principles, the velocity of light, and the phonograph; 
it has demonstrated the " importance of dust " and the " ethics of dust," 
and unveiled great mysteries of chemistry; it has multiplied the ele- 
mental substances by the score; in astronomy, unveiled new worlds; 
... in physiology, this last century gave us the cell theory and the 
germ theory; i'n medicine and surgery, anesthetics and antiseptics; 
... it has improved prison discipline, revolutionized the treatment of 
lunatics, introduced aniline dyes, and given us a new set of explosives; 
it has carried on investigation in anthropology and archeology, and has 
explored land and sea until the secrets of ages have been unlocked. — 
" The Modern Mission Century,'" Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., pp. 41, 42. 
New York: The Baker and Taylor Company, 1901. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Steamship Comes at a Providential 
Hour. — There was one other force which was needed to fully equip the 
church for its universal activity, and to draw the nations of the world 
together into a net, as the peoples of old had been drawn into the Greco- 
Roman Empire. That was the power of steam, which was to bind the 
lands together with bands of steel, turn the oceans into a Mediterranean, 
make the locomotive an emissary of God's kingdom, and the steamer a 
morning star to herald the day. That invention was not ready to begin 
its task of annihilating space until the dawn of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. But it was ready in time, for not until then was the purified 
church itself roused to a fidelity grand enough to undertake the work 
for which God had been preparing this equipment. It was in 1807, 
while the young men at Williamstown [Massachusetts] were praying 
and studying about missions, that Robert Fulton was making the first 
trip of the " Clermont " from New York to Albany. — " Introduction to 
Foreign Missions" Dr. Edward Lawrence, p. 20. 

Increase of Knowledge, When Transatlantic Steamships Were 
Counted Impossible. — As to the project, however, which was announced 
in the newspapers, of making the voyage directly from New York to 
Liverpool [under steam alone], it was, he had no hesitation in saying, 
perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making a voyage 
from New York or Liverpool to the moon. — Report of Lecture by Dr. 
Lardner, quoted in Liverpool Albion, Dec. 14, 1835. 

Increase of Knowledge, Fulton's First Steamship, 1807. — Ful- 
ton's biographer [Dyer] describes the trial: "Before the boat had made 
the progress of a quarter of a mile, the greatest unbeliever was con- 
verted, and Fulton was received with shouts and acclamations of con- 
gratulation and applause. The vessel, 'Clermont,' made her first 
voyage from New York to Albany, 140 miles, at the average rate of 
five miles an hour; stopping some time at Clermont to take in water 
and coals. 

" The whole progress up the Hudson was a continual triumph. 
The vessel is described as having the most terrific appearance. The dry 
pine-wood fuel sent up many feet above the flue a column of ignited 
vapor, and, when the fire was stirred, tremendous showers of sparks. The 
wind and tide were adverse to them, but the crowds saw with astonish- 
ment the vessel rapidly coming toward them; and when it came so near 
that the noise of the machinery and paddles was heard, the crew, in 
some instances, shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight; 
while others prostrated themselves, and besought Providence to protect 
them from the approach of the horrible monster, which was marching 
on the tide, and lighting its path by the fire that it vomited." 



250 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

Mr. Dyer had sailed in the " Clermont," and remembers the sensa- 
tion created by her appearance, and the high admiration bestowed on 
the projector of so great an enterprise. That sensation in 1807 was pre- 
cisely the same as the " Margery " created among the vessels on the 
Thames in 1815. In 1816, the Marquis de Jauffroy complained that the 
" Fulton " steamboat on the Seine had taken the " paddle wheels " in- 
vented by him and used at Lyons thirty-four years before, but also 
abandoned by him. To this charge Mons. Royou replied in the Journal 
des Debats, thus: " It is not concerning an invention, but the means of 
applying a power already known. Pulton never pretended to be an 
inventor with regard to steamboats in any other sense. The application 
of steam to navigation had been thought of by all artists, but the means 
of applying it were wanting, and Fulton furnished them." The "Ful- 
ton," of 327 tons, was built in 1813, and the first steamer for harbor 
defense was built under Fulton's direction, 2,740 tons, launched in 
1814. — " Wonderful Inventions," John Timbs, p. 258. London, 1868. 

Increase of Knowledge, Establishment of Transatlantic Steam- 
ship Service. — What may be the ultimate fate of this excitement 
[arrival of steamships " Sirius " and " Great Western " in New York, 
from England] — whether or not the expense of equipment and fuel 
will admit of the employment of these vessels in the ordinary packet 
service — we cannot pretend to form an opinion; but of the entire 
feasibility of the passage of the Atlantic by steam, as far as regards 
safety, comfort, and dispatch, even in the roughest and most boisterous 
weather, the most skeptical must now cease to doubt. — New York Cou- 
rier and Enquirer, April 24, 1838. 

Increase of Knowledge, Progress in Steamships. — It is a far cry 
from the year 1838, when the steam conquest of the ocean was achieved 
definitely and commercially, to 1912. Yet in these seventy-four years 
progress has been marked. The pioneer liner " Sirius " [from England 
to New York, 1838] was driven by paddle wheels, and with the collective 
energy of three hundred twenty horses resolved into harnessed steam, 
her engines were able to give her an average speed of seven and a half 
knots — eight and three-fourths miles — per hour. At the time, this 
was considered an amazing engineering achievement, but it pales into 
insignificance when ranged beside the pace of the crack liners of today. 
. . . They travel three and a half times faster than did the " Sirius," 
but their engines are more than two hundred times as powerful in 
order to cross the North Atlantic in a quarter of the time occupied by 
the little vessel which led the way. This comparison offers a graphic 
idea of the enormous strides that have been made by the marine engi- 
neer in the space of three quarters of a century. — " Steamship Conquest 
of the World," F. A. Talbot, p. 39. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Com- 
pany, 1912. 

Increase of Knowledge, Transportation Changes in Nineteenth 
Century. — From the earliest historic and even in prehistoric times till 
the construction of our great railways in the second quarter of the pres- 
ent century [the nineteenth], there had been absolutely no change in 
the methods of human locomotion. — " The Wonderful Century," Prof. 
Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 7. 

Increase of Knowledge, First Railway Expectations. — In 1825, 
Mr. Nicholas Wood, in his work on railways, took the standard at six 
miles an hour, drawing forty tons on a level; and so confident was he 
that he had gauged the power of the locomotive, that he said: "Nothing 
could do more harm toward the adoption of railways than the promul- 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 251 

gation of such nonsense, as that we shall see locomotive engines travel- 
ing at the rate of twelve, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty miles an 
hour." . . . 

[The London] Quarterly Review gravely observed: "As to those 
persons who speculate on the making of railroads generally throughout 
the kingdom, and superseding all the canals, all the wagons, mail and 
stage coaches, postchaises, and in short every other mode of convey- 
ance by land and by water, we deem them and their visionary schemes 
unworthy of notice." — " Wonderful Inventions" John Timbs, p. 297. 
London, 1868. 

Increase of Knowledge, When Railways Were Counted Impos- 
sible. — Henry Meigs, a member of the New York Legislature in 1817, 
a young man of fine talents, lost his influence, ruined his prospects, and 
came to be regarded as a proper subject for a strait- jacket, because he 
expressed his belief that steam carriages would be operated successfully 
on land. — " When Railroads Were New" C. F. Carter, p. 8. 

Increase of Knowledge, When Railways Were New in France. — 
The council of ministers, on being acquainted with His Majesty's project 
[to go by rail from Paris to Rouen, 1843], held a sitting, and came to 
the conclusion that this mode of traveling by railway was not suffi- 
ciently secure to admit of its being used by the king, and consequently 
His Majesty went to Bizy with post horses. — ''Railways of England" 
William Acioorth, p. 19. 

Increase of Knowledge, A Massachusetts Town Avoiding a Rail- 
way. — Dorchester, Mass., in a town meeting assembled in 1842, in- 
structed its representatives in the legislature to use their utmost en- 
deavors to prevent, if possible, so great a calamity to our town as must 
be the location of any railroad through it. — " When Railroads Were 
New," C. F. Garter, p. 11. 

Increase of Knowledge, First Railway Office in New York City. 
— Cornelius Vanderbilt opened a railway office on Manhattan Island in 
1844, and that was the beginning of the railway methods that have 
grown into such enormous proportions on the island today, with ninety- 
six railway corporations and all of their direct and indirect interests 
represented here. All of this means the interests of 280,000 miles of 
railway. — New York Herald, Jan. 22, 1911. 

Decrease of Knowledge, Growth of Railways in United States. — 
The American railway system has grown as follows: 

Miles Miles 

1850 9,021 1890 167,191 

1860 30,626 1900 198,964 

1870 52,922 1910 249,992 

1880 93,267 

The United States have the most wonderful system of railways. 
Their mileage is far greater than that of all Europe, which in 1910 had 
only 207,432 miles of railway. . . . The great republic possesses forty per 
cent of the railway mileage of the world. — J. Ellis Barker, in the 
Nineteenth Century and After, London, May, 1918, pp. 941, 942. 

Increase of Knowledge, Railway Crossing of Australian Con- 
tinent. — At 428 miles from Augusta the route [of the railway connect- 
ing Western Australia with South Australia, completed in 1918] de- 



25 2 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

bouches suddenly on to the famous " Nullarbor," an absolutely level 
and treeless plain — a plain as big as France, averaging 600 feet above 
the sea level. . . . For 330 miles on the " Nullarbor " the line runs with- 
out a curve — the longest tangent in the world. There is no surface 
water, but an extensive boring is producing fresh water in large quan- 
tities. ... It renders possible one of the longest railway runs in the 
world. From tropical Townsville, sheltered behind the barrier reef, 
the traveler may soon run by way of Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and 
Adelaide, to Perth, on the surf-beaten shores of the Indian Ocean — a 
run of 4,000 miles. He may do this in the running time of 150 hours. 
— " Engineering" London; reprinted in the Literary Digest, New York, 
May 18, 1918. 

Increase of Knowledge, Birth of Modern Postal System, of 1839- 
1843. — Coleridge, when a young man, was walking through the lake 
district, when he one day saw the postman deliver a letter to a woman 
at a cottage door. The woman turned it over and examined it, and then 
returned it, saying she could not pay the postage, which was a shilling. 
Hearing that the letter was from her brother, Coleridge paid the post- 
age in spite of the manifest unwillingness of the woman. As soon as 
the postman was out of sight, she showed Coleridge how his money had 
been wasted, as far as she was concerned. The sheet was blank. There 
was an agreement between her brother and herself that as long as all 
went well with him, he should send a blank sheet in this way once a 
quarter; and she thus had tidings of him without expense of postage. 
Most persons would have remembered this incident as a curious story 
to tell; but there was one mind which wakened up at once to a sense of 
the significance of the fact. It struck Mr. Rowland Hill that there must 
be something wrong in a system which drove a brother and sister to 
cheating, in order to gratify their desire to hear of one another's wel- 
fare. — " A Short History of Our Own Times," Justin McCarthy, pp. 10, 
11. London: Chatto and Windus, 1904. 

Increase of Knowledge, Coming of the Electric Telegraph. — It 
is a somewhat curious coincidence that in the year [1837] when Pro- 
fessor Wheatstone and Mr. Cooke took out their first patent " for im- 
provements in giving signals and sounding alarms in distant places by 
means of electric currents transmitted through metallic circuit," Pro- 
fessor Morse, the American electrician, applied to Congress for aid in 
the construction and carrying on of a small electric telegraph to convey 
messages a short distance, and made the application without success. In 
the following year he came to this country [England] to obtain a patent 
for his invention; but he was refused. He had come too late. Our own 
countrymen were beforehand with him. — Id., p. 9. 

Increase of Knowledge, First Long-Distance Establishment of 
Telegraph, 1844. — The system is daily extending. It was, however, in 
the United States of America that it was first adopted on a great scale, 
by Professor Morse, in 1844, and it is there that it is now already de- 
veloping most extensively.— Speech in 1847 by Sir Robert Inglis, Presi- 
dent of the British Association; quoted in " Lives of the Electricians," 
W. F. Jeans, p. 285. London. 

Decrease of Knowledge, Morse on the Telegraph as a Gift of 
Providence. — If not a sparrow falls to the ground without a definite 
purpose in the plans of Infinite Wisdom, can the creation of an instru- 
ment so vitally affecting the interests of the whole human race have 
an origin less humble than the Father of every good and perfect gift? 



INCREASE OP KNOWLEDGE 253 

I am sure I have the sympathy of such an assembly as is here gathered 
together, if in all humility, and in the sincerity of a grateful heart, I 
use the words of Inspiration in ascribing honor and praise to Him to 
whom first of all and most of all it is pre-eminently due. " Not unto us, 
not unto us, but to God be all the glory " — not, What hath man, but, 
"What hath God wrought! " — Prof. 8. F. B. Morse, in speech, Bee. 31, 
1868; quoted in " Lives of the Electricians" W. F. Jeans, p. 315. London. 

Note. — The expression, " What hath God wrought ! " was the first long- 
distance message, and was sent by Professor Morse from Washington to Balti- 
more, May 24, 1844. — Eds. 

Increase of Knowledge, Telephony. — Long-distance transmission 
from coast to coast by metallic circuits has been successfully accom 
plished during past year. By the use of well-known and commercially 
practicable apparatus, the human voice may now be clearly transmitted 
over the span of 3,400 miles between New York and San Francisco. 
This transcontinental line is now in regular commercial use, and al- 
ready the traffic over it has reached sufficient proportions to justify the 
expense involved. — The American Year Booh, 1915, edited by Francis 
G. Wickware, B. A., B. 8c, p. 560. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1916. 

Increase of Knowledge, Wireless Telephony. — In September, 
1915, the human voice was carried by wireless transmission from Ar- 
lington, Va., near Washington, to Honolulu, a distance of 4,900 miles. 
Two weeks later words spoken at Arlington were received by the sta- 
tion on the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Since the first successful transmis- 
sion, messages have been sent from Arlington to Mare Island, San 
Diego, Darien, and Paris. — Id., p. 561. 

Increase of Knowledge, Modern Inventions Counted Gospel Agen- 
cies. — The development of scientific invention in the past hundred years 
is sufficient to bewilder the careful thinker. He feels almost like 
Alice in Wonderland. It is said that when the battle of Waterloo was 
fought, in 1815, all haste delivered the thrilling dispatches in London 
three days later. How does that appear in contrast with wireless teleg- 
raphy and wireless telephony? All the world is now becoming a vast 
whispering gallery. 

The Watchman and Examiner, in a July issue, refers to three events 
which it calls modern marvels. The first is the Institute of American 
Electrical Engineers' simultaneous convention in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Salt Lake City, and San Francisco. 
Telephone connection was made so that speakers in each city were 
perfectly heard by the members of the Institute in all the other cities 
named. At the close, each city furnished a song. Atlanta's song was 
" Way Down South in Dixie," other cities furnished other songs, while 
Philadelphia closed with " The Star Spangled Banner." When the first 
notes of this last song were heard, the president of the Institute asked 
all to stand, and the five thousand men composing the Institute in the 
seven cities stood loyally while this national song was being sung. 
The song was heard in the different places, and also the applause at 
the close. The second wonder was the sending of two thousand words 
from Nauen, Germany, to Long Island by wireless telegraphy, beating 
the cable message of the German government by over seven hours. 
The third of these remarkable events was the hearing of the human voice 
at the wireless telephone in New York City, by an operator in Honolulu. 

Such astonishing facts are suggestive of the greatness of the 
world's future. God is developing these agencies for the welfare of 
the human race, and the progress of his kingdom in this world. They 



254 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

are intended to be conveyors of his truth. Satan is quick to employ 
new inventions in his work, and he uses them most effectively; but 
they are also channels for the work of the kingdom. God wants his 
people to control them in his service; and the day is coming when they 
will. These things are developments in the providence of God, and fore- 
tokens of a far greater era of spirituality for this world than it has 
ever seen. — The Christian Statesman, Pittsburgh, Pa., August-Septem- 
ber, 1916. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Rise of Modern Missions. — The clos- 
ing years of the eighteenth century constitute in the history of Prot- 
estant missions an epoch indeed, since they witnessed nothing less 
than a revolution, a renaissance, an effectual and manifold ending of 
the old, a substantial inauguration of the new. It was then that for the 
first time since the apostolic period, occurred an outburst of general 
missionary zeal and activity. Beginning in Great Britain, it soon 
spread to the Continent and across the Atlantic. It was no mere push 
of fervor, but a mighty tide set in, which from that day to this has 
been steadily rising and spreading. — "A Hundred Years of Missions" 
Rev. Delevan L. Leonard, p. 69. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Com- 
pany, 1895. 

Increase of Knowledge, Europe's Message to Britain on Birth of 
Modern Missions. — It is like the dawn promising the beautiful day 
after the dark night. It is the beginning of a new epoch for the king- 
dom of God on earth. Your undertaking and its success fills our hearts 
with joy and our eyes with tears. The history of Great Britain is sanc- 
tified by this unparalleled mission. What harmony among different per- 
suasions! You call on the wise and good of every nation to take in- 
terest in the work and bear a part. Such a call was never heard of 
before. It was reserved for the close of the eighteenth century to be 
distinguished by it. — Message of Basle (Switzerland) Believers, days of 
1796-98; cited in "A Hundred Years of Missions," p. 91. 

Increase of Knowledge, Wm. Carey's Pioneer Missionary Society. 
— Carey's Baptist society [1792], which originated in his brain, was 
the model for the scores and hundreds which followed after. Thus was 
ushered in the happy day of voluntary societies, organizations sus- 
tained by such as are interested in the promotion of the objects sought. 

And the year of grace 1792 is annus mirabilis, the famous date 
from which to reckon backward and forward. Well may it stand side 
by side with 44 a. d., when the Holy Ghost said, " Separate me Barna- 
bas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them; " or 53 a. d., 
when in vision Paul was bidden to lay the foundations of the gospel 
in Europe. Whatever has been accomplished since can be traced to 
forces which began to operate a hundred years ago. — "A Hundred 
Years of Missions," Rev. Delevan L. Leonard, p. 70. New York: Funk 
and Wagnalls Company, 1895. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Hour at Hand, Delay Impossible. — 
Even Andrew Puller, in 1787, replied to Carey's urgency for immediate 
action: " If the Lord should make windows in heaven, then might this 
thing be." The fact, published by his contemporaries in 1793, and 
verified by all the history since, is thus expressed by Dr. Ryland, an- 
other unbeliever in immediate duty, like Fuller: " I believe God him- 
self infused into the mind of Carey that solicitude for the salvation of 
the heathen which cannot be fairly traced to any other source." — " Short 
History of Chrictian Missions," George Smith, LL. D., F. R, O. S., p. 
160, revised edition. Edinburgh: T. d T. Clark, 



INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 255 

Increase of Knowledge, Origin of the Idea of Bible Societies. — 
[Mary Jones, a Welsh girl, walked over twenty-five miles with six 
years' savings to buy a Welsh Bible — only to find that Mr. Thomas 
Charles, minister, had no copies save a few spoken for, and knew not 
how to get more. — Eds.] Poor Mary! When she heard this answer, 
her disappointment was so great that she burst into tears, and sobbed 
as if her heart would break. Mr. Charles was deeply moved, and tears 
filled his eyes, partly in sorrow for his country, where the Word of God 
was so scarce, and partly in pity for Mary. He could not bear that she 
should return home in grief and disappointment. "You shall have a 
Bible," he said, and he gave her one of the reserved copies. Mary's 
tears were now tears of joy as she paid for her treasure. " Well, 
David Edward," said Mr. Charles, turning to the elder, who had been 
weeping too, " is not this very sad — that there should be such a scar- 
city of Bibles in the country and that this poor child should have 
walked some twenty-eight or thirty miles to get a copy? If something 
can be done to alter this state of things, I will not rest till it is accom- 
plished."—" Little Hands and God's Book," William Canton, p. 22. Lon- 
don: The Bible House. 

Increase of Knowledge, Diary Recording Birth of British Bible 

Society. — March 7, 1804. Memorable day! The British and Foreign 
Bible Society founded. I and others belonging to the tract society had 
long had it in view; and after much preparation, in which we did not 
publicly appear, a meeting was called in the London Tavern, and the 
society began with a very few. . . . Nations unborn will have cause to 
Mess God for the meeting of this day. — Entry in George Burder's 
Diary, quoted in British and Foreign Bible Society's Centenary Report. 
•" After a Hundred Years" p. 2. 

Increase of Knowledge, Wonderful Development of the Print- 
ing Press. — If the spirit of the man [Gutenberg] who invented print- 
ing from movable type could animate his striking statue outside the 
big Hoe building [New York] and step down from his pedestal, how he 
would marvel at the triumphs of his beloved art at the dawn of the 
twentieth century! 

R. Hoe & Co. have just completed the construction of the largest 
printing press in the world. ... It is a double octuple press, and so 
called, but in reality is much more than this, inasmuch as it combines 
the ability to do printing in colors as well as in black. . . . Altogether 
there are 18 plate cylinders in the machine, each carrying eight plates 
the size of a newspaper page. . . . 

The full capacity of the machine, when printing all black, on eight 
rolls, is equivalent to 300,000 four-, six-, or eight-page papers per hour. 

The maximum product of the machine when running as a color 
press is 50,000 twenty-four-page papers per hour, with two outside pages 
printed in three colors and black; the other pages in black only. Pa- 
pers with any number of pages from four to twenty-four, with four 
colors and black on the outside pages, the other pages in black only, can 
be obtained at a speed of 50,000 to 100,000 per hour. . . . Running at a 
speed of 300 revolutions per minute of the cylinders and using eight 
rolls of paper, the consumption of paper will be at the rate of 108 miles 
an hour, six feet wide, or 216 miles an hour three feet wide. The 
weight of this paper would be about eighteen tons. — Statement to Pub- 
lishers, from R. Hoe & Co., March 29, 1916. 

Increase of Knowledge, Wireless Telephone. — Sept. 19, 1915, . . . 
speech was successfully transmitted, without relay, from New York 



256 INCREASE OF KNOWLEDGE 

to Washington by wire telephone, from Washington to San Francisco 
by wireless telephone; then replies were received in New York by 
wire telephone from San Francisco. 

Having succeeded in talking by wireless over a distance of 2,500 
miles, the United States Navy Department arranged for the test which 
set the record for long-distance radiophone transmission. On Oct. 23, 
1915, it transmitted signals from Arlington which were simultaneously 
received in Honolulu and in the Eiffel Tower at Paris. — Current His- 
tory, May, 1920, p. 267. The New York Times Company. 

Increase of Knowledge, The Pilot Cable. — New York harbor is 
the first place in the New World to profit by the British Navy's discov- 
ery of the secret device used by the Germans to guide their ships 
through the mine-sown waters about Heligoland, in darkness, fog, and 
violent currents. Their idea was to steer by ear rather than by eye, 
making use of the scientific fact that an electrified cable laid at the bot- 
tom of a harbor channel, even though insulated, sends out magnetic 
waves which can be heard by wireless telephone receivers on a ship 
at the surface within 500 feet of it at any point. With a large receiving 
coil, like a four-foot ear, placed at each side of the vessel, and with a 
telephone wire from each coil to the corresponding human ear of the 
steersman on the ship, the buzzing of the electric cable can be followed 
in midnight darkness or the thickest fog as easily as a traveler in a 
New York subway station " follows the green line." If the buzzing in 
both ears is equally loud, the steersman knows he is over the cable 
and safe in the middle of the channel. If the sound in the right ear 
grows dim, he knows he is getting off the cable on that side, and must 
steer a little more to the left, or be in danger of running his craft into 
shallow water. 

During the war the British learned this secret, and used such cables 
and wireless receivers in the English Channel and elsewhere. Since 
the armistice they have installed two of these pilot cables, as they are 
now called, at Portsmouth, one for inbound shipping and one for out- 
bound. A year ago electrical experts of the United States Navy made 
extended experiments with the new system, installing a cable in the 
Thames River at New London, Conn., until they had reached a stage 
of success which made it advisable to transfer the work to the larger 
field in New York harbor. With the improvements already worked out 
on this side of the Atlantic, a recent official naval report pronounced 
the radio piloting cable " one of the greatest aids to navigation ever 
devised." — Current History, October, 1920, p. 30. The New York Times 
Company. 

Index of Prohibited Books. — Pages 200, 201. 

Indulgences, The Pardon oe Sins. — Further, it is much insisted 
on in Roman "Apologetic books that indulgences are in no sense pardons 
for sin, far less licenses to commit sin, nor purchasable for money. 
This is true now, but it was not always true. The existing practice, 
whatever its errors and abuses may be, is at any rate free from the hor- 
rible scandals which attended the older method, abolished by the Council 
of Trent in consequence of the outcry raised on the subject at the Refor- 
mation — one proof, among many, that Rome can be forced to mend 
her ways by pressure from without, though she never does it voluntarily. 
The Roman Catholic princes of Germany, alarmed at the progress of 
Lutheranism, met in Diet at Nuremberg in 1523, and addressed a peti- 
tion to Pope Hadrian VI for the remedy of a " Hundred Grievances of 



INDULGENCES 257 



the German Nation," which they set forth in that document. Among 
these occur — 

No. 5. How license to sin with impunity is granted for money. 

No. 67. How more money than penitence is exacted from sinners. 

No. 91. How bishops extort money from the concubinage of priests. 
They restated these grievances more at length, classifying them in chap 
ters, and alleged that the vendors of bulls of indulgence " declare that 
by means of these purchasable pardons, not only are past and future 
sins of the living forgiven, but also those of such as have departed this 
life and are in the purgatory of fire, provided only something be counted 
down. . . . Every one, in proportion to the price he had expended in 
these wares, promised himself impunity in sinning. Hence came forni- 
cations, incests, adulteries, perjuries, homicides, thefts, rapine, usury, 
and a whole hydra of evils. For what wickedness will mortals shudder 
at any longer, when they have once persuaded themselves that license 
and impunity for sinning can be had for money, however extravagant 
the sum, not only in this life but after death also, by means of these 
marketings of indulgences? " — " Plain Reasons Against Joining the 
Church of Rome," Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., pp. 102. 
103. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Indulgences, Abuses Arising from. — The development of the in- 
dulgence in this period, together with that of the confessional, in last- 
ing and reciprocal operation, completed the destruction of the ancient 
penitential system. Whilst bishops and priests continued to ply a retail 
businsss in the punishment of sin, the popes began after the time of 
Gregory VII [1073-1085] to promise full pardon in return for certain 
important services rendered to the church: ever since the time of 
Urban II this had been granted in an especial manner to all crusaders. 
The common people naturally understood this promise in its literal 
meaning: and in consequence it had the worst effect upon their moral- 
ity: on the other hand, we find that the theologians of the twelfth cen- 
tury, since as yet it was hard for them to reconcile this forgiveness of 
sins by man with their fundamental maxim, that God alone can for- 
give sin, partly gave little credit to it, partly, in their explanations of 
the doctrine, stopped far short of the literal sense of the promises. 
Innocent III, in the year 1215, imposed restrictions on episcopal indul- 
gence, because of the abuses which rose therefrom; but, as it seems, 
only to open a door for the anomaly of papal indulgence. For not 
only was the papal indulgence for Crusaders in the thirteenth century 
repeated as often as there was a crusade, and even besides sold for 
money, and lesser indulgences granted for the most trifling circum- 
stances: but now also several orders of monks under papal protection, 
offered peculiar indulgences with trifling demands, and professedly 
fraught with the most effectual operation: and at the end of this 
period of time, in the year 1300, Boniface VIII established the year of 
jubilee, in which the most complete forgiveness of sin was to be guar- 
anteed in return for small contributions in money. The abuse was 
made still worse by the fraud, which was very soon introduced into 
this traffic. — " A Compendium of Ecclesiastical History," Dr. John C. 
L. Oieseler, Vol. Ill, pp. 365-372. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1853. 

Infallibility, Importance or the Doctrine of. — For what is the 
subject in dispute when we discuss the primacy of the Pontiff? In a 
few words, it is the sum and substance of Christianity. The inquiry is 
nothing less than, Whether the church ought any longer to maintain its 
existence, or to be dissolved and to fall to ruin? What is the difference 
between asking whether it is expedient to remove the foundation from 

17 



2 58 INFALLIBILITY DEFINED 



a building, the shepherd from his flock, the general from his army, the 
sun from the stars, the head from the body; and asking whether it is 
expedient that the building should fall, the flock be scattered, the army 
routed, the stars darkened, the body prostrate? — " Disputationes de 

Controversiis Christians Fidei Adversus Hujus Temporis Hwreticos" 
" De Bum-mo Pontifice " ( " On the Chief Pontiff "), Bellarmine (R. C), 
Preface, par. 2. 

Infallibility Defined. — Infallibility, (in general) exemption or 
immunity from liability to error or failure; (in particular) in theo- 
logical usage, the supernatural prerogative by which the church of 
Christ is, by a special divine assistance, preserved from liability to error 
in her definitive dogmatic teaching regarding matters of faith and mor- 
als. — " The Catholic Encyclopedia," Vol. VII, art. " Infallibility," p. 790. 

Infallibility, What It Is Not. — 1. The infallibility of the popes 
does not signify that they are inspired. . . . 

2. Infallibility does not mean that the Pope is impeccable, or spe- 
cially exempt from liability to sin. . . . 

3. Bear in mind, also, that this divine assistance is guaranteed to 
the Pope, not in his capacity as a private teacher, but only in his official 
capacity, when he judges of faith and morals as head of the church. . . . 

4. Finally, the inerrability of the popes, being restricted to questions 
of faith and morals, does not extend to the natural sciences, such as 
astronomy or geology, unless where error is presented under the false 
name of science, and arrays itself against revealed truth. — " The Faith 
of Our Fathers," James Cardinal Gibbons (R. C), pp. 145-148. 

Infallibility, Decree of the Vatican Council on. — Therefore faith- 
fully adhering to the tradition received from the beginning of the 
Christian faith, for the glory of God our Saviour, the exaltation of the 
Catholic religion, and the salvation of Christian people, the Sacred Coun- 
cil approving, we teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed: 
that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedr&i that is, when in 
discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue 
of his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine regarding faith 
or morals to be held by the universal church, by the divine assistance 
promised to him in blessed Peter, is possessed of that infallibility with 
which the divine Redeemer willed that his church should be endowed 
for defining doctrine regarding faith or morals: and that therefore such 
definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not 
from the consent of the church. — From " First Dogmatic Constitution on 
the Church of Christ," chap. 4, published in the fourth session of the 
Vatican Council, July 18, 1870; " Petri Privilegium " (The Vatican Coun- 
cil and Its Definitions), Archbishop Manning (R. C.), p. 218. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1871. 

Infallibility, The Principle Extended. — Not only are the Scrip- 
tures and apostolic traditions infallible sources of doctrine which is 
unerringly transmitted, but the general sense and belief of the faithful 
is also infallible. — The Catholic World, August, 1871, p. 582. 

Infallibility, A Question of Fact. — This claim of infallibility has 
been often encountered by arguments from abstract propositions. But 



1 The words ex cathedrd exclude all acts of the Pontiff as a private person 
or as a private doctor, and confine the character of infallibility to those acts 
which are promulgated from the chair of supreme authority as universal doctor 
of the church in faith and morals.-—" Petri Privilegium," Archbishop Manning, 

part 2, pp. 60, 61. 



INFALLIBILITY, CONTRARY TO HISTORY 259 

perhaps there is no better way of meeting it than by reducing the 
question to one of fact. If the Church of Rome has erred, she cannot 
be infallible; if she has erred in so fundamental a matter as the canon 
of Holy Scripture, on which Christianity rests, she has erred fatally; 
if she has enforced this error as a term; of communion, she has erred 
presumptuously; and if she has so erred, when speaking in a council 
authorized by the Pope, then all the Roman theories of infallibility are 
false; and, the foundation gone, the fabric falls. Now the fact is, that 
the Church of Rome at the Council of Trent affirmed with an anathema 
that the Apocryphal books are inspired; and the Pope ratified this 
decree, which therefore, according to all Romish theories, must be 
infallibly true; and Rome binds this decree on the consciences of men 
with a solemn oath. But we have shown that the testimony of Christ 
and of the Holy Spirit witnesseth that the Apocryphal books are not 
inspired. If, then, the Church of Rome were infallible, then Christ 
would not be omniscient, and the Holy Spirit would not have guided 
the apostles into all truth. But the apostles were taught of God; the 
Holy Ghost is "the Lord and Giver of life;" Christ knoweth all 
things. Therefore the Church of Rome is not infallible, but she has 
erred, and still errs, in a fundamental article of faith, viz., concerning 
the books of Scripture. — " On the Inspiration of Holy Scripture," Chris- 
topher Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 60, 61. London: Francis & John Riv- 
ington, 1851. 

Infallibility, Falsification of History Necessary to Prove. — To 
prove the dogma of papal infallibility from church history nothing less 
is required than a complete falsification of , it. The declarations of 
popes which contradict the doctrines of the church, or contradict each 
other (as the same Pope sometimes contradicts himself), will have to 
be twisted into agreement, so as to show that their heterodox or 
mutually destructive enunciations are at bottom sound doctrine, or, 
when a little has been subtracted from one dictum and added to the 
other, are not really contradictory, and mean the same thing. And 
here future theologians will have to get well indoctrinated in the 
Rabbinical school; and indeed they will find a good deal of valuable 
matter ready to their hand in the Jesuit casuists. These last, mean- 
time, will be their best teachers in the skilful manipulation of his- 
tory. They never had any particular difficulty in manufacturing church 
history; they have already performed the most incredible feats in that 
line. — " The Pope and the Council" Janus (Dr. J. J.Ign. von Bollinger) 
(R. C), pp. 49, 50. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Infallibility, Heresy of Honorius Recorded in the Early Roman 
Breviaries. — The condemnation of Pope Honorius for heresy is recorded 
in the Roman Breviaries until the sixteenth century, at which period 
the name of Honorius suddenly disappears. The theory of papal infal- 
libility was at that time being rapidly developed. A fact opposed it. 
The evidence for the fact is suppressed. " I have before me," writes 
Pere Gratry, " a Roman Breviary of 1520, printed at Turin, in which, 
on the feast of S. Leo, June 28, I find the condemnation of Honorius: 
' In which synod were condemned Sergius, Cyrus, Honorius, Pyrrhus, 
Paul, and Peter . . . who asserted and proclaimed one will and opera- 
tion in our Lord Jesus Christ' 

" I open the Roman Breviary of today," he continues, " and there 
I find in the instruction of S. Leo (June 28): 'In this council were 
condemned Cyrus, Sergius, and Pyrrhus, who preached only one will 
and operation in Christ.' The trifling incident of a Pope condemned for 
heresy by an ecumenical council is simply omitted by the revisers of 



260 INFALLIBILITY, EFFECT OF 

the Breviary in the sixteenth century. Father Gamier, in his edition 
of the Liber Diurnus, says, with a gentle irony, that they omitted it 
for the sake of brevity." — "Pope Honorius," Willis; cited in "Roman 
Catholic Claims" Charles Gore, B. B.. B. C. L., LL. B., p. 111. London: 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Infallibility and Omnipotence. — The infallible possession of truth 
in the head of a mortal appears so nearly related to omniscience and so 
exclusive an attribute of the Godhead, that a man might almost as 
readily be declared omnipotent as infallible. — " Handbook to the Contro- 
versy with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 252. London: The Reli- 
gious Tract Society, 1909. 

Infallibility, Its Remarkable Effect. — External force may 
frighten a man into altering his outward profession, but has no effect on 
his inward belief. But if he comes to persuade himself of the existence 
of a guide incapable of leading him wrong, he is ready to surrender his 
previous beliefs in deference to that authority, to accept as true what he 
had before proved to be false, and to renounce as false what he had 
before proved to be true: even though he can point out no flaw in his 
previous demonstrations, and though he might find it hard to explain 
why he was not as liable to error in the process by which he persuaded 
himself of the infallibility of his guide as in his earlier reasonings. — 
" The Infallibility of the Church," George Salmon, B. D., p. 23, note. 
New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Infallibility, Unquestioning Submission to. — We have ho right 
to ask reasons of the church, any more than of Almighty God, as a pre- 
liminary to our submission. We are to take with unquestioning docility 
whatever instruction the church gives us. — The Catholic World, Au- 
gust, 1871, p. 589. 

Infallibility, A Declaration Against. — The bishops on both sides 
of the ocean all submitted to the new dogma. It was the scrupulousness 
of some German professors which rose up against it. At the end of 
August eleven of them united in making this declaration in Nurem- 
berg: " The resolutions of the majority of the assemblage of bishops at 
the Vatican published by means of the bull of July 18, we are unable to 
recognize as the pronouncements of a truly ecumenical council. We 
reject them, as new doctrines, never recognized by the church." — " Hand- 
book to the Controversy with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 320. 
London: The Religious Tract Society, 1909. 

Infallibility and Inspiration. — According to this theory [of infal- 
libility], then, all the prerogatives of Scripture are annulled: the dicta 
of Pius IX and Leo XIII are as truly inspired by God's Spirit, and are 
to be received with as much reverence, as the utterances of Peter and 
Paul. ... It is a very short way from the doctrine that Pius IX and 
Leo XIII were as much inspired as Peter and Paul, to the doctrine that 
Peter and Paul were no more inspired than Pius or Leo. — " The Infal- 
libility of the Church," George Salmon, D. B., pp. 43, 45. New York: 
E. P. Button d Co., 1914. 

Infallibility and Private Judgment. — It is common with Roman 
Catholics to speak as if the use of private judgment and the infallibility 
of the church were things opposed to each other. They are fond of 
contrasting the peace, and certainty, and assurance of him whose faith 
rests on the rock of an infallible church, with the uncertainty of him 



INFALLIBILITY, BEFORE 1870 261 



whose belief rests only on the shifting sands of his own fallible judg- 
ment. But it must be remembered that our belief must, in the end, 
rest on an act of our own judgment, and can never attain any higher 
certainty than whatever that may be able to give us. We may talk 
about the right of private judgment, or the duty of private judgment, 
but a more important thing to insist on is the necessity of private 
judgment. We have the choice whether we shall exercise our private 
judgment in one act or in a great many; but exercise it in one way or 
another we must. We may either apply our private judgment separately 
to the different questions in controversy — purgatory, transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of saints, and so forth — and come to our own conclu- 
sion on each; or we may apply our private judgment to the question 
whether the Church of Rome is infallible, and, if we decide that it is, 
take all our religious opinions thenceforward on trust from her. But 
it is clear that our' certainty that any of the things she teaches us is 
right cannot be greater than whatever certainty we have that our private 
judgment has decided the question rightly whether we ought to submit 
unreservedly to her teaching. — " The Infallibility of the Church," 
George Salmon, B. B., pp. 47, 48. New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Infallibility, Roman Catholic Doctrine of, Before 1870. — It is no 
matter of faith to believe that the Pope is in himself infallible, sepa- 
rated from the church, even in expounding the faith: by consequence 
papal definitions or decrees, in whatever form pronounced, taken ex- 
clusively from [apart from] a general council, or universal acceptance 
of the church, oblige none, under pain of heresy, to an interior assent. — 
"Roman Catholic Principles in Reference to God and the King;" cited 
in " Bocumenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum," Br. Johann 
Friedrich, p. 213. Nordlingen: C. H. Beck'sche Buchhandlung, 1871. 

The doctrine of Scripture is one and the same with the doctrine 
of the church, since the church hath to interpret the Scripture, and in 
this interpretation cannot err. — Id., p. 288. 

Infallibility, Not Universally Taught. — In several pastoral let- 
ters and manifestoes of recent date from the bishops, the opinion is 
maintained, or a historical proof is attempted, that the new doctrine of 
papal omnipotence over every individual Christian, and of papal infal- 
libility in decisions of faith «as proclaimed at Rome, has always been 
believed and taught universally, or, at all events, almost universally, 
in the church from the earliest times and throughout all the centuries. 
This assertion rests, as I am ready to prove, on a complete misunder- 
standing of ecclesiastical tradition in the first thousand years of the 
church, and on a distortion of her history. — " Beclarations and Letters 
on the Vatican Becrees," Br. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger (R. C.J, p. 84. Edin- 
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1891. 

Infallibility, A Usurpation of What Belongs to God. — They had 
perceived and shown that the infallibility of the Pope is contrary to 
Scripture and tradition; that it is the usurpation on the part of a poor 
child of man of what God has reserved to himself; that it is injurious 
to the church, as placing the government now altogether in the hands 
of the Jesuits, and perhaps sometime in the future in the hands of a 
frivolous or even criminal Pope. — h Handbook to the Controversy with 
Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 299. London: The Religious Tract 
Society, 1909. 

Infallibility.— Pages 201, 394, 



262 INQUISITION DEFINED 

Inquisition, Defined. — The Inquisition (Inquisitio hwreticw pra- 
vitatis), or the "Holy Office" (Sanctum officiurn), is the name of the 
spiritual court of the Roman Catholic Church for the detection and 
punishment of those whose opinions differ from the doctrines of the 
church. It was a comparatively late outgrowth of ancient ecclesiastical 
discipline. " In the primitive church there was no arrangement that 
could have borne even a remote resemblance to the Inquisition. . . . 
The whole instinct and the prevailing cast of thought of Christendom 
in the first four centuries was opposed to compulsion in religious 
affairs." (J. J. Ign. von Dollinger, " Kleiner e Schriften," p. 295, Stutt- 
gart, 1890.) The institution of "elder for repentance," which occurs 
in the third century, bears quite a different character, as the very name 
denotes. Of course deviations in the sphere of Christian doctrine were 
combated, but hardly with other than spiritual weapons; and this 
practice continued until Theodosius (d. 395), before a Christian em- 
peror found it advisable to impose an ultimate death penalty on (Man- 
ichsean) heresy. Chrysostom repudiated such action: "It is not right 
to put a heretic to death, since an implacable war would be brought into 
the world" (Horn, xlvi, on Matt. 13: 24-30); and still in the neighbor- 
hood of 450 the church historian Socrates characterized persecution 
for heresy as foreign to the orthodox church. Nevertheless, in the 
meantime Augustine, in his conflict with the Donatists, had set up the 
contrary doctrine in the West, and had recommended compulsion as 
well as penalties against heretics (Epist. xciii, clxxxv), though he did 
not approve the death penalty. Six centuries more passed before the 
theory of religious compulsion and of the violent extirpation of heresy 
came to have universal validity, although Pope Leo I (Epist. xv, ad 
Turrioium) had approved it in the fifth century. This long season of 
comparative tolerance is the more impressive in view of the circum- 
stance that in Italy under East Gothic and Lombard rule, Catholics and 
Arians lived whole centuries in close proximity, or even together (as 
in Ravenna). — The Ndw Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedi-a of Religious 
Knowledge, Vol. VI, art. "Inquisition," p. 1. 

By this term is usually meant a special ecclesiastical institution 
for combating or suppressing heresy. Its characteristic mark seems to 
be the bestowal on special judges of judicial powers in matters of faith, 
and this by supreme ecclesiastical authority, not temporal or for indi- 
vidual cases, but as a universal and permanent office. . . . While the 
positive suppression of heresy by ecclesiastical and civil authority is 
as old as the church, the Inquisition as a distinct ecclesiastical tribunal 
is of much later origin. — ■ The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, art. 
" Inquisition," p. 26. 

Diquisition, Origin of. — The power of the church, according to 
Fleury, is " purely spiritual," and he held with Marsilius that the Pope 
could employ no coactive punishment of any kind unless the emperor 
— i. e., the civil power — gave him leave. From such a view it logically 
follows that St. Paul ought to have asked the permission of Sergius 
Paulus before striking Elymas the sorcerer with blindness. The over- 
whelming majority of the canonists take the opposite view, namely, 
that the church can and ought to visit with fitting punishment the 
heretic and the revolter; and since the publication of the numerous 
encyclical letters and allocutions of the late Pope treating of the rela- 
tions between church and state, and the inherent rights of the former, 
the view of Fleury can no longer be held by any Catholic. 

For many ages after the conversion of Constantine it was easier 
for the church to repress heresy by invoking the secular arm than by 



INQUISITION, DEVELOPMENT OF 263 

organizing tribunals of her own for the purpose. Reference to eccle- 
siastical history and the codes of Justinian and Theodosius shows that 
the emperors generally held as decided views on the pestilent nature 
of heresy, and the necessity of extirpating it in the germ before it 
reached maturity, as the popes themselves. They were willing to re- 
press it; they took from the church the definition of what it was; and 
they had old-established tribunals armed with all the terrors of the 
law. The bishops, as a rule, had but to notify the appearance of here- 
tics to the lay power, and the latter hastened to make inquiry, and, if 
necessary, to repress and punish. 

But in the thirteenth century a new race of temporal rulers rose 
to power. The emperor Frederic II perhaps had no Christian faith at 
all; John of England meditated, sooner than yield to the Pope, openly 
to apostatize to Islam; and Philip Augustus was refractory toward the 
church in various ways. The church was as clear as ever upon the 
necessity of repressing heretics, but the weapon — secular sovereignty 
— which she had hitherto employed for the purpose seemed to be break- 
ing in her hands. The time was come when she was to forge a weapon 
of her own; to establish a tribunal the incorruptness and fidelity of 
which she could trust; which in the task of detecting and punishing 
those who misled their brethren should employ all the minor forms of 
penal repression, while still remitting to the secular arm the case of 
obstinate and incorrigible offenders. Thus arose the Inquisition. — " A 
Catholic Dictionary," William E. Addis and Thomas Arnold (R. C.J, art. 
"Inquisition" p. 488. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1893. 

Inquisition, Roman Catholic View of the Character of Inquisi- 
tors. — History shows us how far the inquisitors answered to this ideal. 
Far from being inhuman, they were, as a rule, men of spotless character 
and sometimes of truly admirable sanctity, and not a few of them have 
been canonized by the church. There is absolutely no reason to look 
on the medieval ecclesiastical judge as intellectually and morally in- 
ferior to the modern judge. No one would deny that the judges of today, 
despite occasional harsh decisions and the errors of a few, pursue a 
highly honorable profession. Similarly, the medieval inquisitors should 
be judged as a whole, and not by individual examples. — The Catholic 
Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, art. "Inquisition, Roman Catholic View of" 
p. 31. 

Inquisition, Its Development. — Historically, the Inquisition may 
be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, but it was not until 
1542 that Pope Paul III, by the bull Licit ao Initio, gave it the form 
and extent which made it a supreme tribunal for the whole church; it 
can reach cardinals and bishops as well as plain laymen. Paul III placed 
at its head Cardinal Caraffa, who proved pitiless. He began by renting 
a house in which he installed surgeons and provided chains and instru- 
ments of torture. He then proclaimed these four fundamental princi- 
ples: There must be no delay in matters of faith; no consideration for 
princes or prelates; no clemency for any one who seeks protection from 
the secular power; indefatigable activity in seeking out traces of Cal- 
vinism everywhere. When he became Pope Paul IV, Caraffa pursued 
his course with extreme severity, and did not spare such cardinals as 
Morone and Pole, who had spent their lives in defense of the church. 
Pius IV, Pius V, Sixtus V, were to complete the work begun by Paul 
III, and to make the Congregation of the Inquisition, or the Holy Office, 
the highest authority of the Roman Curia. — " The Catholic Church, 
the Renaissance, and Protestantism," Alfred Baudrillart (R. C), pp. 156, 
157. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1908. 



264 INQUISITION, SEVERITY OF 

Inquisition, Work of. — In 1208 Innocent III established the Inqui- 
sition. In 1209 De Montfort began the massacre of the Albigenses. In 
1215 the Fourth Council of the Lateran enjoined all rulers, " as they 
desired to be esteemed faithful, to swear a public oath that they would 
labor earnestly, and to the full extent of their power, to exterminate 
from their dominions all those who were branded as heretics by the 
church." — "History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Ration- 
alism in Europe," William Edward Hartpole Lecky, Vol. II, p. 30. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. 

Inquisition, Seveeity of. — From 1200 to 1500 the long series of 
papal ordinances on the Inquisition, ever increasing in severity and 
cruelty, and their whole policy toward heresy, runs on without a 
break. It is a rigidly consistent system of legislation; every Pope con- 
firms and improves upon the devices of his predecessor. All is directed 
to the one end, of completely uprooting every difference of belief, and 
very soon the principle came to be openly asserted that the mere thought, 
without having betrayed itself by outward sign, was penal. It was only 
the absolute dictation of the popes, and the notion of their infallibility 
in all questions of evangelical morality, that made the Christian world, 
silently and without reclamation, admit the code of the Inquisition, 
which contradicted the simplest principles of Christian justice and 
love to our neighbor, and would have been rejected with universal hor- 
ror in the ancient church. As late as the eleventh and first half of the 
twelfth century, the most influential voices in the church were raised 
to protest against the execution of heretics. Men like Bishop Wazo of 
Liege, Bishop Hildebert of Le Mans, Rupert of Deutz, and St. Bernard, 
pointed out that Christ had expressly forbidden the line of conduct 
afterward prescribed by the popes, and that it could only multiply 
hypocrites and confirm and increase the hatred of mankind against a 
bloodthirsty and persecuting church and clergy. — " The Pope and the 
Council," Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C.J, pp. B37, 238. 
London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Inquisition, Merciless Proceedings of. — The binding force of the 
laws against heretics lay not in the authority of secular princes, but 
in tbe sovereign dominion of life and death over all Christians, claimed 
by the popes as God's representatives on earth. Every prince or civil 
magistrate, according to the constant doctrine of the court of Rome, 
was to be compelled simply to carry out the sentence of the inquisitors, 
by the following process: First, the magistrates were themselves ex- 
communicated on their refusal, and then all who held intercourse with 
them. If this was not enough, the city was laid under interdict. If 
resistance was still prolonged, the officials were deprived of their posts, 
and when all these means were exhausted, the city was deprived of in- 
tercourse with other cities, and its bishop's see removed. Thus Eymerich 
in the fourteenth, and Cardinal Albizzi in the seventeenth, century 
describe the process as drawn out by the popes for the judges in ques- 
tions of faith. Only the latter measure, Eymerich thinks, ought to be 
left to the Pope himself. 

The practice of the Inquisition, as time went on, became further 
and further removed from all principles of justice and equity. Innocent 
IV especially occupied himself (1243-1254) in increasing its power and 
severity; he directed the application of the torture, which Alexander 
IV, Clement IV, and Calixtus III approved. The tribunal, as carried 
on in all important points down to the fourteenth century, and described 
in Eymerich's classical work, presents a phenomenon singular in human 
history. Here mere suspicion sufficed for the application of torture; it 



INQUISITION IN SPAIN 26 5 

was by an act of grace that you were imprisoned for life between four 
narrow walls, and fed on bread and water, and it was a conscientious 
obligation for a son to give up his own father to torture, perpetual im- 
prisonment, or the stake. Here the accused was not allowed to know 
the names of his accusers, and all means of legal protection were with- 
held from him; there was no right of appeal, and no- aid of legal ad- 
viser allowed him. Any lawyer who undertook his cause would have 
incurred excommunication. Two witnesses were enough to secure con- 
viction, and even the depositions of those refused a hearing in all other 
trials, either from personal enmity to the accused or on account of pub- 
lic infamy, such as perjurers, panders, and malefactors, were admitted. 
The inquisitor was forbidden to show any pity; torture in its severest 
form was the usual means of extorting confessions. No recantation 
or assurance of orthodoxy could save the accused; he was allowed 
confession, absolution, and communion, and his profession of repentance 
and change of mind was accepted in foro sacramenti, but he was told 
at the same time that- it would not be accepted judicially, and he must 
die if he were a relapsed heretic. Lastly, to fill up the measure, his 
innocent family was deprived of its property by legal confiscation, half 
of it passing into the papal treasury, the other half into the hands of the 
inquisitors. Life only, said Innocent III, was to be left to the sons of 
misbelievers, and that as an act of mercy. They were therefore made 
incapable of civil offices and dignities. — " The Pope and the Council,'" 
Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C), pp. 240-243. London: Riv- 
ingtons, 1869. 

Inquisition in Spain. — In 1478 a bull was obtained from Pope 
Sixtus IV establishing the Inquisition in Spain, it being provided that 
the inquisitors were to be appointed by the sovereign. The Holy Office 
in this way became an instrument for establishing a civil despotism, 
as well as a means for repressing heresy. It did its work with a ruth- 
less severity hitherto unexampled. Sixtus himself and some of his 
successors, moved by repeated complaints, endeavored to restrain its 
savage energy; but the Inquisition was too useful an instrument in the 
hands of a despotic sovereign, and the popes were forced to allow its 
proceedings, and to refuse all appeals to Rome against its sentences. 
It was put in use against the Moorish subjects of the Catholic kings, 
notwithstanding the terms of the capitulation of Granada, which pro- 
vided for the exercise of civil and religious liberty. The result was 
that, in spite of fierce rebellions, all the Moors, save small groups of 
families under the special protection of the Crown, had become nominal 
Christians by 1502, although almost a century had to pass before the 
Inquisition had rooted out the last traces of the Moslem faith in the 
Spanish peninsula. 

The death of Isabella, in 1504, roughly dates a formidable rising 
against this process of repression and consolidation. The severities of 
the Inquisition, the insistence of Ferdinand to govern personally the 
lands of his deceased wife, and many local causes led to widespread 
conspiracies and revolts against his rule. The years between 1504 and 
1522 were a period of revolutions and of lawlessness which was ended 
when Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, overcame all 
resistance and inaugurated a reign of personal despotism which long 
distinguished the kingdom of Spain. — " A History of the Reformation," 
Thomas M. Lindsay. M. A., D. D., pp. 29, 30. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1906. 

Inquisition in Spain and Germany. — In the time of the papal 
schism and the reforming councils, the power of the Inquisition seemed 



266 INQUISITION IN GERMANY 

to be broken together with that of the hierarchy; but when the latter 
once more lifted up its head, the former recommenced in Spain and 
Germany in new guise with an energy almost more bloodthirsty than 
ever before. 

In Spain the new Christians, who, being descended from the Jews 
converted by force since the year 1391, secretly among themselves 
maintained their allegiance to the religion of their fathers, were the 
cause of its institution. But the Inquisition set up on their account 
received a peculiar character from the fact that Sixtus IV granted to 
the two sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella (1478), the power to appoint 
and depose the inquisitors, and to confiscate the property of condemned 
persons to the royal exchequer. At first two inquisitors were appointed 
by the sovereigns (1480) ; but although these two displayed a sufficiently 
bloodthirsty zeal, nevertheless, in order to introduce greater system and 
unity into the work of blood, they were soon reinforced by Thomas de 
Torquemada as general-inquisitor (1483). By these men inquisitors 
were quickly established in all places of importance, and provided with 
most minute instructions. These surrounded themselves with assistants 
(familiares sancti Officii [servants of the holy office] ) ; all resistance 
even on the side of the civic authorities was overcome with terror. At 
the countless funeral piles civil liberties were sacrificed to royal des- 
potism, no less than reason to religious fanaticism. Even the bishops, 
instead of being associated in judgment, were obliged to submit to the 
new Inquisition; the Popes themselves could no longer curb the hydra 
which had quickly outgrown their power. From the year 1492, when 
all Jews who refused to be converted to Christianity were banished 
from their country, by Torquemada's advice; from 1502, when a similar 
fate befell the Moors of Granada, notwithstanding all the assurances 
made to them in the peace of 1492: the monster of the Inquisition never 
ceased from the work of blood. Fear and distrust penetrated the 
nearest and most sacred relationships; cruelty, revenge, malice, and 
hypocrisy sank deeper and deeper into the character of the people who 
groaned beneath this fearful yoke. 

A fresh impulse was given to the Inquisition of Germany in an- 
other manner, but with no less deadly result. The secret meetings of 
heretics had long been ascribed to a league with the devil. But sorcery, 
as being fraught with danger to every one, was even more hateful to 
the people than heresy. Accordingly, in 1484, Innocent VIII announced 
to the German nation that they were endangered, in an especial manner, 
by wizards and witches: and commissioned the two inquisitors, Henry 
Kramer and James Sprenger, to persecute them with peculiar rigor. 
In order to convince unbelievers, and bring the new office into working 
order, they issued the Hexenhammer (Malleus malefhcarum. Colon. 
1489. 4). Only with much danger and without success a few clearer- 
thinking men declaimed against this delusion: the numerous fires of 
death soon overcame them. Many persons entirely innocent were 
sacrificed, but together with them the secret heretics also were perse- 
cuted with greater success as wizards; for even the secular authorities 
themselves began to vie with the inquisitors in the persecution. — "A 
Compendium of Ecclesiastical History," Dr. John C. L. Qieseler, Vol 
V, pp. 93-100. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1855. 

Inquisition, The Roman Catholic Remedy for Liberty. — The rem- 
edy applied by the Church of Rome to the liberty of worship and liberty 
of thought, is the Inquisition. The councils have established and ap- 
proved the Inquisition, the Fathers and bishops have counseled and 
practised it. The Inquisition is the logical outgrowth of the whole 



INQUISITION, VICTIMS OF 26 7 

orthodox system, and the quintessence of the spirit of the church. — 
" Civiltd Cattolica " (R. C.J, Serie VII, Vol. Ill, p. 56; cited in "■ The Pope, 
the Kings, and thei People," William Arthur, A. M., p. 163. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1903. 

Inquisition, The Medium of, Lost. — The duties and powers of 
inquisitors are minutely laid down in the canon law, it being always 
assumed that the civil power will favor, or can be compelled to favor, 
their proceedings. ... No such state of things as that here assumed 
now exists in any part of Europe; nowhere does the state assist the 
church in putting down heresy; it is therefore superfluous to describe 
regulations controlling jurisdiction which has lost the medium in which 
it could work and live. — " Half -Hours with the Servants of God," Cath- 
olic Church History, chap. 9, p. 60. New- York: Murphy and McCarthy, 
1888. 

Inquisition, Decline of. — From the year 1700 the vigor of the 
Inquisition began to decline. Literature aimed its sharpest blows at the 
institutions of Dominic. The free press, which it had striven to destroy, 
covered the secret tribunal with ignominy, and denounced its most glo- 
rious triumphs as more savage than the wild orgies of the Carib. Even 
Spain and Italy felt the abhorrence of mankind; the acts of faith no 
longer drew applauding crowds at Valladolid and Seville; the bullfight 
and the blood-stained matador supplied the excitement that had once 
followed the inquisitor and his victim; and liberal priests began to 
lament the fanatical rage that had covered their church and their native 
land with infamy. Yet the Holy Office still defied the indignation of 
the Reformers, and as late as 1763 heretics were burned in the midst of 
Spanish civilization; the Inquisition still ruled with a mysterious 
terror over the minds of men; literature, science, and invention still 
withered beneath its frown. The French Revolution and Napoleon 
swept away the inquisitors and the holy houses; they were restored by 
the arms of Wellington and the return of the old dynasty. In 1823, 
a Tribunal of Faith punished heretics; and in 1856, English and Amer- 
ican missionaries were imprisoned or banished by the Spanish priests. 
— "Historical Studies," Eugene Lawrence, pp. 400, 401. New York: 
Harper d Brothers, 1876. 

Inquisition and Spanish Civilization. — In Spain the savage gen- 
ius of Dominic gained its highest triumph. The Spanish Inquisition 
for more than six centuries has awakened the wonder and the horror 
of mankind. From Provence it was early transferred to Aragon and 
Castile; but its beginnings were modest, its influence comparatively 
slight, and it was not until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella that its 
fatal tyranny began to sap the energy and destroy the foundations of 
Spanish civilization. — Id., p. 367. 

Inquisition, Victims of. — Entire volumes would be requisite to 
give an adequate idea of the way in which the Papacy has worn out 
and overcome the saints of the Most High by her cruel persecutions. 
. . . We must rise to tens of millions, to express the multitude of the 
saints of Christ, whose blood has been shed by the self-styled vicar of 
Christ on earth! 

The Inquisition — a name at which humanity has learned to shud- 
der -— is a long and supremely cruel and wicked history compressed 
into one word! Instituted for the avowed purpose of suppressing her- 
esy, it was established in every country which submitted to papal au- 
thority. In Spain alone it has been proved by the careful statistical 



268 JEHOVAH 



investigations of Llorente, that between the years 1481 and 1808 over 
three hundred and forty-one thousand persons were condemned by this 
" Holy Office," of whom 31,912 were burned alive, 17,000 burned in effigy, 
and nearly three hundred thousand tortured and condemned to severe 
penances. Every Catholic country in Europe, Asia, and America had 
its Inquisition, and its consequent unexplained arrests, indefinitely long 
imprisonments of innocent persons, its secret investigations, its horrible 
torture chambers and dreadful dungeons, its auto da fes, or burnings 
of obstinate heretics, and its thousand nameless cruelties and injus- 
tices. — " The Approaching End of the Age," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., 
p. 204. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

Inquisition. — Pages 404, 617. 

Inventions. — Pages 253, 256. 

Jehovah, Titles of. — " If the Lord tarry," and if he is pleased to 
allow us to remain upon this scene, who knows the path that will have 
to be trod? Jehovah! and he alone. "Hitherto hath Jehovah led us," 
and he remains the same faithful, unchangeable, everlasting God. Let 
us trust him. Should it be our lot to meet poverty in any form, let 
us trust " Jehovah- Jireh [Jehovah will provide]." If we have to bear 
sickness, let us put our case in the hands of the Great Physician, 
" Jehovah-Ropheca [Jehovah my Healer]." In every battle with the 
world, the flesh, and the devil, let us keep our eye on the banner " Je- 
hovah-Nissi [Jehovah my Banner]." If Satan tempt us to dishonor 
God by sins of omission or commission, remember " Jehovah-Mekad- 
deshcem [Jehovah who sanctifies]." When we are in trouble, let us 
whisper, "Jehovah-Shalom [Jehovah my Peace]." When gathering to- 
gether with the people of God, let us gather not to meet man, but to meet 
" Jehovah-Tsebahoth [Jehovah of Hosts]." While wandering in the 
" green pastures " of the word, let us seek always to trace the steps of 
" Jehovah-Rohi [Jehovah my Shepherd]." In secret communion and in 
public work let us remember that we have to do with " Jehovah-Heleyon 
[Jehovah Most High]." Never forget that we are "complete in Christ," 
and that he is "Jehovah Tsidkeenu [Jehovah our Righteousness]." 
When we are persecuted, let us recompense to no man evil for evil, but 
leave our case in the hands of " Jehovah-Gmolah [Jehovah who recom- 
penses]." If we have unconfessed sin upon us, let us at once seek to 
have it removed, lest we meet " Jehovah-Makkeh [Jehovah who smit- 
eth]." Wherever we are and in whatever we do, let us remember " Je- 
hovah-Shammah [Jehovah is there]." As we thus seek to live, walk, 
worship, and serve, we shall receive the peace, joy, comfort, blessing, 
and consolation of him " who is, and was, and is to come," even him 
whose name is " JEHOVAH." — <" Jehovah Titles," James Sprunt, pp. 
91, 92. London: George Stoneman, 2d edition, 189S. 

Jerusalem, Two Campaigns of Sennacherib Against. — In his third 
year, b. c. 700, Sennacherib turned his arms toward the west, chastised 
Sidon, and, having probably concluded a convention with his chief 
enemy, finally marched against Hezekiah, king of Judah. It was at this 
time that " Sennacherib came up against all the fenced cities of Judah, 
and took them." 2 Kings 18: 13. There can be no doubt that the rec- 
ord which he has left of his campaign against " Hiskiah " in his third 
year is the war with Hezekiah so briefly touched in verses 13-16 of this 
chapter. In the following year (b. c. 699) Sennacherib made his second 
expedition into Palestine. Hezekiah had again revolted, and claimed 
the protection of Egypt. Sennacherib therefore attacked Egypt, and 



JERUSALEM, FALL OF 269 

from his camp at Lachish and Libnah he sent an insulting letter to 
Hezekiah at Jerusalem. In answer to Hezekiah's prayer an event oc- 
curred which relieved both Egypt and Judea from their danger. In one 
night the Assyrians lost, either by a pestilence or by some more awful 
manifestation of divine power, 185,000 men! The camp immediately 
broke up; the king fled. — "A Dictionary of the Bible," William Smith, 
LL. D., art. " Setnnacherib," pp. 60S, 604, Teacher's edition. Philadel- 
phia: Porter and Coates, copyright 1884. 

Jerusalem, Ancient, Time of the Destruction of the Temple, — 
The destruction of the temple is determined by concurrent sacred and 
profane testimony to July, b. c. 587. — " Fasti Hellenici," Henry Fynes 
Clinton, M. A., Vol. I, p. 285. London: Oxford University Press, 1834. 

Note. — This was of course the first, or Solomon's, temple, which stood for 
four hundred years, or until in consequence of the rebellion of Zedekiah it was 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. About fifty years later the erection of the second 
temple was undertaken by Zerubbabel. This temple was completed about 516 b. c. 
The rebuilding of the temple of Zerubbabel was begun by Herod, b. c. 20 or 19. It 
was of this temple that the Jews said to Christ, " Forty and six years was 
this temple in building." Indeed, it was not then fully completed, and was in 
fact not entirely finished until about six years before the destruction of the city 
and temple by the Romans under Titus, a. d. 70. — Eds. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Conditions in Nation Preceding. — Never was 
a people so turbulent, so excited with expectation of a deliverer who 
should restore the ancient kingdom, so fired with bigotry and fanati- 
cism, as were the wretched Jews of this period. One Christ came after 
another. Revolt was succeeded by revolt, instigated by some pseudo- 
prophet or pretended king. — " History of the World," John Clark Rid- 
path, LL. D., book 3, chap. 62 (9 vol. ed., Vol. Ill, p. 291). Cincinnati, 

Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

Jerusalem, Pall of, Unrest, Wars, and Tumults in Decades Pre- 
ceding. — Now the affairs of the Jews [in time of Nero] grew worse and 
worse continually, for the country was again filled with robbers, and 
impostors, who deluded the multitude. — Josephus, "Antiquities of the 
Jews" Whiston's translation, book 20, chap. 8, par. 5 (Vol. II, p. 267). 
New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Now the people of Csesarea [Syrians] had slain the Jews that were 
among them on the very same day and hour when the soldiers were 
slain. "Which one would think must have come to pass by the direction 
of Providence. Insomuch that in one hour's time above twenty thousand 
Jews were killed, and all Csesarea was emptied of its Jewish inhabit- 
ants. For Florus caught such as ran away, and sent them in bonds to 
the galleys. Upon this stroke which the Jews received at Csesarea, the 
whole nation was greatly enraged. So they divided themselves into sev- 
eral parties, and laid waste the villages of the Syrians. — Josephus, 
" Wars of the Jews" Whiston's translation, book 2, chap. 18, par. 1 
(Vol. II, p. 267). New York: Dodd, Mead d Co. 

But for Alexandria [Africa], the sedition of the people of the 
place against the Jews was perpetual. . . . 

Now when he [the governor] perceived that those who were for 
innovations would not be pacified till some great calamity should over- 
take them, he sent out upon them those two Roman legions that were 
in the city, and together with them five thousand other soldiers, who, 
by chance, were come together out of Libya, to the ruin of the Jews. 
... No mercy was shown to the infants, and no regard had to the 
aged; but they went on in the slaughter of persons of every age, till all 
the place was overflowed with blood, and fifty thousand of them lay 
dead upon heaps. — Id., pars. 7, 8. 



270 JERUSALEM, FALL OF 

Jerusalem, Fall of, False Chkists Preceding. — Very soon after 
our Saviour's decease appeared Simon Magus (Acts 8: 9, 10), "and be- 
witched the people of Samaria, giving out that himself was some great 
one: to whom they all gave heed, from the least to the greatest, saying, 
This man is the great power of God." He boasted himself likewise 
among the Jews, as the Son of God. Of the same stamp and character 
was also Dositheus the Samaritan, who pretended that he was the Christ 
foretold by Moses. 1 — " Dissertations on the Prophecies" Thomas New- 
ton, D. D., p. 375. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Now [a. d. 46] it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of 
Judea, that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas, persuaded a 
great part of the people to take their effects with them, and follow him 
to the river Jordan; for he told them he was a prophet, and that he 
would, by his own command, divide the river, and afford them an easy 
passage over it; and many were deluded by his words. However, Fadus 
did not permit them to make any advantage of his wild attempt, but sent 
a troop of horsemen out against them; who, falling upon them unex- 
pectedly, slew many of them, and took many of them alive. They also 
took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and carried it to Jerusalem. 
— Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews,'''' Whistorts translation, book 20, 
chap. 5, par. 1. Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Company. 

There was also another body of wicked men gotten together [in 
the reign of Nero, a. d. 54-68], not so impure in their actions, but more 
wicked in their intentions, which laid waste the happy state of the city 
no less than did these murderers [the Sicarii]. These v/ere such men 
as deceived and deluded the people under pretense of divine inspiration, 
but were for procuring innovations and changes of the government; and 
these prevailed with the multitude to act like madmen, and went before 
them into the wilderness, as pretending that God would there show them 
the signals of liberty [from the Roman yoke]. But Felix [the procu- 
rator] thought this procedure was the beginning of a revolt; so he sent 
some horsemen and footmen, both armed, who destroyed a great number 
of them. 

But there was an Egyptian false prophet that did the Jews more 
mischief than the former; for he was a cheat, and pretended to be a 
prophet also, and got together thirty thousand men that were deluded 
by him; these he led round about from the wilderness to the mount 
which was called the Mount of Olives, and was ready to break into 
Jerusalem by force from that place; and if he could but once conquer 
the Roman garrison and the people, he intended to domineer over them 
by the assistance of those guards of his that were to break into the city 
with him. — Josephus, " Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, book 2, 
chap. 13, pars. 4, 5. Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Company. 

Note. — The words in brackets have been inserted by the editors. — Eds. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Famine in Italy Preceding. — A failure in 
the crops [reign of Claudius], and a famine consequent thereupon, 
was regarded as a prodigy. Nor were the complaints of the populace 
confined to murmurs; they even gathered round the prince with tumul- 
tuous clamors while administering justice, and driving him to the ex- 
tremity of the forum, pressed upon him in a violent manner; till 
at length, by means of a compact body of soldiers, he forced his way 
through the incensed multitude. It is certain, there was then in Rome 



1 And after the time of Jesus. Dositheus, of Samaria, wished to persuade the 
Samaritans that he was the Christ predicted by Moses ; and he appeared to have 
gained some by his doctrine. — Origen contra Celsum, lib. 1, p. 372. 



JERUSALEM, FALL. OF 271 

provision only for fifteen days; and it was by the signal bounty of the 
gods and the mildness of the winter, that the public was relieved in 
its urgent distress. And yet in former days, distant provinces were 
furnished with supplies from the districts of Italy. — " The Works of 
Tacitus," book 12, chap. 43 (Vol. I, p. 297). New York: Harper & Broth- 
ers, 1863. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Famine in Syria Preceding. — In his [Clau- 
dius's] reign there was a famine that prevailed over the whole world; 
an event, indeed, which has been handed down by historians far re- 
moved from our sentiments; and by which the prediction of the prophet 
Agabus, recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, respecting the impending 
famine over the whole world, received its fulfilment. — " Ecclesiastical 
History. " Eusebius, translated by Rev. C. F. Cruse, A. M., book 2, chap. 8. 
London: Samuel Bagster & Sons. 

Jerusalem, Fall or, Pestilences Preceding. — Now when they 
[zealots] were slaying him [Niger], he made this imprecation upon 
them, that they might undergo both famine and pestilence in this war; 
and besides all, that they might come to the mutual slaughter of one 
another: all which imprecations God confirmed against these impious 
men.— Josephus, "Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, book 4, 
chap. 6, par. 1 (Vol. II, p. 337). New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Earthquakes in Decades Preceding. — " ' And 
earthquakes in divers places,' as particularly that in Crete in the reign 
of Claudius, mentioned by Philostratus in the life of Apollonius, and 
those also mentioned by Philostratus at Smyrna, Miletus, Chios, Samos." 
[Grotius.] In all which places some Jews inhabited; and those at Rome 
mentioned by Tacitus; and that at Laodicea, in the reign of Nero, 
mentioned by Tacitus, which city was overthrown, as were likewise 
Hierapolis and Colosse; and that in Campania, mentioned by Seneca; 
and that at Rome in the reign of Galba, mentioned by Suetonius; and 
that in Judea, mentioned by Josephus. — " Dissertations on the Prophe- 
cies," Thorns Newton, D. D., pp. 378, 379. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

In Asia city after city had been shattered to the dust by earth- 
quakes. " The world itself is being shaken to pieces," says Seneca, 
" and there is universal consternation." — " The Early Days of Chris- 
tianity," Canon Farrar, chap. 27, sec. 2 (pp. 488, 489). 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Forewarnings of Impending Doom. — More- 
over, at that feast which we call Pentecost, as the priests were going 
by night into the inner [court of the] temple, as their custom was, 
to perform their sacred ministrations, they said that, in the first place, 
they felt a quaking, and heard a great noise, and after that they heard 
a sound as of a multitude, saying, " Let us remove hence." 

But, what is still more terrible, there was one Jesus, the son of 
Ananus, a plebeian and a husbandman, who, four years before the war 
began, and at a time when the city was in very great peace and pros- 
perity, came to that feast whereon it is our custom for every one 
to make tabernacles to God in the temple, began on a sudden to cry 
aloud, " A voice from the east, a voice from the west, a voice from the 
four winds, a voice against Jerusalem and the holy house, a voice 
against the bridegrooms and the brides, and a voice against this whole 
people! " This was his cry, as he went about by day and by night, 
in all the lanes of the city. However, certain of the most eminent 
among the populace had great indignation at this dire cry of his, and 



272 JERUSALEM, FALL OF 

took up the man, and gave him a great number of severe stripes; yet 
did not he either say anything for himself, or anything peculiar to 
those that chastised him, but still went on with the same words which 
he cried before. Hereupon our rulers, supposing, as the case proved 
to be, that this was a sort of divine fury in the man, brought him 
to the Roman procurator, where he was whipped till his bones were 
laid bare; yet he did not make any supplication for himself, nor shed 
any tears, but turning his voice to the most lamentable tone possible, 
at every stroke of the whip his answer was, "Woe, woe to Jerusalem! " 
And when Albinus (for he was then our procurator) asked him, Who 
he was? and whence he came? and why he uttered such words? he made 
no manner of reply to what he said, but still did not leave off his 
melancholy ditty, till Albinus took him to be a madman, and dis- 
missed him. 

Now, during all the time that passed before the war began, this 
man did not go near any of the citizens, nor was seen by them while 
he said so; but he every day uttered these lamentable words, as if it 
were his premeditated vow: "Woe, woe to Jerusalem!" Nor did 
he give ill words to any of those that beat him every day, nor good 
words to those that gave him food; but this was his reply to all men, 
and indeed no other than a melancholy presage of what was to come. 
This cry of his was the loudest at the festivals; and he continued 
this ditty for seven years and five months, without growing hoarse, or 
being tired therewith, until the very time that he saw his presage 
in earnest fulfilled in our siege, when it ceased; for as he was going 
round upon the wall, he cried out with his utmost force, "Woe, woe 
to the city again, and to the people, and to the holy house! " And 
just as he added at the last, "Woe, woe to myself also! " there came 
a stone out of one of the engines, and smote him, and killed him 
immediately; and as he was uttering the very same presages, he gave 
up the ghost. — Josephus, "Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, 
book 6, chap. 5, par. 3. Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Josephus on Jews' Refusal to Repent. — 
That it was a seditious temper of our own that destroyed it, and 
that they were the tyrants among the Jews who brought the Roman 
power upon us, who unwillingly attacked us, and occasioned the burn- 
ing of our holy temple, Titus Csesar, who destroyed it, is himself a 
witness, who, during the entire war, pitied the people who were kept 
under by the seditious, and did often voluntarily , delay the taking 
of the city, and allowed time to the siege, in order to let the authors 
have opportunity for repentance. — Id., Preface, par. 4. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Abomination of Desolation. — They who 
would behold the " abomination of desolation " standing in the holy 
place, He bids flee to the mountains, which probably refers to the ad- 
vance of the Roman army, . . . carrying standards which bore images 
of the Roman gods and were the objects of pagan worship. — The Inter- 
national Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D.. 
Vol. I, art. "Abomination of Desolation," p. 17. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Sudden Withdkawal of Romans Giving Op- 
poktunity foe Flight of Christians. — So the soldiers [of Cestius] 
undermined the wall, without being themselves hurt, and got all things 
ready for setting fire to the gate of the temple. 

And now it was that a horrible fear seized upon the seditious, 
insomuch that many of them ran out of the city, as though it were 
to be taken immediately; but the people upon this took courage, and 



JERUSALEM, PALL OF 273 

where the wicked part of the city gave ground, thither did they come, 
in order to set open the gates, and to admit Cestius as their bene- 
factor, who, had he but continued the siege a little longer, had cer- 
tainly taken the city; but it was, I suppose, owing to the aversion 
God had already at the city and the sanctuary, that he was hindered 
from putting an end to the war that very day. 1 

It then happened that Cestius was not conscious either how the 
besieged despaired of success, nor how courageous the people were for 
him; and so he recalled his soldiers from the place, and by despair- 
ing of any expectation of taking it, without having received any dis- 
grace, he retired from the city, without any reason in the world. 
But when the robbers perceived this unexpected retreat of his, they 
resumed their courage, and ran after the hinder parts of his army, 
and destroyed a considerable number of both their horsemen and foot- 
men. — Josephus, " Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, book 2, 
chap. 19, pars. 5-7. Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Company. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Flight of Christians from City. — The whole 
body, however, of the church at Jerusalem, having been commanded by 
a divine revelation, given to men of approved piety there before the 
war, removed from the city, and dwelt at a certain town beyond the 
Jordan, called Pella. — " Ecclesiastical History" Eusebius, book 3, chap. 
5. London I.George Bell & Sons, 1889. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Flight of Many When Roman Army With- 
drew Temporarily. — After this calamity had befallen Cestius, many of 
the most eminent of the Jews swam away from the city, as from a ship 
when it was going to sink. — Josephus, "Wars of the Jeivs" Whiston's 
translation, chap. 20, par. 1. Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Go. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Horrors of the Famine. — It was now a mis- 
erable case, and a sight that would justly bring tears into our eyes, how 
men stood as to their food: while the more powerful had more than 
enough, and the weaker were lamenting for want of it. But the famine 
was too hard for all other passions: and it is destructive to nothing so 
much as to modesty; for what was otherwise worthy of reverence, was 
in this case despised. Insomuch that children pulled the very morsels 
that their fathers were eating out of their mouths; and, what was still 
more to be pitied, so did the mothers do as to their infants. And when 
those that were most dear were perishing under their hands, they were 
not ashamed to take from them the very last drops that might preserve 
their lives. And while they ate after this manner, yet were they not 
concealed in so doing. But the seditious everywhere came upon them 
immediately, and snatched away from them what they had gotten from 



1 There may another very important, and very providential, reason be here 
assigned for this strange and foolish retreat of Cestius ; which, if Josephus had 
been now a Christian, he might probably have taken notice of also ; and that is. 
the affording the Jewish Christians in the city an opportunity of calling to 
mind the prediction and caution given them by Christ about thirty-three years 
and a half before, that " when they should see the abomination of desola- 
tion " [the idolatrous Roman armies, with the images of their idols in their 
ensigns ready to lay Jerusalem desolate] " stand where it ought not ; " or, " in 
the holy place ; " or, " when they should see Jerusalem compassed with armies ; " 
they should then " flee to the mountains." By complying with which those 
Jewish Christians fled to the mountains of Perea, and escaped this destruction. 
(See "Lit. Accompl. of Proph.," pp. 69, 70.) . Nor was there, perhaps, any one in- 
stance of a more unpolitic, but more providential, conduct than this retreat of 
Cestius visible during this whole siege of Jerusalem ; which yet was providen- 
tially such a " great tribulation, as had not been from the beginning of the 
world to that time: no, nor ever should be." (Id., pp. 70, 71.) — Note by the 
translator, William Whiston. 

18 



274 JERUSALEM, FALL OF 

others. For when they saw any house shut up, this was to them a 
signal that the people within had gotten some food: whereupon they 
brake open the doors, and ran in, and took pieces of what they were 
eating almost out of their very throats, and this by force. The old men, 
who held their food fast, were beaten: and if the women hid what they 
had within their hands, their hair was torn for so doing. Nor was there 
any commiseration shown either to the aged or to the infants; but 
they lifted up children from the ground, as they hung upon the morsels 
they had gotten, and shook them down upon the floor. But still were 
they more barbarously cruel to those that had prevented their coming 
in, and had actually swallowed down what they were going to seize 
upon, as if they had been unjustly defrauded of their right. They also 
invented terrible methods of torments, to discover where any food was; 
and a man was forced to bear what is terrible even to hear, in order to 
make him confess that he had but one loaf of bread; or that he might 
discover a handful of barley meal that was concealed. — Josephus, " Wars 
of the Jews" Whiston's translation, book 5, chap. 10, par. 3. New York,: 
Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Many Crucified. — So they were first whipped, 
and then tormented with all sorts of tortures, before they died, and 
were then crucified before the wall of the city. This miserable pro- 
cedure made Titus greatly to pity them; while they caught every 
day five hundred Jews: nay, some days they caught more. Yet did it 
not appear to be safe for him to let those that were taken by force to 
go their way: and to set a guard over so many he saw would be to 
make such as guarded them useless to him. The main reason why he 
did not forbid that cruelty was, that he hoped the Jews might perhaps 
yield at that sight, out of fear lest they might themselves afterward 
be liable to the same cruel treatment. So the soldiers, out of the wrath 
and hatred they bore the Jews, nailed those they caught, one after one 
way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest. When 
their multitude was so great that room was wanting for the crosses, 
and crosses wanting for the bodies. — Id., chap 11, par. 1. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, The Blind Infatuation of the Nation. — 
More sorrowful scenes than those which marked the downfall of the 
Holy City and the suppression of the Jewish people never transpired 
in the history of man; and never were any horrors more truly self- 
inflicted than these. Through every page the line seems to glow: "His 
blood be upon us and upon our children! " Everywhere reappears the 
same insensate fury; the same needless provoking of foes clearly too 
powerful to resist; the same foolhardy obstinacy, too near a sublime 
courage to be despised, too hopeless and too costly to be applauded. — 
"From Exile to Overthrow: A History of the Jews," Rev. John W. 
Mears, D. D., p. 246. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Grandeur of Temple of. — Now the out- 
ward face of the temple in its front wanted nothing that was likely 
to surprise either men's minds or their eyes; for it was covered all 
over with plates of gold of great weight, and, at the first rising of the 
sun, reflected back a very fiery splendor, and made those who forced 
themselves to look upon it to turn their eyes away, just as they would 
have done at the sun's own rays. But this temple appeared to strangers, 
when they were coming to it at a distance, like a mountain covered with 
snow; for as to those parts of it that were not gilt, they were ex- 
ceeding white. On its top it had spikes with sharp points, to prevent 
any pollution of it by birds sitting upon it. Of its stones, some of 



JERUSALEM, FALL OF 275 

them were forty-five cubits in length, five in height, and six in breadth. 
— Josephus, "Wars of the Jews" Whiston's translation, book 5, chap. 5, 
par. 6. Philadelphia: The John G. Winston Company. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Efforts of Titus to Save the Temple. — Why 
do you trample upon dead bodies in this temple? and why do you pol- 
lute this holy house with the blood of both foreigners and Jews them- 
selves? I appeal to the gods of my own country, and to every god 
that ever had any regard to this place (for I do not suppose it to be 
now regarded by any of them); I also appeal to my own army, and 
to those Jews that are now with me, and even to yourselves, tnat 1 
do not force you to defile this your sanctuary; and if you will but 
change the place whereon you will fight, no Roman shall either come 
near your sanctuary, or offer any affront to it; nay, I will endeavor 
to preserve you your holy house, whether you will or not. — Appeal of 
Titus to Jews; Id., book 6, chap. 2, par. 4. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, The Multitude of Victims. — Now the num- 
ber of those that were carried captive during this whole war was col- 
lected to be ninety-seven thousand; as was the number of those that 
perished during the whole siege eleven hundred thousand, the greater 
part of whom were indeed of the same nation [with the citizens of Jeru- 
salem], but not belonging to the city itself; for they were come up 
from all the country to the feast of unleavened bread, and were on a 
sudden shut up by an army, which, at the very first, occasioned so great 
a straitness among them, that there came a pestilential destruction 
upon them, and soon afterward such a famine as destroyed them more 
suddenly. — Id., book 6, chap. 9, par. 3. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, a Fulfilment of Deuteeonomy 28 : 53. — There 
was a certain woman named Mary, that dwelt beyond Jordan; her 
father was Eleazar, of the village Bethezob, which signifies the house 
of Hyssop. She was eminent for her family and her wealth; and had 
fled away to Jerusalem with the rest of the multitude, and was with 
them besieged therein at this time. . . . When also her passion was 
fired to a degree beyond the famine itself, she consulted with nothing 
but with her passion, and the necessity she was in. She then attempted 
a most unnatural thing: and snatching up her son, which was sucking 
at her breast, she said, " O thou miserable infant! for whom shall I 
preserve thee, in this war, this famine, and this sedition? As to the 
war with the Romans, if they preserve our lives, we must be slaves. 
This famine also will destroy us, even before that slavery comes upon 
us. Yet are these seditious rogues more terrible than both the other. 
Therefore, be thou my food; and be thou a fury to these seditious var- 
lets, and a byword to the world; which is all that is now wanting to 
complete the calamities of us Jews." As soon as she had said this, 
she slew her son, and roasted him, and ate the one half of him, and kept 
the other half concealed. Upon this the seditious came in presently; 
and smelling the scent of this food, they threatened that they would cut 
her throat immediately, if she did not show them what food she had 
gotten ready. She replied, that she had saved a very fine portion of it 
for them: and at the same time uncovered what was left of her son. 
Hereupon they were seized with horror and amazement, and stood 
astonished at the sight, when she said to them, "This is my own son; 
and what hath been done was my own doing. Come, eat of this food; 
for I have eaten of it myself. Do not you pretend to be either more 
tender than a woman or more compassionate than a mother. But if 
you be so scrupulous, and abominate this my sacrifice; as I have eaten 



276 JERUSALEM, FALL OF 

one half, let the rest be reserved for me also." At these words the men 
went out trembling, being never so much affrighted at anything as 
they were at this; and with some difficulty they left the rest of that 
meat to the mother. Upon which the whole city was full of this horrid 
action immediately; and while everybody laid this miserable case be- 
fore their own eyes, they trembled, as if this unheard-of action had 
been done by themselves. So those that were thus distressed by the 
famine, were very desirous to die; and those already dead were esteemed 
happy, because they had not lived long enough either to hear or to see 
such miseries. — Josephus. " Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, 
book 6, chap. 3, par. 4. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Considered by the Romans as a Judgment. 

— Now when Titus was come into the upper city, he admired sev- 
eral places of strength in it, but particularly those strong towers 
which the tyrants in their mad conduct had relinquished. For 
when he saw their solid altitude, and the largeness of their several 
stones, and the exactness of their joints, as also how great was their 
breadth, and how extensive their length, he expressed himself after 
the manner following: "We have certainly had God for our assistant 
in this war, and it was no other than God who ejected the Jews out of 
these fortifications; for what could the hands of men or any machine? 
do toward overthrowing these towers?" — Id., book 6, chap. 9, par. 1. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Survivors Carried Away Captive. — So this 
Fronto slew all those that had been seditious and robbers, who were 
impeached one by another. But of the young men he chose out the tall- 
est and most beautiful, and reserved them for the triumph. And as for 
the rest of the multitude that were above seventeen years old, he put 
them into bonds, and sent them to the Egyptian mines. i Titus also sent 
a great number into the provinces, as a present to them, that they might 
be destroyed upon their theaters by the sword and by the wild beasts; 
but those that were under seventeen years of age were sold for slaves. 

— Id., book 6, chap. 9, par. 2. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Its Ruins Dug Up. — Yet was there no small 
quantity of the riches that had been in that city still found among its 
ruins, a great deal of which the Romans dug up; but the greatest part 
was discovered by those who were captives, and so they carried it away. 
I mean the gold and the silver, and the rest of that most precious fur- 
niture which the Jews had, and which the owners had treasured up 
under ground, against the uncertain fortunes of war. — Id., book 7, chap. 
5, par. 2. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Plowed as a Field. — Afterward, as we read 
in the Jewish Talmud and in Maimonides, Turnus R^fus, or rather 
" Terentius Rufus, who was left to command the army at Jerusalem," 
did with a plowshare tear up the foundation of the temple; and thereby 
signally fulfilled those words of Micah 3: 12: "Therefore shall Zion for 
your sake be plowed as a field." Eusebius, too, affirms, " that it was 
plowed up by the Romans, and he saw it lying in ruins." The city also 
shared the same fate, and was burnt and destroyed as well as the tem- 
ple. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., pp. 
372, 373. London: B. Blake, 1840. 



1 See the several predictions that the Jews, if they became obstinate in their 
idolatry and wickedness, should be sent again or sold into Egypt for their pun- 
ishment. Deut. 28 : 68 ; Jer. 44 : 7 ; Hosea 8 : 13 ; 9:3; 11 : 4, 5, note by the 
translator. 



JESUITS 277 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Desolation Following. — Now as soon as 
the army had no more people to slay or to plunder, because there re- 
mained none to be the objects of their fury (for they would not have 
spared any, had there remained any other work to be done), Caesar gave 
orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple, but 
should leave as many of the towers standing as were of the greatest 
eminency; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and Mariamne, and so much 
of the wall as inclosed the city on the west side. This wall was spared, 
in order to afford a camp for such as were to lie in garrison, as were 
the towers also spared, in order to demonstrate to posterity what kind 
of city it was, and how well fortified, which the Roman valor had sub- 
dued; but for all the rest of the wall, it was so thoroughly laid even 
with the ground, by those that dug it up to the foundation, that there 
was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever 
been inhabited. — Josephus, "Wars of the Jews," Whiston's translation, 
book 7, cJiap. 1, par. 1. Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Marked the End of Jewish Nation. — The 
annihilation of Jewish nationality was complete. Jerusalem was re- 
duced to a ruin, and the survivors of her people were to be found ex- 
posed in the slave markets of Rome or groaning out their lives in the 
rock quarries of Egypt. — " History of the World," John Clark Ridpath, 
LL. D., part 3, chap. 62 (9 vol. ed., Vol. Ill, p. 292). Cincinnati, Ohio: 
The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Times Compared with French Revolution. 
— The zealots created and maintained a " reign of terror " akin to that 
of the French Revolution, only more dreadful, and, considering the 
available scope and compass, more bloody. — " Comments on Matthew" 
James Morrison, p. 471. 

Jerusalem, Fall of, Compared with Other Events. — Dean Stan- 
ley notes only three other events of equal magnitude with the fall of 
Jerusalem: the fall of Babylon, which ended primeval history; the 
fall of Rome, which ended classical history; and the fall of Constanti- 
nople, which ended medieval history. But the fall of Jerusalem has the 
peculiar interest of involving the dissolution of a religious dispensa- 
tion with the agony of an expiring nation. — " Clews to Holy Writ," 
M. L. G. Petrie, B. A., p. 216. New York: American Tract Society, 1893. 

Jerusalem. — Pages 167, 215, 457. 

Jesuits. — Jesuits, the name generally given to the members of the 
Society of Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, 
founded in 1539. This society may be denned, in its original concep- 
tion and well-avowed object, as a body of highly trained religious men 
of various degrees, bound by the three personal vows of poverty, chas- 
tity, and obedience, together with, in some cases, a special vow to the 
Pope's service, with the object of laboring for the spiritual good of 
themselves and their neighbors. They are declared to be mendicants 
and enjoy all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are 
governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their 
founder, St. Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their 
proper title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word 
Societas being taken as synonymous with the original Spanish term, 
Compania; perhaps the military term Cohors might more fully have 
expressed the original idea of a band of spiritual soldiers living under 
martial law and discipline. The ordinary term " Jesuit " was given to 

I 



278 JESUITS 

the society by its avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings 
of Calvin and in the registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552. 
Constitution and Character. — The formation of the society was a 
masterpiece of genius on the part of a man [Loyola] who was quick 
to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius was expe- 
riencing the call to conversion, Luther had begun his revolt against 
the Roman Church by burning the papal bull of excommunication on 
the 10th of December, 1520. But while Luther's most formidable oppo- 
nent was thus being prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the so- 
ciety was not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems to 
have developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. It introduced a new 
idea into the church. Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral 
office in choir. But as Ignatius conceived the church to be in a state 
of war, what was desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the 
cloister had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the 
sketch of the new society which he laid before Paul III, Ignatius laid 
down the principle that the obligation of the breviary should be ful- 
filled privately and separately and not in choir. The other orders, too, 
were bound by the idea of a constitutional monarchy based on the demo- 
cratic spirit. Not so with the society. The founder placed the general 
for life in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the 
faculty of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legis- 
lative body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military 
obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older 
orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights. 
— The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XV, art. "Jesuits," p. 337, 11th 
edition. 

Jesuits, Society of, Defined. — Society of Jesus (Company of Jesus, 
Jesuits), a religious order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola. Designated 
by him " The Company of Jesus " to indicate its true leader and its 
soldier spirit, the title was Latinized into Societas Jesu in the bull of 
Paul III approving its formation and the first formula of its institute 
(" Regimini Militantis Ecclesiw," 27 Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuits" 
(of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too freely or appro- 
priated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the society in reproach 
(1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members 
and friends of the society in time accepted the name in its good sense. 
The society ranks among religious institutes as a mendicant order of 
clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, 
following a religious rule, and relying on alms for their support. — The 
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, art. " Society of Jesus," p. 81. 

Jesuits, Government of. — The opinion is very generally current 
that the government of the Jesuit order is an absolute monarchy, and 
that the general is constitutionally an autocrat. But this is not the 
case. Undoubtedly an immense deal of power is concentrated in the 
head of the order, the general, and as a rule the whole of the executive 
power is in his hands. For all that, he is anything but an absolute 
ruler, and it would be hard to find a community in which the various 
powers are more delicately interbalanced than the Jesuit order. — "Four- 
teen Years a Jesuit," Count Paul von Hoensoroech, Vol. I, pp. 418, 419. 
London: Cassell & Co., 1911. 

Jesus Christ, The Last Adam. — Prom David's address to God, 
after receiving the message by Nathan, it is plain that David understood 
the Son promised to be the Messiah in whom his house was to be 
established forever. But the words which seem most expressive of this 
are in this verse now rendered very unintelligibly, " and is this the 



JESUS CHRIST 279 



manner of man? " whereas the words DIN" ni'D PNWfl literally signify 
" and this is (or must be) the law of the man, or of the Adam," i. e., 
this promise must relate to the law, or ordinance, made by God to 
Adam concerning the Seed of the woman, the Man, or the second Adam, 
as the Messiah is expressly called by St. Paul. 1 Cor. 15: 45-47. (Ken- 
nicott, "Remarks on the Old Testament," p. 115.) — "The Divinity of 
Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ," Henry Parry Liddon, M. A. (Bamp- 
ton Lectures for 1866), pp. 79, 80, note. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Jesus Christ, Names of. — The name " Jesus " signifies saviour. It 
is the Greek form of Jehoshua (Joshua). The name " Christ" signifies 
anointed. Jesus was both priest and king. Among the Jews, priests were 
anointed as their inauguration to their office. 1 Chron. 16: 22. In the 
New Testament the name Christ is used as equivalent to the Hebrew 
Messiah (anointed) (John 1: 41), the name given to the long-promised 
Prophet and King whom the Jews had been taught by their prophets 
to expect. Matt. 11: 3; Acts 19: 4. The use of this name, as applied 
to the Lord, has always a reference to the promises of the prophets. The 
name of Jesus is the proper name of our Lord, and that of Christ is 
added to identify him with the promised Messiah. — "A Dictionary of the 
Bible," William Smith, LL. D., art. "Jesus Christ" p. 307, Teacher's edi- 
tion. Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, copyright 1884. 

Jesus Christ and History. — Each victory, each deliverance, pre- 
figured Messiah's work; each saint, each hero, foreshadowed some sepa- 
rate ray of his personal glory; each disaster gave strength to the mighty 
cry for his intervention: he was the true soul of the history, as well as 
of the poetry and prophecy of Israel. — " The Divinity of Our Lord and 
Saviour Jesus Christ," Henry Parry Liddon, M. A. (Bampton Lectures 
for 1866), pp. 92, 98. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Jesus Christ, Historicity of. — That an extraordinary person, 
called Jesus Christ, flourished in Judea in the Augustan age, is a fact 
better supported and authenticated than that there lived such men as 
Cyrus, Alexander, and Julius Caesar; for although their histories are 
recorded by various ancient writers, yet the memorials of their con- 
quests and empires have for the most part perished. Babylon, Persepo- 
lis, and Ecbatana are no more; and travelers have long disputed, but 
have not been able to ascertain, the precise site of ancient Nineveh, 
that "exceeding great city of three days' journey." Jonah 3: 3. How 
few vestiges of Alexander's victorious arms are at present to be seen 
in Asia Minor and India! And equally few are the standing memorials 
in France and Britain, to evince that there was such a person as Julius 
Csesar, who subdued the one and invaded the other. Not so defective 
are the evidences concerning the existence of Jesus Christ. That he 
lived in the reign of Tiberius, emperor of Rome, and that he suffered 
death under Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator of Judea, are facts 
that are not only acknowledged by the Jews of every subsequent age, 
and by the testimonies of several heathen writers, but also by Chris- 
tians of every age and country, who have commemorated, and still com- 
memorate, the birth, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ, 
and his spiritual kingdom. — " An Introduction to the Critical Study 
and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures" Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D., 
Vol. I, p. 62. London: T. Cadell, 1839. 

Jesus Christ, Fourfold Prophetic View of. — These Gospels are 
inseparably bound up with the predictions and promises of the Messiah 
contained in the Old Testament. The Bible is a unit. A theory of 



280 JESUS CHRIST 

interpretation which fails or refuses to embrace in it all that God has 
revealed on any topic, stands self-condemned. Any effort to explain 
the Gospels apart from the great Messianic prophecies, must end in par- 
tial or dismal failure. 

The prophets have drawn an august portrait of Messiah. His per- 
son, offices, missions, qualifications, suffering, death, resurrection, and 
glory are described by them with a minuteness of detail which ordi- 
narily belongs only to history. Not the least notable feature in the 
prophetic announcement of his advent is the number and variety of the 
names and titles bestowed upon him. These may be grouped into four 
classes or arranged under four principal heads: 

1. He is called the King (Ps. 2: 6; 72; Isa. 32: 1; Jer. 23: 5; 30: 9; 
Dan. 9: 25; Zech. 9:9; 14: 9, etc.). In these passages and many others 
of the like tenor, the kingly office of the Messiah is made very promi- 
nent. He who is coming is a royal personage, the heavenly Sovereign. 
Moreover, the prophets dwell much on his kingdom, its nature, its es- 
tablishment, extent, duration, and blessedness. They seem never to 
grow weary in proclaiming the coming of the kingdom, and in recount- 
ing the glories that shall attend its ultimate triumph on earth when the 
Lord shall be one and his name one over all the world. Even a cur- 
sory study of Messiah's kingship as it is presented in the prophets 
will convince one of the extent to which it pervades the Old Testament. 

2. He is called the Servant of Jehovah (Isa. 42: 1-7; 49: 1-12; 
50: 4-9; 52: 13-15; 53, etc.). In these passages Isaiah gives him the 
significant title, " The Servant of Jehovah," and describes his glorious 
work with remarkable detail. (See also Jer. 23: 6; Eze. 34: 23; Zech. 
13: 6, 7; Mai. 3:1-4; 4:2.) The prophets assure us that the Deliverer 
is the supreme Prophet of God who will declare the divine will, who 
shall himself accomplish perfectly that will, and man's neglected duty; 
that he will fulfil every divine requirement and meet every human need. 
In short, Messiah is to be the second Adam, who shall undo the ruin 
wrought by the first man. He will redeem his people with an infinite 
price, the price of his own blood (Isaiah 53). 

3. He is called the Man, the Son of man (Gen. 3: 15; 22: 18; Isa. 
7: 14-16; 9:6; Dan. 7: 13, etc.). It is distinctly foretold that in a very 
peculiar sense he is to be the seed of the woman, and yet the offspring 
of Abraham, the son of David. A veritable man Messiah must be, one 
who shall be incorporated with our race, the Son of mankind, therefore 
the kinsman Redeemer of all the people of God (Leviticus 25; Ruth 3,4; 
Job 19: 25-27). 

4. He is called God (Isa. 9:6; 40: 3-8; 47: 4; Jer. 23: 6, etc.). The 
prophets witness to the great truth that Messiah is none other than the 
Lord of glory, that it is God himself who shall visit and redeem his 
people. 

These four groups of Messianic titles are very intimately associated 
with the fourfold account of the Lord Jesus contained in the New Tes- 
tament. The evangelists bring the person and the work of Jesus Christ 
alongside of the portrait of the Messiah as drawn by the prophets, the 
historical by the side of the predictive, and the two are found to match 
perfectly. The inspired writers show beyond peradventure that the 
Deliverer promised of God through the ages to the Old Testament saints, 
has appeared in Jesus of Nazareth; that what was foretold of him is 
fulfilled in Jesus; that the Redeemer has come; that the mighty re- 
demption has been wrought; that he is Messiah, and therefore worthy 
to receive his illustrious names; he is the King, the Servant, the Son of 
man, and God. — " Studies in the Four Gospels" Prof. William G. Moore- 
head, D. D., pp. 19-22. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1900. 



JESUS CHRIST 281 

• 

Jesus Christ, Pkophecies of. — The prophecies and references to 
Christ in the Old Testament, which are expressly cited in the New, 
either as predictions fulfilled in him or as previsions applied to him, 
number three hundred and thirty-three, [p. 189] . . . 

These prophecies may be divided into two great classes: First, 
those which portray Christ in his human nature, his lineage, career, 
sufferings, and glory; in his successive manifestations until the end of 
the world; secondly, those which describe his character and offices, 
human and divine, [p. 190] . . . 

This mysterious coming One is to be the seed of the woman, born 
of a virgin; he is to be of the family of Noah, and branch of Shem; of 
the race of the Hebrews; of the seed of Abraham in the line of Isaac, 
through Jacob, or Israel; of the tribe of Judah, the house of David. 
He is to be born at Bethlehem, after a period of seventy weeks from the 
issue of the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem; his passion or suf- 
ferings, his death on the cross, his embalmment and entombment, his 
resurrection on the third day, his ascension into the heavenly glory, 
his second appearance in glory at the " regeneration," and his last 
appearance at the end of the world, are all included in the delineation 
of his humanity and human career as the Son of man. 

The second grand division of these Messianic prophecies includes 
his double character as the Son of God while yet the Son of man; as 
the Holy One or Saint; as the Saint of saints, the righteous or just One, 
the Wisdom of God, the Oracle or Word of the Lord God, the Saviour 
or Redeemer, the Lamb of God, God's Servant, the Mediator, Intercessor, 
Advocate or Daysman, Shiloh or Apostle; Prophet like Moses; Priest, 
High Priest like Aaron; King like David; Prophet, Priest, King in one, 
like Melchizedek; Chief Captain or Leader, like Joshua; Messiah, Christ 
or Anointed; King of Israel and God of Israel; Jehovah, Lord of hosts, 
and, as though all titles were exhausted, as " King of kings and Lord 
of lords." [pp. 190, 191] — "Many Infallible Proofs," Arthur T. Pierson, 
D. D., pp. 189-191. London: Morgan and Scott. 

Jesus Christ, Types of. — The tabernacle, both as a whole, and in 
its different parts. John 1: 14; "The Word was made flesh, and dwelt 
[literally, tabernacled] among us." The veil, made of beautiful and 
costly work, rent at Christ's death (Heb. 10: 20; Matt. 27: 51); the 
shittim wood of the brazen altar and of the altar of incense, etc. The 
temple — the shrine of Deity (John 2: 19-21; Col. 2: 9). The Twig, 
or sprout, from the stem of Jesse (Isa. 11: 1). Contrast the fall of 
the high trees, and Lebanon destroyed (the great ones of the earth), 
with the rise and reign of the slender twig (10: 33, 34). The Tender 
Plant, or sucker out of the dry ground (Isa. 53: 2; see 52: 33). The 
Branch (Zech. 3:8; 6: 12; Jer. 23: 5; Isa. 4: 2; 11: 1). The Hebrew 
word for branch (neetzer) is most probably the origin of the name of 
Nazareth, and helps to explain Matthew 2: 23. The "Dayspring from 
on high" (Luke 1: 18; margin, "sunrise," or "branch"). Jacob's lad- 
der — of which the foot was on earth and the top reached to heaven 
(Gen. 28:12; John 1:51). — Bowes; quoted in "Greatest Thoughts 
About Jesus Christ," J. Gilchrist Lawson, p. S3. NeiV' York: George H. 
Doran Company, copyright 1919. 

Jesus Christ, Divinity of. — The divinity of God's own Son, freely 
given for us sinners to suffer and to die, is the very heart of our Chris- 
tian faith. It cannot be denied without tearing out the vitals of a living 
Christianity. Its roots are struck far back into the prophecy, the typol- 
ogy, the ethics, of the Old Testament. It alone supplies a satisfactory 
explanation of the moral attitude of Jesus Christ toward his contempo- 



282 JESUS CHRIST 

raries. It is the true key to his teaching, to his miracles, to the leading 
mysteries of his life, to his power of controlling the issues of history. 
As such, it is put forward by apostles who, differing in much besides, 
were made one by this faith in his divinity and in the truths which 
are bound up with it. It enters into the world of speculative discussion; 
it is analyzed, criticized, denounced, proscribed, betrayed; yet it 
emerges from the crucible wherein it has been exposed to the action of 
every intellectual solvent that hostile ingenuity could devise; it has lost 
nothing from, it has added nothing to, its original significance; it has 
only been clothed in a symbol which interprets it to new generations, 
and which lives in the confessions of the grateful church. Its later 
history is explained when we remember the basis on which it really 
rests. The question of Christ's divinity is the question of the truth or 
falsehood of Christianity. — "The Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus 
Christ," Henry Parry Liddon, M. A. (Bampton Lectures for 1866), p. 497. 
London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Jesus Christ, Deity of. — He who was raised to the throne of di- 
vine dominion; who was worshiped with honors due to God only; who 
was joined, with Father and with Holy Spirit as, co-ordinately, the 
source of grace and blessing, must in the fullest sense be divine. There 
is not such a thing as honorary Godhead. In this is already contained 
in substance everything taught about Jesus in the epistles: His pre- 
existence (the Lord's own words had suggested this, John 8: 58; 17: 5, 
etc.), his share in divine attributes (eternity, etc.), in divine works 
(creation, etc., 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1: 16, 17; Heb. 1:2; Rev. 1:8; 3: 14, 
etc.), in divine worship (Phil. 2: 9-11; Rev. 5: 11, 12, etc.), in divine 
names and titles (Heb. 1: 8, etc.). It is an extension of the same con- 
ception when Jesus is represented as the end of creation — the " Head " 
in whom all things are finally to be summed up (Eph. 1: 10; cf. Heb. 
2:6-9). — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by 
James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. Ill, art. " Jesus Christ,'" p. 1667. 

Jesus Christ, Deity Manifested in Humanity. — The author of the 
fourth Gospel . . . explained His pre-eminence thus: "The Word which 
had ever been with God, and was God, became flesh and dwelt among 
us; he, the only begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the Father, hath 
declared him." And this incarnate Word, this manifested and mani- 
festing Son, the evangelist identified with Jesus. His person, in a figure 
which described a significant fact, was said to be the tabernacle or tent 
of meeting for God and man; and they that could look within and bear 
the light saw the symbol of the invisible Presence, the living image 
which expressed the eternal God. Jesus, in a word, was Deity mani- 
fested in humanity and under the conditions of time. — " The Philosophy 
of the Christian Religion," Andrew Martin Fairbairn, M. A., D. D., 
LL. D., p. S26. New York: George H. Doran Company, copyright 1902. 

Jesus Christ, Supremacy of. — Certain it is that no mere man could 
take the same attitude of supremacy toward the race, and inherent 
affinity or oneness with God, without fatally shocking the confidence of 
the world by his effrontery. Imagine a human creature saying to the 
world, "I came forth from the Father;" "Ye are from beneath, I am 
from above;" facing all the intelligence and even the philosophy of the 
world, and saying, in bold assurance, " Behold, a greater than Solomon 
is here;" "I am the light of the world," "the way, the truth, and the 
life;" publishing to all peoples and religions, "No man cometh to 
the Father, but by me;" promising openly in his death, " I will draw all 
men unto me;" addressing the infinite Majesty, and testifying, "I have 
glorified thee on the earth;" calling to the human race, "Come unto 



JESUS CHRIST 283 

me," "follow me;" laying his hand upon all the dearest and most inti- 
mate affections of life, and demanding a precedent love, " He that loveth 
father or mother more than me, is not worthy of me." Was there ever 
displayed an example of effrontery and spiritual conceit so preposter- 
ous? Was there ever a man that dared put himself on the world in such 
pretensions — as if all light was in him, as if to follow him and be 
worthy of him was to be the conclusive or chief excellence of mankind! 
What but mockery and disgust does he challenge as the certain reward 
of his audacity! But no one is offended with Jesus on this account, and 
what is a sure test of his success, it is remarkable that, of all the read- 
ers of the Gospel, it probably never even occurs to one in a hundred 
thousand to blame his conceit or the egregious vanity of his pretentions. 
Nor is there anything disputable in these pretensions, least of all, 
any trace of myth or fabulous tradition. They enter into the very web of 
his ministry, so that if they are extracted and nothing left transcending 
mere humanity, nothing at all is left. — ■" Nature and the Supernatural, 
as Together Constituting the One System of God" Horace Bushnell, 
pp. 289, 290. New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co., 1877. 

Jesus Christ, Miraculous, but Natural. — He is to all four evan- 
gelists the Son of God, the Messiah, Lord of the Sabbath, and Saviour 
of men, with power on earth to forgive sins, to establish the kingdom 
of God, to found a new covenant in his blood, and to judge the people, 
acquitting or condemning them as they have or have not confessed him. 
And he behaves as one to whom such acts and such attributes can be 
ascribed. He calls disciples, and forms them into an eternal and uni- 
versal society. He works miracles, heals the diseased, casts out devils, 
feeds the hungry, even raises the dead. He has miracles worked upon 
him, is transfigured and appears in a visible glory which proclaims him 
the Son of God, and, after suffering the death of the cross and being 
laid in the grave, he is raised up and appears unto many. 

Now the remarkable thing is not simply that these attributes and 
acts are represented as his, but that they are conceived as quite natural 
to him, as not making him anomalous or abnormal, but as leaving him 
simple and rational and real, — a person who never ceases to be himself, 
who has no double consciousness and plays no double part, but expresses 
himself in history according to the nature he has and the truth within 
him. There is nothing' quite like this in literature, no miraculous per- 
son who is so truly natural, so continuously one and the same; and no 
writers of the miraculous who so feel that they; are dealing with what 
is normal and regular through and through. These are things which 
have more than a psychological interest; they speak of men who have 
stood face to face with the reality, and are conscious of only describing 
what they saw. — " The Philosophy of the Christian Religion" Andrew 
Martin Fairbairn, M. A., D. D., LL. D., p. 330. New York: George U. 
Dor an Company, copyright 1902. 

Jesus Christ Kindles and Maintains a New Life. — Behind and in 
the gospel stands the person of Jesus Christ, who mastered men's hearts 
and constrained them to yield themselves to him as his own, and in 
whom they found their God. Theology attempted to describe in a very 
uncertain and feeble outline what the mind and heart had grasped. 
Yet it testifies of a new life which, like all higher life, was kindled by 
a Person, and could only be maintained by connection with that Person. 
— ^Aspects of Christ," W. B. Selbie, M. A., footnote, pp. 193. 194. Nciv 
York: Hodder and Stoughton. 

Jesus Christ, The Essence of Christianity. — Christianity exists 
in the world as a distinctive religion; and if we are asked, "What is 



284 JESUS CHRIST 

the distinguishing characteristic of this religion? " we can hardly hesi- 
tate for an answer. Christianity is faith in a certain person Jesus 
Christ, and by faith in him is meant such unreserved self-committal as 
is only possible, because faith in Jesus is understood to be faith in God, 
and union with Jesus union with God. "We know him that is true, 
and we are in him that is true, even in his Son Jesus Christ. This is 
the true God, and eternal life." 

That true Christianity is thus a personal relationship — the con- 
scious deliberate adhesion of men who know their weakness, their sin, 
their fallibility, to a Redeemer whom they know to be supreme, sinless, 
infallible — is shown by the fact that it produces its characteristic fruit 
only in proportion as it is thus realized, [pp. 1, 2] . . . 

The characteristic fruitfulness of our religion — its fruitfulness in 
the temper and spirit of sonship — varies with the extent to which 
Jesus, the historical person, the ever-living person, is recognized as the 
object of our devotion, and the lord of our life. This is true equally of 
personal religion and official ministry, for it is converse with the perfect 
personality of Jesus, which gives the pastor his power to deal with the 
various personalities of his flock, and the preacher his power to move 
the wills and consciences of his hearers. It is devotion to Jesus which 
has been the source of the enduring forms of Christian heroism. It is 
the same reality of personal relationship which touches the Christian's 
private life with the brightness of sonship. — " The Incarnation of the 
Son of God" Charles Gore, M. A., pp. 1, 2, 6. 7. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Jesus Christ and Christianity. — Jesus himself belongs to his 
gospel. He is the heart and core of it. Christianity is both 'a rule of 
life and a doctrine. But in its inmost nature and being it is neither an 
ethic nor a theology, but a religion — a new relation to God and man, 
divinely mediated through Jesus Christ in his life, death, and resur- 
rection. As many as receive him, to them gives he the right to become 
children of God, even to them that believe on his name, who are born 
not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but 
of God. John 1: 12. He brings man to God by bringing God to man, 
and the power of God into man's sin-stained life. [p. 624] . . . 

Essence of Christianity in Redemption. — Though, therefore, Christ, 
in his relations of love and trust to the Father, and perfection of 
holy character, necessarily ever remains the Great Exemplar to whose 
image his people are to be conformed (Rom. 8: 29), in whose steps they 
are to follow (1 Peter 2: 21), it is not correct to describe Christianity 
simply as the religion which Christ practised. Christianity takes into 
account also the work which Christ came to do, the redemption he 
achieved, the blessings which, through him, are bestowed on those who 
accept him as their Saviour and acknowledge him as their Lord. Essen- 
tially Christianity is a religion of redemption; not, therefore, a religion 
practised by Jesus for himself, but one based on a work he has accom- 
plished for others. Experimentally, it may be described as consisting, 
above all, in the joyful consciousness of redemption from sin and recon- 
ciliation to God through Jesus Christ, and in the possession of a new 
life of sonship and holiness through Christ's Spirit. Everything in the 
way of holy obedience is included here. This, at least, reduced to its 
simplest terms, is undeniably what Christianity meant for its first 
preachers and teachers, and what historically it has meant for the 
church ever since, [p. 625] — The International Standard Bible Ency- 
clopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. I. art. "Christianity ." 
pp. 624,. 625, 



JESUS CHRIST 285 



Jesus Christ, Interpreter of Old Testament. — The claim of Jesus 
to be the Christ, and the recognition of this claim by his followers and 
apostles, gave a new meaning to the teaching of the Old Testament, and 
the writings lying outside the canon, but which were familiar to the 
people. Especially was the suffering and death of the Lord and its rela- 
tion to sin the occasion of a new understanding of the Mosaic and later- 
developed sacrificial system. Jesus as the offerer of himself perfected 
the function of the priest, as he became the Lamb of God who taketh 
away the sins of the world. He thus completed the threefold ministry 
of the Messiah as the Prophet who reveals, the Priest who offers and 
intercedes, the King who rules. In him the offices are commingled. He 
rules by his sacrifice and his teaching; he reveals by his kingship and his 
offering. The offices spring from both his person and his work, and are 
united in the final issue of the salvation of the world. — The Interna- 
tional Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., 
Vol. I, art. " Christ, Offices of," p. 621. 

Jesus Christ in Isaiah 9 : 6. — El, the name of God, is nowhere 
used absolutely of any but God. The word is once used relatively, in its 
first appellative sense, "the mighty of the nations," in regard to Nebu- 
chadnezzar. It occurs absolutely in Hebrew 225 times; and in every 
place is used of God. — " Daniel the Prophet,'" Rev. E. B. Pusey, D. D., 
Lectures 8 and 9, p. 486. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Jesus Christ as a Man. — Jesus is the Almighty, restraining his 
illimitable powers; Jesus is the Incomprehensible, voluntarily submit- 
ting to bonds; Jesus is Providence, clothed in our own flesh and blood; 
Jesus is the Infinite Charity, tending us with the kindly looks and ten- 
der handling of a human love; Jesus is the Eternal "Wisdom, speaking 
out of the depths of infinite thought in a human language. Jesus is 
God making himself, if I may dare so to speak, our tangible possession; 
he is God brought "very nigh to us, in our mouth and in our heart;" 
we behold him, we touch him, we cling to him, and lo! we are deias 
kolvcovol <pv<rews [theias koinonoi phuseos'], partakers of the nature of Deity, 
through our actual membership in his body, in his flesh, and in his 
bones; we dwell, if we will, evermore in him, and he in us. — " The 
Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ," Henry Parry Liddon, 
M. A. (Bampton Lectures for 1866), p. 447. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Jesus Christ, Meaning of the Names. — In the Gospels, Jesus is a 
personal but Christ an official name, and the two are never interchanged 
or confounded; but in the Pauline epistles Christ has become as per- 
sonal a name as Jesus — i. e., the person so constitutes the office and 
the office is so incorporated in the person that distinction has ceased 
to be possible. — " The Place of Christ in Modern Theology," Andrew 
Martin Fairbairn, M. A., D. D., p. 806. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1893. 

Jesus Christ, The Son of God. — We have yet to shdw how the idea 
as to the person of Christ created the Christian religion. It is enough 
that we repeat here, that that religion is not built upon faith in Jesus 
of Nazareth, but upon the belief that he was the Christ, the Son of the 
living God. Without this belief the religion could have had no exist- 
ence, [p. 476] . . . 

Without the historical Person we should never have known what 
the religion ought to be, the sort of man it conceived as acceptable to 
God, the kind of worship it wished to cultivate, the mode in which it 



286 JESUS CHRIST 

proposed to change the old order, and the new society it desired to form. 
He thus, as it were, determined the quality and inner essence of his reli- 
gion, fixing forever its special character and peculiar type. But if the 
historical Person had stood alone, i. e., if he had been conceived and 
regarded as a common man, though a man of rare dignity and a teacher 
of pre-eminent power, we might have had a school, a sect, or a philos- 
ophy, but we could not have had a religion. What made the religion 
was the significance his Person had for thought, the way in which it 
lived to faith, the mode in which it interpreted to reason God and the 
universe, man and history. It was this that saved the disciples from 
becoming the sect of the Nazarenes, and made them into the catholic 
church. It is by virtue of this idea that we have the Christian religion, 
and that it has lived and reigned from the moment of its birth till now. 
[pp. 477, 478] — "The Philosophy of the Christian Religion,'" Andrew 
Martin Fairbairn, M. A., D. D., LL. D., pp. 476-478. New York: George 
H. Doran Company, copyright 1902. 

Jesus Christ, The Son of Man. — No doubt he claimed the title 
(which was already given him in the Old Testament, Dan. 8: 13), inas- 
much as it was he who alone realized the idea of man, the second Adam, 
who, unlike the first, should maintain his position as the head and rep- 
resentative of the race, — the one true and perfect flower which had ever 
unfolded itself out of the root and stalk of humanity. And using this 
title he witnessed against the twofold error concerning his person which 
has ever been seeking to manifest itself, — the Ebionite, to which the 
exclusive use of the title " Son of David " might have led, and the 
Gnostic, against which the appellation " Son of man " must have been 
a continual witness. — " Notes on the Parables of Our Lord" Richard 
Chenevix Trench, M. A., p. 74. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1851. 

Jesus Christ, The " True " One. — The Person was to him [John] 
a symbol as well as a fact, His history was at once allegorical and real. 
His purpose is expressed in one of his most distinctive terms, " true " 
(d\Tj0iv6$ \_alethinos~], — "true light," "true worshiper," "true bread," 
"He that sent me is true;" "My judgment is true," "I am the true 
vine," " the only true God." The term denotes not simply the true as 
opposed to the false, but the real as opposed to the apparent, the orig- 
inal as distinct from the derived, the genuine in contrast to the counter- 
feit. — " The Philosophy of the Christian Religion," Andrew Martin Fair- 
bairn, M. A., D. D., LL. D., p. 456. New York: George H. Doran Com^ 
pany, copyright 1902. 

Jesus Christ, A Life for Others. — In his whole life, then, and in 
all his actions Jesus exercised his power always and only for man. The 
mystery of the life which so appealed to the heart and imagination of 
his people lies here — with the power to save, he yet wills to lose him- 
self. The vision of God which he creates brings to man beatitude; the 
vision of sin which he suffers brings to himself sorrow. The strength 
of his will is seen not in any immunity from calamity which he com- 
mands, but in the sacrifice he makes. And this touches a specific and 
distinctive quality of the supernatural element in the Gospels. There 
is nothing like it in the mythology of the miraculous. The mythical 
miracle is primarily personal; for what could be the use of a supernat- 
ural power which did not serve its possessor in his own hour of need? 
. . . But Jesus from first to last, in all his acts and in all his doings, is 
supernatural on man's behalf and not on his own. He was a moral won- 
der rather than a physical marvel, — Id., pp. 342, 843. 



JESUS CHRIST 28 7 

Jesus Christ, Cause of Death of. — The view of Stroud that the 
Lord died of rupture of the heart, has found some medical support. 1 
— " The Life of Our Lord upon the Earth," Samuel J. Andrews, p. 568. 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1891. 

Jesus Christ, Resurrection, Historical Evidence for. — The real 
historical evidence for the resurrection is the fact that it was believed, 
preached, propagated, and produced its fruit and effect in the new phe- 
nomenon of the Christian church, long before any of our Gospels was 
written. This is not said to disparage the Gospels, or to depreciate what 
they tell, but only to put the question on its true basis. Faith in the 
resurrection was not only prevalent but immensely powerful before any 
of our New Testament books were written. Not one of them would ever 
have been written but for that faith. It is not this or that in the New 
Testament — it is not the story of the empty tomb, or of the appearing 
of Jesus in Jerusalem or in Galilee — which is the primary evidence 
for the resurrection; it is the New Testament itself. The life that 
throbs in it from beginning to end, the life that always fills us again 
with wonder as it beats upon us from its pages, is the life which the 
risen Saviour has quickened in Christian souls. The evidence for the 
resurrection of Jesus is the existence of the church in that extraordi- 
nary spiritual vitality which confronts us in the New Testament. This 
is its own explanation of its being. — " Jesus and the Gospel," James 
Denney, D. D., pp. 100, 101. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1909. 

Jesus Christ, Significance of Death of. — Christ did not, in his 
death for us, suffer so much for each man born into the world, so that 
had there been fewer men he would have suffered less. He atoned for 
the sin of the race, because, by identifying himself with humanity, he 
had to bear God's condemnation of its sin ere he could impart to it the 
spirit of sonship. In him alone resides the power to confer both bless- 
ings on men, — they are already present in him for all mankind; but as 
regards the individual, they only become an actual possession through 
his receptivity. — " The Christ of History and of Experience," David W. 
Forrest, D. D., p. 247. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Jesus Christ, Titles on the Cross. — It was customary with the 
Romans to affix to the cross an inscription or superscription — titulus, 
rlrXos, atria, iiriypafir) [titlos, aitia, epigraphe~\ — giving the name of the 
criminal and the nature of his crime. Whether, written upon a tablet, 
it was borne before the criminal, or hung upon his neck, or was attached 
to the cross, is uncertain; but on reaching the place of execution, it was 
set up over his head. As this inscription is differently given by the 
evangelists, it has been conjectured that it was differently written in the 
Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Pilate, who as judge prepared the inscrip- 
tion, took occasion to gratify his scorn of the Jews who had so thwarted 
him; and his short and decisive answer, when he was requested by them 
to change it, " What I have written, I have written," shows the bitter- 
ness of his resentment. Greswell and Edersheim suppose this request 
may have been made before the arrival at Calvary, but probably it was 



1 Professor Simpson (in Hanna, " The Last Days of Christ." N. Y.. 1864. 
app.) indorses it "as fundamentally correct." "In rupture of the heart, the 
blood escapes from the interior of the heart into the cavity of the large sur- 
rounding heart sac, or pericardium, which has been found in dissection to con- 
tain three or more pounds of blood accumulated in it and separated into red clots 
and limpid serum, or blood and water." Dr. Struthers, who agrees with Simp- 
son, speaks of the form of death as " a new illustration of the awful agony 
which our Redeemer must have suffered." 



288 



JESUS CHRIST 



after the cross was set up. It seems to have been a formal request, 
probably made at the Prsetorium by the chief priests in a body. 
We give the superscription in a tabular form: 



Matt. 27 : 37 



Mark 15 : 26 



Luke 23 : 38 



John 19 : 19 



This is Jesus 

The 

King of the Jews 



The 
King of the Jews 



This is Jesus of Nazareth 

The The 

King of the Jews , King of the Jews 



The designation of the offense is the same in all the evangelists, — 
"The King of the Jews;" the words before it are merely introductory 
or explanatory, and might have been wholly omitted, as by Mark, with- 
out leaving less clear the nature of the offense or the person of the 
offender. Probably Pilate wrote it in Latin, the official tongue; and 
then himself or another translated it into Hebrew, the language of the 
land; and into Greek, which was very generally spoken, especially by 
the Jews from other countries. That Pilate was justified in setting up 
this inscription is shown in the fact that this was the accusation of the 
rulers (Luke 23: 2), and the ground on which he had condemned him. 
— " The Life of Our Lord upon the Earth" Samuel J. Andrews, pp. 553, 
554. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1891. 

Jesus Christ, Wesley on. — The inspired writers give him all the 
titles of the Most High God. They call him over and over by the un- 
communicable name Jehovah, never given to any creature. They ascribe 
to him all the attributes and all the works of God. So that we need not 
scruple to pronounce him God of God, Light of Light, very God of very 
God; in glory equal with the Father, in majesty co-eternal. — John 
Wesley; quoted in " Greatest Thoughts About Jesus Christ,'' J. Gilchrist 
Lawson, p. 21. New York,: George H. Doran Company, copyright 1919. 



Jesus Christ, The One Transcendent Personality of History. — 
Christ is the Son of God. He is this in the pre-eminent sense; in a 
sense which is not true of any and all other beings. He is the one 
revealer of God to man. He is equally the revealer to man of what 
God would have man to be, of what God purposes that he shall be. 
Concerning the supreme problems of the redemption and salvation of 
humanity, problems with which unlimited divinity alone can deal, 
Christ alone furnishes the only solution. While the name of Christ is 
acknowledged as the greatest of names, there is proof abundant that 
as yet the world has very little comprehended his greatness. He is the 
one transcendent and indescribable Personality of history. — George P. 
Mains; quoted in Id., p. 25. 

Jesus Christ, Napoleon's Reasons for Belief in Christ's Deity. — 
(In answer to General Bertrand, who argued against Christ's divinity.) 

I know men; and I tell you that Jesus Christ is not a man. . . . 
Everything about him amazes me. His spirit overawes me, and his 
will confounds me. There is no possible comparison between him and 
any other being in the world. He is truly a being by himself. . . . His 
birth, and the history of his life, the profoundness of his doctrine, . . . 
his gospel, . . . his empire, his march across the ages — all this is to me 
a wonder, an insoluble mystery. Though I come near and examine 
closely, all is above me, great with a greatness that overwhelms me. 
. . . Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, and I founded empires. But on 



JEWISH LEAGUE 289 

what did the creations of our genius rest? On force. Jesus Christ 
alone founded his empire on love; and at this hour millions would die 
for him. In every other existence but that of Christ, how many imper- 
fections! . . . From first to last he is always the same — majestic and 
simple; infinitely firm and infinitely gentle. . . . Christ proved that he 
was the Son of the Eternal by his disregard of time. All his doctrine 
signified but one and the same thing — Eternity! . . . What proof of the 
divinity of Christ! With an empire so absolute, he has but one aim — 
the spiritual perfection of individuals, the purity of the conscience, 
the union with truth, the salvation of the soul. ... I am at St. Helena, 
. . . chained upon this rock. . . . You . . . (General Bertrand) . . . share 
and console my exile. . . . (The emperor's voice trembles with emotion.) 
Soon I shall be in my grave. ... I die before my time; and my dead 
body must return to the earth, to become food for worms. Behold the 
destiny, near at hand, of him whom the world called The Great Napo- 
leon! . . . 

(Genuineness of this testimony vouched for by Rev. Eugene Ber- 
sier, 216 Boulevard Pereire, Paris; Mons. H. Lutteroth, Bourneville, 
Par La Perte; Milon; Philip Schaff, D. D., "The Person of Christ," 
pp. 226 ff., 283 ff.) — " Greatest Thoughts About Jesus Christ;' J. Gil- 
christ Law son, pp. 31, 32. New York: George H. Doran Company, copy- 
right 1919. 

Jesus Christ, Testimony of Josephus Concerning. — Now there 
was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a 
man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, and a teacher of such men 
as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew Over to him both many of 
the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was the Christ. And when 
Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned 
him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him: 
for he appeared to them alive again, the third day: as the divine proph- 
ets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things con- 
cerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, is not 
extinct at this day. — Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews," Whiston's 
translation, book 18, chap. 3, par. 3 (Vol. II, p. 74). New York: Dodd, 
Mead, $ Co. 

Note. — This paragraph from Josephus has been questioned, and even re- 
jected as spurious by some, but its authenticity has been defended at length by 
the translator, William Whiston, in the Appendix to his translation of Josephus, 
Dissertation I. In his " Observations " upon the evidence submitted to warrant 
his retaining this matter, he gives this explanation : 

" The famous clause in this testimony of Josephus concerning Christ, This 
was Christ, or the Christ, did not mean that this Jesus was the Christ of God, 
or the true Messiah of the Jews ; but that this Jesus was distinguished from 
all others of that name, of which there were not a few, as mentioned by Jo- 
sephus himself, by the addition of the other name of Christ ; or that this person 
was no other than he whom all the world knew by the name of Jesus Christ, and 
his followers by the name of Christians." — " The Works of Flavins Josephus," 
translated by William Whiston, A. M., Appendix, Dissertation I, Obs. 3, p. 910. 
Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company. — Eds. 

Jewish League, Its Meaning and Date. — For the purpose of restor- 
ing him [Alcimus] a Syrian army once more invaded Judea under Ni- 
canor (b. c. 160), but first at Kapharsalama and afterward at Bethoron 
was defeated by Judas [Maccabeus] and almost annihilated in the subse- 
quent flight, Nicanor himself being among the slain (13th Adar — Ni- 
canor's day). Judas was now at the acme of his prosperity; about this 
time he concluded his (profitless) treaty [or league] with the Romans. 
— Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIII, art. " Israel" p. 422. 20th Century 
edition. 

Note. — The eleventh edition of the Britannica, art, "Jews," gives the date 
of the invasion of Judea by Nicanor as 161 B. c. — Eds. 

19 



290 JONAH 

Jewish League, The Decree. — Hearing of the power of the Ro- 
mans, and that they had conquered in war Galatia, and Iberia, and 
Carthage, and Libya; and that, besides these, they had subdued Greece, 
and their kings, Perseus, and Philip, and Antiochus the Great also; he 
[Judas Maccabeus] resolved to enter into a league of friendship with 
them. He therefore sent to Rome some of his friends, Eupolemus the 
son of John, and Jason the son of Eleazar, and by them desired the Ro- 
mans that they would assist them, and be their friends, and would write 
to Demetrius that he would not fight against the Jews. So the senate 
received the ambassadors that came from Judas to Rome, and discoursed 
with them about the errand on which they came, and then granted them 
a league of assistance [b. c. 161]. They also made a decree concerning 
it, and sent a copy of it into Judea. It was also laid up in the capitol, 
and engraven in brass. The decree itself was this: "The decree of the 
senate concerning a league of assistance and friendship with the nation 
of the Jews. It shall not be lawful for any that are subject to the Ro- 
mans to make war with the nation of the Jews, nor to assist those that 
do so, either by sending them corn, or ships, or money; and if any attack 
be made upon the Jews, the Romans shall assist them, as far as they are 
able; and again, if any attack be made upon the Romans, the Jews shall 
assist them. And if the Jews have a mind to add to, or to take away 
anything from, this league of assistance, that shall be done with the 
common consent of the Romans. And whatsoever addition shall thus be 
made, it shall be of force." — Josephus, " Antiquities of the Jews," Whis- 
ton's translation, hook 12, chap. 10, par. 6. Philadelphia: The John G. 
Winston Company. 

Jews.— Pages 5, 6, 18, 45, 66, 104, 105, 268-275, 300, 306. 

Jonah. — It was probably during the continuance of the time of 
depression, when an unwarlike monarch was living in inglorious ease 
amid the luxuries and refinements of Nineveh, and the people, sunk 
in repose, gave themselves up to vicious indulgences more hateful in 
the eye of God than even the pride and cruelty which they were wont 
to exhibit in war, that the great capital was suddenly startled by a voice 
of warning in the streets — a voice which sounded everywhere, through 
corridor, and lane, and square, bazaar, and caravanserai, one shrill 
monotonous cry, " Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown." 
— " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World," George 
Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. II, p. 126; " The Second Monarchy," chap 9. 
New York: Dodd, Mead & Go. 

Judson, Adoniram. — Page 336. 

Justification, Meaning of. — Like all the great words of scriptural 
theology, it [justification] carries with it in divine things the meaning 
it bears in common things, only for a new and noble application. . . . 
He who " justifies " you does exactly what the word always imports. 
He does not educate you, or inspire you, up to acceptability. He pro- 
nounces you acceptable, satisfactory, at peace with law. And this he 
does for Another's sake; on account of the merit of Another, who has 
so done and suffered as to win an eternal welcome for himself and 
everything that is his, and therefore for all who are found in him, and 
therefore for you who have fled into him, believing. So you receive with 
joy and wonder " the righteousness of God," his way to bid you, so 
deeply guilty in yourself, welcome without fear to your Judge. You 
are " righteous," that is to say, satisfactory to the inexorable law. 



JUSTIFICATION, MEANING OF 291 

How? Because you are transfigured into a moral perfectness such as 
could constitute a claim? No, but because Jesus Christ died, and you, 
receiving him, are found in him. — " The Epistle of St. Paul to the 
Romans," Handley C. G. Moule, M. A.,, D. D. (" The Expositor's Bible "), 
pp. 96, 97. New York: George H. Doran Company. 

When St. Paul speaks of sinners being justified by grace, — by the 
blood of Christ, and by faith, — he clearly means, then, that they are 
thereby accounted or reckoned righteous, not made into good men, for 
that is quite another idea, and is expressed by a different selection of 
phrases, such as regeneration and sanctification. But justification 
means being reckoned innocent, and declared righteous, treated as 
righteous, irrespective of deserts, for God " justifieth the ungodly." 
" While we were yet sinners Christ died for us. Much more, then, being 
justified by his blood, we shall be saved from wrath through him." 

We are said to be (1) "justified by grace," — that is the source, 
the pardoning mercy of God. (2) We are "justified by the blood of 
Christ," — that is the revealed method of our being reckoned righteous, 
through the expiatory sacrifice of Christ. (3) We are "justified by 
faith," — that is the personal application of redemption, the condition 
of individual salvation. And we are (4) "justified by works," — that 
is the external evidence of personal redemption. — " Life in Christ," 
Edward White, p. 245. London: Elliot Stock, 1876. 

Justification by faith meant nothing less than Christ all in all, liter- 
ally all in all, for sinful man's pardon and acceptance. It meant a 
profound simplicity of personal reliance altogether upon him before 
the fiery holiness of eternal law. It meant a look out and up, at once 
intense and unanxious, from alike the virtues and the guilt of man, 
to the mighty merits of the Saviour. It was precisely the foundation 
fact of salvation, which secured that the process should be, from its 
beginning, not humanitarian but divine. — " The Epistle of St. Paul to 
the Romans," Handley C. G. Moule, M. A., D. D. (" The Expositor's 
Bible " ), p. 4. New York: George H. Doran Company. 

The word " justification " does not of itself imply that the justified 
person is a sinner. To see this as plainly as possible, recollect that 
God himself is said to be justified, in Psalms 51: 4, and Christ himself 
in 1 Timothy 3: 16. In a human court of law, as we have seen above, 
it is the supreme duty of the judge to "justify the righteous" (Deut. 
25: 1), and the righteous only. In all such cases justification bears 
its perfectly proper meaning, unperplexed, crossed by no mystery or 
problem. But then, the moment we come to the concrete, practical 
question, How shall we be justified, and before God? or, to bring it closer 
home, How shall I, I the sinner, be welcomed by my offended Lord as 
if I were satisfactory? then the thought of justification presents itself 
to us in a new and most solemn aspect. The Word keeps its meaning 
unshaken. But how about its application? Here am I, guilty. To be 
justified is to be pronounced not guilty, to be vindicated and accepted 
by Lawgiver and law. Is it possible? Is it not impossible? 

Justification by faith, in the actual case of our salvation, is thus 
a " short phrase." It means, in full, the acceptance of guilty sinners, 
before God, by faith. Great is the problem so indicated. And great is 
the wonder and the glory of the solution given us by the grace of God. 
— H. C. G. Moule, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," Vol. II, p. 111. Chi- 
cago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

Justification, Importance of. — Justification in Christ is not only 
the most important doctrine of Christianity; it is Christianity, properly 



292 JUSTIFICATION, GROUND OF 

so called. For it is the distinction between this and all other religions, 
that while these represent salvation as man's work toward God, that 
represents it as God's work toward man. The ignorant habitually con- 
sider religion solely under the character of a law of morality with re- 
wards and punishments, thus rendering the cross a mere nullity. 
But the rules of morality do not form the chief part of Christianity; 
for since these depend upon the right knowledge of our relation to God, 
the Scripture lays that foundation in the doctrine of " grace; " and this 
doctrine of grace forms the rules of morality for Christian life, and 
therefore is superior to them. Hence we infer the necessity for a true 
understanding of that central fact of revelation, the death of Christ, 
and of the doctrine which shines as a glory around it, justification 
through the reckoning of righteousness to sinners. — "Life in Christ" 
Edward White, pp. 249, 250. London: Elliot Stock, 1876. 

Justification. — Justification is no savior, nor is faith. Justifi- 
cation by faith — what is it? It is the acceptance of the guilty by reason 
of a trusted Christ. — H. C. G. Moule, D. D., in " The Fundamentals," 
Vol. II, p. 117. Chicago: Testimony Publishing Company. 

The word " justification," alike in religious and in common par- 
lance, is a word connected with law. It has to do with acquittal, vindi- 
cation, acceptance before a judgment seat. To use a technical term, it 
is a forensic word, a word of the law courts (which in old Rome stood 
in the Forum). In regard of "us men and our salvation" it stands 
related not so much, not so directly, to our need of spiritual revolution, 
amendment, purification, holiness, as to our need of getting, somehow 
— in spite of our guilt, our liability, our debt, our deserved condemna- 
tion — a sentence of acquittal, a sentence of acceptance, at the judgment 
seat of a holy God. 

Not that it has nothing to do with our inward spiritual purification. 
It has intense and vital relations that way. But they are not direct re- 
lations. The direct concern of justification is with man's need of a 
divine deliverance, not from the power of his sin, but from its guilt. — 
Id., pp. 108. 109. 

Justification, Gkound or. — We are justified solely on account of 
what Christ is and has done; but the faith that accepts him, that sees 
in his death the atonement for human sin, and identifies itself with that 
death, is in its essence an act of self-committal to the living Christ, 
and a receotion of bis Spirit. — " The Christ of History and of Experi- 
ence," David W. Forrest, D. D., p. 246. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Justification, Wholly of Grace. — Had the fundamental truth been 
sedulously guarded by the teachers of the earliest centuries, had they 
" taught the things of the Holy Spirit in the words of the Spirit," had 
they preserved silence when the apostles preserved silence, and, while 
refraining from uttering a word as to the immortality of the soul, had 
insisted on Christ's own teaching, that to give eternal life is the very 
object of redemption, a corruption of the article on justification would 
have been almost impossible. For under this view of man's condition, 
justification, or pardon and acceptance with God, is what takes place 
when a sinner " passes from death unto life," and that change is ex- 
clusively the gracious act of God, not the work of mortal man. 

Since the gift of righteousness is equivalent to the gift of life eter- 
nal, and that gift, both in its moral causes and personal application, 
is an act of supernatural grace, there is no room left for the notion that 
a man can in any way " justify himself." A man can work himself up 



JUSTIFICATION AND RIGHTEOUSNESS 293 

into an immortal condition of " equality with the angels," or make him- 
self a " partaker of the divine nature," no more than an ox or an ass 
can work himself up into humanity. Salvation, in the sense of being 
" saved alive " from death eternal, must be purely " the gift of God." 
Man can have no share in the moral or physical causes which procure 
it; not in the inception, not in the completion. To live forever is a free 
gift, bestowed freely on the vilest, needed equally as a free gift by the 
worthiest of men. This is justification of life. And if the main doc- 
trine had been preserved, it would have upheld, like the central column 
of a temple, the entire fabric of evangelical theology. Every other gos- 
pel doctrine is derived from it, or rests upon it, or is connected with it 
in indissoluble unity. — "Life in Christ," Edward White, pp. 255, 256. 
London: Elliot Stock? 1876. 

Justification, A Great Mystery. — They declare not only that it is 
through the death of Christ that we are " saved from wrath," but, fur- 
ther, that we are reckoned righteous on believing, because Christ's 
righteousness is reckoned, or imputed, to us. That is, we are regarded 
by God as being " one " with his Son in righteousness, and therefore 
as standing before him clad in the dazzling garments of the First-born. 
" This is a great mystery," and an idea exceedingly revolting to modern 
philosophy " falsely so called." But it pervades the whole of the New 
Testament. — Id., p. 247. 

Justification, Being Right with God. — Habakkuk's appeal to Ju- 
dah to retain the Lord Jehovah among them in all his peace and power, 
by trusting him, is known by St. Paul to be for all time an oracle about 
the work of faith. So he sees it in a message straight to the soul which 
asks how, if Christ is God's righteousness, shall I, a sinner, win Christ 
for me. " Wouldst thou indeed be just with God, right with him as 
Judge, accepted by the Holy One? Take his Son in the empty arms of 
mere trust, and he is thine for this need, and for all." — " The Epistle of 
St. Paul to the Romans," Handley C. G. Moule, M. A., D. D. (" The Ex- 
positor's Bible " ), p. 35. New York: George H. Doran Company. 

Justification and Righteousness. — " The righteousness of God," 
seen as it were in action, ascertained by its effects, is that which secures 
" that he shall be just, and the justifier of the man who belongs to faith 
in Jesus." It is that which makes wonderfully possible the mighty 
paradox that the Holy One, eternally truthful, eternally rightful, infi- 
nitely " law-abiding " in his jealousy for that law which is in fact his 
nature expressing itself in precept, nevertheless can and does say to 
man, in his guilt and forfeit, " I, thy Judge, lawfully acquit thee, law- 
fully accept thee, lawfully embrace thee." In such a context we need 
not fear to explain this great phrase, in this its first occurrence, to mean 
the acceptance accorded by the holy Judge to sinful man. Thus it stands 
practically equivalent to God's way of justifying the ungodly, his 
method for liberating his love while he magnifies his law. In effect, 
not as a translation but as an explanation, God's righteousness is God's 
justification. — Id., pp. 32, 33. 

Justification, Sanctification, and Glorification. — There are three 
things included in the complete salvation of the souls of men, — justi- 
fication, or the pardon of past sins through the forbearing mercy of 
God; sanctification, or the purification of the soul by obeying the truth, 
through the power of the Holy Ghost; and glorification, or the trans- 
formation of the entire man, body, soul, and spirit, into the immortal 
Image of the glorified Redeemer, when he shall appear the second time. 



294 JUSTIFICATION, JAMES ON 

Justification is deliverance from the guilt of sin. Sanctification is 
deliverance from the dominion and power of sin. Glorification is de- 
liverance from the entire curse of sin, from pain, sorrow, infirmity, 
and death. 

Pardon, or justification, is the blotting out of the dark records of 
the sinful past; sanctification is the transformation and purification 
of present Christian character and life; and glorification introduces men 
to the blessings of the ever-brightening future, when Christ, who is 
our life, shall appear, and we also shall " appear with him in glory." — 
" Three Things" H. L. Hastings, p. 1. Boston: Scriptural Tract Re- 
pository. 

Justification, The Antinomian Error. — This error was seemingly 
based upon a recognition of the mercy of God as the ground of salva- 
tion; but made the fatal mistake of imagining that that mercy was 
available for other than regenerate men. It held the truth on the 
gratuitous reckoning of righteousness; but supposed that an intellect- 
ual belief in this truth had a saving efficacy. The apostle [James] re- 
futed this error by the admonition, " The devils also believe and trem- 
ble; " reminding its victims that the true faith was an active principle 
which works by love. St. James does not represent sanctification as the 
ground of justification, but as its necessary concomitant. — " Life in 
Christ," Edward White, p. 251. London : Elliot Stock, 1876. 

Justification, The Confirmation of Freedom. — Justification by 
faith alone is not the denial, it is rather the confirmation, of the highest 
freedom, for it involves this, that the man in matters relating to his 
eternal salvation is independent of any sort of priestly mediation, of 
any sort of human pronouncement, of any sort of legal tradition, that 
he stands alone before the face of God, and that it is only in his own 
heart that the decision is made with regard to him how far he belongs 
to the truly catholic, the ideal church. — " Handbook to the Controversy 
with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. II, p. 37. London: The Religious 
Tract Society, 1909. 

Justification, The Council of Trent on.- 1 - The Council of Trent 
says: " If any man shall declare that men are justified without the 
righteousness of Christ, through which he has obtained merit for us, 
or that through that righteousness itself they are formally justified; 
let him be accursed." " If any man shall say that justifying faith is 
nothing else but confidence in the divine mercy, forgiving sins for 
Christ's sake; or that this confidence is the only thing by which we 
are justified; let him be accursed." 

The Council of Trent boastfully declared that it was " lawfully 
assembled in the Holy Spirit," at the beginning of every important 
decree; meaning that its decisions were all prompted by Him who 
moved holy men of old to write the Scriptures. Examine these two 
canons in the light of the Spirit's revelations. The first curses those 
who say that men are formally justified through Christ's righteousness; 
the second curses those who say that confidence in the divine mercy 
forgiving sins for Christ's sake is the only thing by which we are justi- 
fied. Paul comes under this curse, for he says (Catholic version, Rom. 
3: 28): "For we account a man to be justified by faith without the 
works of the law." And if inspired Paul arrived at such a conclusion, 
we may safely sit down beside him and let the Council of Trent, law- 
fully assembled in the Holy Spirit, curse him and us. [p. 261] . . . 

The decree on justification has sixteen chapters and thirty-three 
canons; it is very elaborate, and contains some truth and much per- 



JUSTIFICATION, VIEWS OF 295 

nicious error. Take it altogether, it is one of the most self-contradic- 
tory, gospel-denying, and detestable efforts which one could well imagine. 
— " The Papal System,'" William Cathcart, D. D., pp. 261, 262. Phila- 
delphia: American Baptist Publication Society. 

Justification, Contrasting Views of. — The most striking differ- 
ences between the Reformation and the medieval conception of justifi- 
cation are: 

1. The Reformation thought always looks at the comparative im- 
perfection of the works of believers, while admitting that they are good 
works; the medieval theologian, even when bidding men disregard the 
intrinsic value of their good works, always looks at the relative perfec- 
tion of these works. 

2. The Reformer had a much more concrete idea of God's grace — 
it was something special, particular, unique — because he invariably 
regarded the really good works which men can do from their relative 
imperfection; the medieval theologian looked at the relative perfection 
of good works, and so could represent them as something congruous to 
the grace of God which was not sharply distinguished from them. 

3. These views led Luther and the Reformers to represent faith as 
not merely the receptive organ for the reception and appropriation of 
justification through Christ, but, and in addition, as the active instru- 
ment in all Christian life and work — faith is our life; while the medi- 
eval theologians never attained this view of faith. 

4. The Reformer believes that the act of faith in his justification 
through Christ is the basis of the believer's assurance of his pardon 
and salvation in spite of the painful and abiding sense of sin; while 
the medieval theologian held that the divine sentence of acquittal which 
restored a sinner to a state of grace resulted from the joint action of 
the priest and the penitent in the sacrament of penance, and had to be 
repeated intermittently. — "A History of the Reformation,'" Thomas M. 
Lindsay, M. A., D. D., p. 452. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906. 

Justification, Roman Canons on. — Canon IX. If any one saith that 
by faith alone the impious is justified; in such wise as to mean that 
nothing else is required to co-operate in order to the obtaining the grace 
of justification, and that it is not in any way necessary that he be 
prepared and disposed by the movement of his own will; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon X. If any one saith that men are just without the justice of 
Christ, whereby he merited for us to be justified; or that it is by that 
justice itself that they are formally just; let him be anathema. 

Canon XI. If any one saith that men are justified, either by the 
sole imputation of the justice of Christ or by the sole remission of sins, 
to the exclusion of the grace and the charity which is poured forth in 
their hearts by the Holy Ghost and is inherent in them; or even that 
the grace, whereby we are justified, is only the favor of God; let him 
be anathema. 

Canon XII. If any one saith that justifying faith is nothing else but 
confidence in the divine mercy which remits sin for Christ's sake; or 
that this confidence alone is that whereby we are justified; let him be 
anathema. 

Canon XIII. If any one saith that it is necessary for every one, for 
the obtaining the remission of sins, that he believe for certain, and 
without any wavering arising from his own infirmity and indisposition, 
that his sins are forgiven him; let him be anathema. 



296 JUSTIFICATION, CRITICISM OF 

Canon XIV. If any one saith that man is truly absolved from his 
sins and justified, because that he assuredly believed himself absolved 
and justified; or that no one is truly justified but he who believes him- 
self justified; and that, by this faith alone, absolution and justification 
are effected; let him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," 
pp. 51, 52. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Justification, Roman Catholic View of Protestant Teaching Con- 
cerning. — As in revolutions the leaders try to gain the people over by 
the bait of promised independence, so at the time of the so-called Refor- 
mation — which was a revolution against church authority and order 
in religion — it seems that it was the aim of the Reformers to decoy 
the people under the pretext of making them independent of the priests, 
in whose hands our Saviour has placed the administering of the seven 
sacraments of pardon and of grace. 

They began, therefore, by discarding five of these sacraments, in- 
cluding the sacrament of order, in which priests are ordained, and the 
sacrament of penance, in which the forgiveness of sins is granted to 
the penitent, by virtue of those words of Christ: " Whose sins you shall 
forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they 
are retained." St. John 20: 23. 

They then reduced, as it appears, to a mere matter of form, the two 
sacraments they professed to retain, namely, holy baptism and the holy 
eucharist. To make up for this rejection, and enable each individual 
to prescribe for himself, and procure by himself the pardon of sins and 
divine grace, independently of the priests and of the sacraments, they 
invented an exclusive means, never known in the church of God, and 
still rejected by all the Eastern churches and by the Roman Catholics 
throughout the world, by which the followers of Luther ventured to 
declare that each individual can secure pardon and justification for 
himself independently of priests and sacraments. 

They have framed a new dogma, not to be found in any of the 
creeds, or in the canons of any general council; I mean, the new dogma 
of Justification by Faith alone, or by Faith only. [pp. 365, 366] . . . 

By adding the word " alone," Protestants profess to exclude all 
exterior, ceremonial, pious, or charitable works, works of obedience or 
of penance, and good moral acts whatever, as means of apprehending 
justification, or as conditions to obtain it. Protestants by that word 
" alone " mean also to exclude the sacraments of baptism and penance 
as means of apprehending Or possessing themselves of justification, 
which they maintain is only apprehended by faith, [pp. 366, 367] . . . 

Indeed, some of them go so far as to consider these interior good 
acts as well as other exterior good deeds, rather hindrances than dis- 
positions to justification. 

To do these acts with the view of being justified, is, they say, like 
giving a penny to the queen to obtain from her a royal gift. Come as 
ycu are, they add; you cannot be too bad for Jesus. Through faith 
alone in his promise, they assert, you can and should accept Christ's 
merits, seize Christ's redemption and his justice; appropriate Christ to 
yourself, believe that Jesus is with you, is yours, that he pardons your 
sins, and all this without any preparation and without any doing on 
your part; in fact, that however deficient you may be in all other dis- 
positions which Catholics require, and however loaded with sins, if you 
only trust in Jesus that he will forgive your sins and save you, you are 
by that trust alone forgiven, personally redeemed, justified, and placed 
in a state of salvation. — " Catholic Belief," Joseph Fad di Bruno, D. D. 
(R. C), pp. 365-367. New York: Benziger Brothers, copyright 1884. 



JUSTINIAN 297 



Justification. — Conferred in Baptism, According to the Roman 
View. — The adult is called to justification by a preventing grace, which 
is for him, as it were, the principle of salvation. This grace, which may 
be resisted and absolutely rejected, draws the will on to prepare for 
reconciliation in a fitting manner, and always with freedom. The acts 
which predispose him for reconciliation, and which grace assists him to 
make, are, first, acts of faith: he hears the preaching of the gospel, he 
believes the truth of the revelation, and God's faithfulness to his prom- 
ises; he believes, especially, that God justifies the wicked by his grace, 
the fruit of redemption. But in hearing the sacred law promulgated 
he perceives that he is a sinner; and therefore fears the justice of God 
provoked by his iniquities; after he has been cast down by this salu- 
tary shock, a feeling of confidence in the infinite mercy of his Creator 
presents itself and raises him up. He hopes that God, in consideration 
of the merits of Jesus Christ, will pardon him; and animated by such 
hope, he begins to love this God, the unfailing source of all justice; 
this love leads him to detest his sin, to repent of it, to repair it as 
far as may be, and makes him resolve to receive baptism, and to ob- 
serve the divine commandments. When the soul has these dispositions, 
it receives from the Holy Spirit in baptism, together with the remis- 
sion of all its sins, the grace which makes it just; and at the same 
time it is incorporated into Jesus Christ, and united to that divine 
Head by the sacred ties of faith, hope, and charity. — " Catholic Doctrine 
as Defined by the Council of Trent" Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C), 
p. 276. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Justinian, Religious Policy of. — Justinian's religious policy was 
upheld by the imperial conviction that the unity of the empire uncon- 
ditionally presupposed unity of faith; and with him it was a matter 
of course that this faith could be only the orthodox. Those of a dif- 
ferent belief had to recognize that the process which had been begun 
by imperial legislation from Constantius down, was now to be vigor- 
ously continued. The Codex contained two statutes (Cod., I, xi. 9 
and 10) which decreed the total destruction of Hellenism, even in the 
civil life, nor were the appertaining provisions to stand merely on paper. 
The sources (Malalas, Theophanes, John of Ephesus) tell of severe 
persecutions, even of men in high positions. But what proved of uni- 
versal historic account, was the ruling whereby the emperor, in 529, 
abrogated philosophical and juridical instruction at the University of 
Athens, thus putting an end to this training school for Hellenism. And 
the Christian propaganda went hand in hand with the suppression of 
paganism, [p. 285] . . . 

Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly 
after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the schism that had 
prevailed between Rome and Byzantium since 483. The recognition 
of the Roman see as the highest ecclesiastical authority (cf. Novelise, 
cxxxi) remained the corner-stone of his policy in relation to the West, 
although he thus grievously offended those of the East, and though he 
felt himself entirely free to show a despotic front toward the Pope 
(witness his behavior toward Silverius and Vigilius). [p. 286] ... In 
the condemnation of the Three Chapters, Justinian tried to satisfy both 
the East and the West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. Although 
the Pope assented to the condemnation, the West believed that the em- 
peror was acting contrary to the decrees of Chalcedon; and though many 
delegates were found in the East subservient to Justinian, yet there were 
many, especially the Monophysites, left? unsatisfied. So the emperor's 
efforts were wasted on an impossible task; the more bitter for him 
because during his last years he took greater interest in theological 
matters. 



298 KEYS, POWER OF 

It cannot be doubted that Justinian also took an actual, personal 
hand in the theological manifestoes which he put forth as emperor; 
although, in view of the author's exalted position, it is a difficult 
matter to ascertain whether the documents current under his name are 
the direct product of his pen. [pp. 286, 287] — The New Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VI, art. " Justinian I, Em- 
peror of the East," pp. 285-287. 

Justinian.— Pages 190, 234, 242, 263, 370, 381, 382, 385, 388, 478- 
480, 598. 

Keys, Power of. — We sum up what seems to be the teaching of 
Scripture. We conclude that the power is not a special privilege and ex- 
traordinary authority, but a responsibility intrusted by Jesus Christ 
as the method of extending his work. There is in it nothing magical, 
mysterious, or arbitrary; not ecclesiastical or official, but spiritual 
and primarily personal. The keys of the kingdom of heaven are first 
of all the gospel of salvation through Jesus Christ. By this means men 
are admitted into the kingdom. The fully attested method of using the 
keys is that of witnessing personally to an experience of Jesus Christ. 
He was conferring power for saving, and not for barring from salvation. 
Let it be borne in mind always that Jesus was offering Peter not power 
but duty, not privilege but responsibility. Neither of these terms, 
" power " and " privilege," that have come to be associated with the gift 
of the keys, occurs with that gift in the words of the Master. The keys 
are primarily for admitting to the kingdom of heaven, not for barring 
from the church. 

The holder of the keys is any man with that experience that called 
forth from Jesus the assurance that Peter should have the keys. Such 
a man will be in fellowship and co-operation with like men, in a church, 
and the Spirit of Jesus will be present in them, so that their decisions 
and their testimony will be his as well as theirs. There is a corporate, 
or church, agency, therefore, and the man who would ignore that lacks 
the experience or the Spirit needful for the use of the keys. Yet the 
church is never to overshadow or exclude the individual responsibility 
and authority. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited 
by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. Ill, art. " Keys, Power of," pp. 1796, 
1797. 

Keys, Power of, Roman Catholic View of. — Pastors, therefore, 
must first teach that the institution of confession has been to us ex- 
tremely useful, and even necessary; for granting that sins are can- 
celed by contrition, who is ignorant that [to effect this] it must be so 
vehement, so intense, so ardent, as that the bitterness of our sorrow 
may be compared with, and bear a proportion to, the magnitude of our 
crimes. But as this is a degree of contrition which very few could 
reach, the consequence also was that very few could have hoped to 
obtain in this way the pardon of their sins. 

It was therefore necessary that the Lord, in his infinite mercy, 
should provide by some easier means for the common salvation of men, 
and this he did, in his admirable wisdom, when he gave to the church 
the keys of the kingdom of heaven. For, according to the doctrine of 
the Catholic faith, it is to be believed and firmly professed by all, that 
if any one is sincerely sorry for his past sins, and firmly resolves to 
avoid sin for the future, although his sorrow be not such as may be 
sufficient of itself to obtain pardon, yet all his crimes, if duly confessed 
to the priest, are remitted and pardoned by the power of the keys; so 
that justly was it proclaimed by those most holy men, our Fathers, 
that by the keys of the church is thrown open the gate of heaven. Of 



KINGDOM OF GOD 299 



this no one is at liberty to doubt, the Council of Florence having defined 
that the effect of penance is absolution from sins. — " Catechism of the 
Council of Trent,'" translated by Rev. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C), pp. 245, 
246. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons £ Co. 

Kingdom of God, " At Hand." — By tracing the prophetic image de- 
scribed in the second chapter of Daniel, we find there five great uni- 
versal kingdoms delineated, four of which are earthly and temporary, 
and the fifth heavenly, divine, and eternal. The first of these great 
kingdoms was Babylon; and when this was in its glory, Medo-Persia 
was " at hand," as this was the next in succession. When Medo-Persia 
had conquered and supplanted Babylon, the next kingdom " at hand " 
was the kingdom of Grecia. When Grecia had conquered Persia, and 
bore sway, the next kingdom "at hand" was Rome; and when Rome 
stretched the scepter of universal dominion over the earth, then came 
the message, " The kingdom of heaven is at hand." This kingdom fol- 
lows next after Rome, which, though divided, declining, and tottering 
to its fall, still, as embodied in European civilization, maintains its 
hold on the world; and will, until it is overthrown, destroyed, and suc- 
ceeded by the everlasting kingdom of God. That kingdom, then, is 
" at hand." — " The Reign of Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, Edi- 
tor's Preface, p. Hi. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

King of the North.— Page 213. 

King of the South.— Page 213. 

Kingdoms. — Pages 592-597. 

Laodicea, Chukch of. — Page 530. 

Laodicea, Council of. — Pages 511, 515. 

Law, Ceremonial, Lesson of Levitical System. — It represented 
strikingly the infinite holiness of God, and the necessity of purity in 
all who would come into his presence or enjoy his favor. It pointed 
to the Great Provision, which God intended to reveal in its proper time, 
for the taking away of sin, and directed the eye of faith and hope to 
the perfect salvation that was to come. By signs it foretold the suffer- 
ings and death of Christ, and the whole work of redemption which he 
was to accomplish. — "A Summary of Biblical Antiquities," John W. 
Nevin, D. D., Vol. II, pp. 16, 17. Utica, N. Y.: Western Sunday School 
Union, 1828. 

Law, Ceremonial, Witness That a Higher Law Was Broken. — 
The ceremonial law taught of the holiness of God and of a coming 
Saviour, and was designed to provide for restored obedience to the 
moral law. — " The Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer," Ferdi- 
nand S. Schenck, p. 11. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1902. 

Law, Ceremonial, Abrogated at the Cross. — God gave to Adam 
a law, as a covenant of works, by which he bound him and all his pos- 
terity to personal; entire, exact, and perpetual obedience; promised life 
upon the fulfilling, and threatened death upon the breach of it; and 
endued him with power and ability to keep it. 

This law, after his fall, continued to be a perfect rule of righteous- 
ness; and, as such, was delivered by God upon Mt. Sinai in ten com- 
mandments, and written in two tables; the four first commandments 
containing our duty toward God; and the other six, our duty to man. 



300 LAW, CEREMONIAL AND MORAL 

Beside this law, commonly called moral, God was pleased to give to 
the people of Israel, as a church under age, ceremonial laws, containing 
several typical ordinances, partly of worship, prefiguring Christ, his 
graces, actions, sufferings, and benefits; and partly holding forth divers 
instructions of moral duties. All which ceremonial laws are now abro- 
gated under the New Testament. — " The Constitution of the Presbyterian 
Church in the United States of America, as ratified by the General 
Assemblies of 1836 and 1833," chap. 19, pars. 1-3, pp. 88-90. Philadel- 
phia: Presbyterian Publication Committee. 

Laws, Ceremonial, Ended with the Death or Christ. — The moral 
law revealed the disease for which he [Christ] brought the remedy. Its 
precepts were designed to convince of sin. On the other hand, the cere- 
monial law was suited to typify the remedy for sin. It contained a 
shadow of the " good things ',': of the gospel. It pictured the way of 
salvation. 

What the ceremonial law obscurely typified, the prophets more 
plainly predicted. Both pointed to the coming Messiah. The daily sac- 
rifices of the one, and the successive utterances of the other, pointed to 
" the Lamb of God who taketh away the sin of the world." 

The fulfilment of the moral law, the ceremonial law, and the proph- 
ets, in the character and work of Christ, is a threefold cord of evidence 
which cannot be broken. He, and he alone, perfectly fulfilled the pre- 
cepts of the moral law. He, and he alone, fulfilled the types of the 
ceremonial law. He, and he alone, fulfilled the predictions of the proph- 
ets. By his fulfilment of the moral law he became a law. He translated 
its written precepts into living deeds. With his death the ceremonial 
system came to an end. — " Creation Centred in Christy H. Grattan 
Guinness, D. D., pp. 31, 32. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Law, Moral, Still in Force. — The laws thus delivered by Moses 
were of three kinds, — moral, ceremonial, and judicial; expressed by 
three Hebrew words, which are sometimes put together in Scripture to 
signify the whole, as Deut. 6:1; Ezra 7: 10; Mai. 4: 4. The first re- 
spected them as men; the second as a church; the third as a common- 
wealth. The first, or moral law, being the law of universal or unalter- 
able right, is binding upon all men, and is still in force. — " The Gospel 
of the Old Testament" Samuel Mather, Vol. I, p. 210. London: R. B. 
Seeley and W. Burnside, 1834. 

Law, Decalogue Not Repealed by New Testament. — Though even 
the decalogue is affected by the New Testament, it is not so in the way 
of repeal or obliteration. It is raised, transfigured, glorified there, but 
itself remains in its authority and supremacy. — " A Dictionary of the 
Bible," William Smith, LL. D., Vol. Ill, p. 1071. Boston: Little, Brown 
& Co., 1863. 

Law, Ecclesiastical and Ceremonial. — The leading principle of 
the whole is its theocratic character, its reference, that is, of all action 
and thoughts of men directly and immediately to the will of God. It 
follows from this that it is to be regarded not merely as a law, that is, 
a rule of conduct based on known truth and acknowledged authority, 
but also as a revelation of God's nature and his dispensations. But this 
theocratic character of the law depends necessarily on the belief in 
God, as not only the creator and sustainer of the world, but as, by spe- 
cial covenant, the head of the Jewish nation. This immediate reference 
to God a? their king is clearly seen as the groundwork of their whole 
polity. Prom this theocratic nature of the law follow important de- 



LAW AND GOSPEL 301 



ductions with regard to (a) the view which it takes of political society; 
(&) the extent of the scope of the law; (c) the penalties by which it is 
enforced; and (d) the character which it seeks to impress on the people. 
(a) The Mosaic law seeks the basis of its polity, first, in the absolute 
sovereignty of God; next, in the relationship of each individual to God, 
and through God to his countrymen. It is clear that such a doctrine, 
while it contradicts none of the common theories, yet lies beneath them 
all. (b) The law, as proceeding directly from God and referring di- 
rectly to him, is necessarily absolute in its supremacy and unlimited in 
its scope. It is supreme over the governors, as being only the delegates 
of the Lord, and therefore it is incompatible with any despotic authority 
in them. On the other hand, it is supreme over the governed, recogniz- 
ing no inherent rights in the individual as prevailing against or limit- 
ing the law. It regulated the whole life of an Israelite. His actions 
were rewarded and punished with great minuteness and strictness, and 
that according to the standard, not of their consequences but of their 
intrinsic morality, (c) The penalties and rewards by which the law 
is enforced are such as depend on the direct theocracy. With regard 
to individual actions, it may be noticed that, as generally some penalties 
are inflicted by the subordinate and some only by the supreme authority, 
so among the Israelites some penalties came from the hand of man, 
some directly from the providence of God. (d) But perhaps the most im- 
portant consequence of the theocratic nature of the law was the peculiar 
character of goodness which it sought to impress on the people. The 
Mosaic law, beginning with piety as its first object, enforces most em- 
phatically the purity essential to those who, by their union with God, 
have recovered the hope of intrinsic goodness, while it views righteous- 
ness and love rather as deductions from these than as independent ob- 
jects. The appeal is not to any dignity of human nature, but to the 
obligations of communion with a holy God. — "A Dictionary of the Bible" 
William Smith, LL. D., art. " Law,'''' p. 349, Teacher's edition. Phila- 
delphia: Porter and Coates, copyright 1884. 

Law, Ecclesiastical, Power of Pope Over. — Page 413. 

Law and Gospel, Luther's View 7 of. — Luther had realized that 
the gospel, while reasserting the inexorable nature of the moral law 
and deepening its demands, had revealed a supernatural and divine 
means of satisfying and fulfilling it. All barriers had thus been re- 
moved between God and man, and men had been placed in the position 
of children living by faith on his grace and bounty. He offers to bestow 
upon them the very righteousness he requires from them, if they will 
but accept it at his hands as a free gift. Their true position is no longer 
that of mere subjects living under a law which they must obey at their 
peril. They may, indeed, by their own act, remain in that condition, 
with all its terrible consequences. But God invites them to regard him 
as their Father, to live in the light of his countenance, and to receive 
from him the daily food of their souls. The most intimate personal re- 
lation is thus established between himself and them; and the righteous- 
ness which by their own efforts they could never acquire he is ready to 
create in them if they will but live with him in faith and trust. That 
faith, indeed, must needs be the beginning, and the most essential con- 
dition, of this divine life. Faith is the first condition of all fellowship 
between persons; and if a man is to live in personal fellowship with 
God, he must trust him absolutely, believe his promises, and rest his 
whole existence here and hereafter upon his word. But let a man do 
this, and then God's law ceases to be like a flaming sword, turning every 
way, with too fierce an edge for human hearts to bear. It assumes the 



302 LAW OF GOD, CHARACTER OF 



benignant glow of a revelation of perfect righteousness which God 
himself will bestow on all who ask it at his hands. — " Luther's Primary 
Works," edited by Wace and Buchheim, p. 431. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1896. 

Law of God, One Perfect Code. — In the epistle of James is found 
a word of deep significance. " Whosoever shall keep the whole law, and 
yet stumble in one point, he is become guilty of all" (2: 10). . . . 
Herein lies the explanation of the apparent severity of James's utter- 
ance. Men are apt to think that if there be ten commandments, of which 
they obey nine, such obedience will be put to their credit, even though 
they break the tenth. — " The Ten Commandments" Rev. G. Campbell 
Morgan, p. 11. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1901. 

These ten commandments are not ten different laws; they are one 
law. If I am being held up in the air by a chain with ten links, and I 
break one of them, down I come, just as surely as if I break the whole 
ten. If I am forbidden to go out of an inclosure, it makes no difference 
at what point I break through the fence. " Whosoever shall keep the 
whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all." "The 
golden chain of obedience is broken if one link is missing." — " Weighed 
and Wanting," Dwight L. Moody, p. 119. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell 
Company, 1898. 

Law of God, The End of All Perfection. — Now men may cavil 
as much as they like about other parts of the Bible, but I have never 
met an honest man that found fault with the ten commandments. 
Infidels may mock the Lawgiver and reject Him who has delivered us 
from the curse of the law, but they can't help admitting that the com- 
mandments are right. Renan said that they are for all nations, and 
will remain the commandments of God during all the centuries. 

If God created this world, he must make some laws to govern it. In 
order to make life safe, we must have good laws; there is not a country 
the sun shines upon that does not possess laws. Now this is God's law. 
It has come from on high, and infidels and skeptics have to admit that 
it is pure. — Id., p. 11. 

Law of God, Reveals the Glory of God. — A great philosopher has 
said that the mind must be filled with awe when one contemplates either 
the universe or the moral law. The psalmist saw the glory of God 
alike in the heavens and in the law. Given in the early dawn of civili- 
zation, this law of the ten commandments has not been left behind in 
the advance of the race, but still stands far ahead, beckoning on the 
centuries. Its perfection is a sufficient evidence of its divine origin. 
Each commandment is an authoritative statement of a fundamental 
principle of human nature. — " The Ten Commandments and the Lord's 
Prayer," Ferdinand 8. Schenck, Preface to new edition, par. 1. New 
York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1902. 

Law of God, The Rule of Love. — If you love God with all your 
heart, you must keep the first table; and if you love your neighbor as 
yourself, you must keep the second table. — " The Perpetuity of the 
Law" C. H. Spurgeon, p. 5. 

Law of God, " By the Law is the Knowledge of Sin." — Thus it 
appears that man cannot have a true notion of sin but by means of the 
law of God. . . . And let it be observed, that the law did not answer this 
end merely among the Jews in the days of the apostle; it is just as 



LAW OF GOD, VIEWS ON 303 

necessary to the Gentiles to the present hour. Nor do we find that true 
repentance takes place where the moral law is not preached and en- 
forced. Those who preach only the gospel to sinners, at best only heal 
the hurt of the daughter of my people slightly. The law, therefore, is 
the grand instrument in the hands of a faithful minister, to alarm and 
awaken sinners; and he may safely show that every sinner is under 
the law, and consequently under the curse, who has not fled for refuge 
to the hope held out by the gospel: for, in this sense also, Jesus Christ 
is the end of the law for justification to them that believe. — " A Com- 
mentary and Critical Notes," Adam Clarke, LL. D., on Rom. 7:13. 
New York: Lane and Scott, 1851. 

Law of God, Only the Obedient by Faith Free. — There is a sense 
in which Christians are not " free from the law." It is only when grace 
enables men to keep the law, that they are free from it; just as a moral 
man who lives according to the laws of the country is free from arrest. 
God has not set aside law, but he has found a way by which man can 
fulfil law, and so be free from it. — " The Ten Commandments" Rev. O. 
Campbell Morgan, p. 23. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1901. 

Law of God, Bishop Simpson's Word to Preachers. — The law of 
God, in its great and solemn injunctions, should be distinctly set forth. 
Our congregations should be gathered as around the base of Mt. Sinai, 
while from its summit is heard the voice of God in those command- 
ments which are unalterable and eternal in their character. . . . 

Some will object to the sternness of the law, and say, " Prophesy 
smooth things; " but still the law must be preached. It brings the sin- 
ner to a recognition of his sins; in having transgressed God's holy law, 
and shown him the fearfulness of the doom which is impending over 
him. The law must be followed by the gospel; the awakened sinner 
must be pointed to the Saviour, that he may see that, deep as are the 
stains of his transgressions, the blood of Christ can wash them all 
away. — " Lectures on Preaching," Bishop Matthew Simpson (Bishop 
M. E. Church), Lecture 4, p. 128. New York: Eaton and Mains, 1906. 

Law of God, Moody on the Minister's Duty. — The people must be 
made to understand that the ten commandments are still binding, and 
that there is a penalty attached to their violation. — " Weighed and Want- 
ing" Dwight L. Moody, p. 16. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 
1898. 

Law of God, When the Pulpit Ignores It. — There are many 
preachers who love to dwell on the gospel alone. They talk sweetly and 
beautifully of the fatherhood of God. This is well. It is more than well, 
it is essential. But sometimes they go beyond this, and declaim against 
the preaching of the law, — intimate that it belongs to a past age, a 
less civilized society. . . . 

Such a gospel may rear a beautiful structure; but its foundation is 
on the sand. No true edifice can be raised without its foundations being 
dug deep by repentance toward God, and then shall the rock be reached. 
and the building shall be through faith in Jesus Christ. The law with- 
out the gospel is dark and hopeless; the gospel without the law is in- 
efficient and powerless. — " Lectures on Preaching," Bishop Matthew 
Simpson, Lecture 4, p. 129. New York: Eaton and Mains, 1906. 

Law of God, Exalted by Christ's Death. — Through the atonement 
of Christ more honor is done to the law, and consequently the law is 
more established, than if the law had been literally executed, and all 



3 04 LAW OF GOD, WESLEY ON 

mankind had been condemned. Whatever tends most to the honor of 
the law, tends most to establish its authority. — " The Works of Jona- 
than Edwards" (2 vols.) Vol. II, p. 369. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and 
Wardwell, 1842. 

Law of God, Universal, Magnified by Christ. — The command- 
ments of God given to Moses in the mount at Horeb are as binding to- 
day as ever they have been since the time when they were proclaimed 
in the hearing of the people. The Jews said the law was not given in 
Palestine (which belonged to Israel), but in the wilderness, because 
the law was for all nations. 

Jesus never condemned the law and the prophets, but he did con- 
demn those who did not obey them. Because he gave new command- 
ments, it does not follow that he abolished the old. Christ's explana- 
tion of them made them all the more searching. In his Sermon on the 
Mount he carried the principles of the commandments beyond the mere 
letter. He unfolded them and showed that they embraced more, that 
they are positive as well as prohibitive. — " Weighed and Wanting,'" 
Dwight L. Moody, p. 15. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1898. 

Law of God, Enforced in the Sermon on the Mount. — We learn 
hence: 1. That all the law of God is binding on Christians. Compare 
James 2: 10. 2. That all the commands of God should be preached, in 
their proper place, by Christian ministers. 3. That they who pretend 
that there are any laws of God so small that they need not obey them, 
are unworthy of his kingdom. And 4. That true piety has respect to 
all the commandments of God. Compare Ps. 119: 6. — "Commentary," 
Rev. Albert Barnes, on the Gospels, note on Matt. 5: 19, revised edition. 
New York: Harper and Brothers, 1868. 

Law of God, John Wesley on Christ's " Sermon on the Mount." — 
In the highest rank of the enemies of the gospel of Christ, are they who, 
openly and explicitly, " judge the law," itself, and " speak evil of the 
law;" who teach men to break flusai, to dissolve, to loose, to untie the 
obligation of) not one only, whether of the least or of the greatest, but 
all the commandments at a stroke; who teach, without any cover, in 
so many words, "What did our Lord do with the law? He abolished 
it. There is but one duty, which is that of believing. . . ." This is in- 
deed carrying matters with a high hand; this is withstanding our Lord 
to the face, and telling him that he understood not how to deliver the 
message on which he was sent. O Lord, lay not this sin to their charge. 
Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do! 

The most surprising of all the circumstances that attend this strong 
delusion is, that they who are given up to it really believe that they 
honor Christ by overthrowing his law, and that they are magnifying 
his office while they are destroying his doctrine! Yea, they honor him 
just as Judas did, when he said, " Hail, Master, and kissed him." 
And he may as justly say to every one of them, " Betrayest thou the Son 
of man with a kiss? " It is no other than betraying him with a kiss to 
talk of his blood and take away his crown; to set light by any part of 
his law, under pretense of advancing his gospel. Nor indeed can any 
one escape this charge who preaches faith in any such a manner as 
either directly or indirectly tends to set aside any branch of obedience; 
who preaches Christ so as to disannul, or weaken in any wise, the least 
of the commandments of God. — " Works of Wesley," Sermon XXV, 
(7 vol. ed.) Vol. I. pp. 225, 226. New York: Waugh and Mason, 1833. 

Law of God, Christ's Relation to. — If he [Christ] obeyed the 
ceremonial law, unquestionably he obeyed the moral law. His keenest- 



LAW OF GOD, METHODIST VIEW OF 305 

eyed enemies could find no fault in him in regard to his moral conduct. 
His absolute sinlessness attests the translation of the moral law into 
actual life. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, edited by 
James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. Ill, art. " Law in the New Testament,"' p. 

1846. 

Law of God, John Calvin on Its Perpetuity. — We must not imag- 
ine that the coming of Christ has freed us from the authority of the 
law; for it is the eternal rule of a devout and holy life, and must, there- 
fore, be as unchangeable as the justice of God, which it embraced, is 
constant and uniform. — Calvin's Comment on Matt. 5:17 and Luke 
16:17, in " Commentary on a Harmony of the Gospels," Vol. I, p. 277. 
Printed in Edinburgh, 1845, for the Calvin Translation Society. 

Law of God, Doctrine of Methodist " Discipline." — Although the 
law given from God by Moses as touching ceremonies and rites, 
doth not bind Christians, nor ought the civil precepts thereof of neces- 
sity [to] be received in any commonwealth; yet, notwithstanding, no 
Christian whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments 
which are called moral. — " Methodist Episcopal Church Doctrines and 
Discipline," edited by Bishop Andrews, p. 23. New York: Eaton and 
Mains, 1904. 

Law of God, Wesley on Difference Between Moral and Ceremo- 
nial Laws. — The ritual or ceremonial law, delivered by Moses to the 
children of Israel, containing all the injunctions and ordinances which 
related to the old sacrifices and service of the temple, our Lord indeed 
did come to destroy, to dissolve, and utterly abolish. To this bear 
all the apostles witness. . . . This " handwriting of ordinances " our 
Lord did blot out, take away, and nail to his cross. [Col. 2: 14.] 

But the moral law contained in the ten commandments, and en- 
forced by the prophets, he did not take away. It was not the design of 
his coming to revoke any part of this. This is a law which never can 
be broken, which " stands fast as the faithful witness in heaven." The 
moral stands on an entirely different foundation from the ceremonial or 
ritual law. . . . Every part of this law must remain in force upon all 
mankind and in all ages; as not depending either on time, or place, 
or any other circumstance liable to change, but on the nature of God 
and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other. 
— "Sermons on Several Occasions," John Wesley, Sermon XXV, "On the 
Sermon on the Mount," (2 vol. ed.) Vol. I, pp. 221, 222. New York: 
Waugh & Mason, 1836. 

Law of God, The Moral and the Ceremonial Code. — Ceremonial 
law is that which prescribes the rites of worship used under the Old 
Testament. These rites were typical of Christ, and were obligatory only 
till Christ had finished his work, and began to erect his gospel church. 
Heb. 7: 9, 11; 10: 1; Eph. 2: 16; Col. 2: 14; Gal. 5: 2, 3. . . . 

Moral law is that declaration of God's will which directs and binds 
all men, in every age and place, to their whole duty to him. It was most 
solemnly proclaimed by God himself at Sinai. ... It is denominated 
perfect (Ps. 19: 7), perpetual (Matt. 5: 17, 18), holy (Rom. 7: 12), good 
(Rom. 7: 12), spiritual (Rom. 7: 14), exceeding broad (Ps. 119: 96).— 
"A Theological Dictionary," Rev. Charles Buck, art. " Law," p. 230, cor- 
rected edition. Philadelphia: Crissy and Markley, 1851. 

Law of God, How the Moral Code Differed from the Ceremonial 

in Nature. — One was founded on obligations growing out of the nature 

of men, and their relations to God and one another; obligations binding 

before they were written, and which will continue to be binding upon 

20 



306 LAW OF GOD, RELATION OF MAN TO 

all who shall know them, to the end of time. Such are the laws which 
were written by the finger of God on the tables of stone, and are called 
moral laws. 

The other kind, called ceremonial laws, related to various outward 
observances, which were not obligatory till they were commanded, and 
then were binding only on the Jews till the death of Christ. — " The 
Sabbath Manual" Rev. Justin Edwards, D. D., p. 133. New York: 
American Tract Society. 

Law of God, Not Part of Ritual System. — The commandments 
did not originate with Moses, nor were they done away with when the 
Mosaic law was fulfilled in Christ, and many of its ceremonies and 
regulations abolished. — " Weighed and Wanting" Dwight L. Moody, p. 
14. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1898. 

Law of God, A Ruling Life. — This, then, is the one final concep- 
tion of the law of God; it is the presence of God's own life ruling in 
the soul as a guiding, sustaining, quickening power. The same divine 
Spirit that appoints the duty fulfils it in us, and " boasting " is ex- 
cluded. How, then, comes it that boasting, or the sense of merit as 
over against God, is precisely what we associate with the observance ot 
the divine law? Because of the entrance of sin creating a gulf between 
God and us, which we feel must be bridged over before we regain our 
essential fellowship with him. As our conscience tells us that it is 
we, not God, who have created the gulf, so we easily pass into the de- 
lusion that it is we who have to build the bridge of reconciliation. The 
law which we have broken becomes separated in our thought from him 
and his life. It becomes a mere command, a tertium quid intervening 
between us. He ceases to be for us; he is against us; not a Father 
but a taskmaster, whose rigid behests overwhelm us with despair, both 
because of their confessed justice and of our inability to keep them. He 
is not to be reached apart from them, but only through them, through 
our strictest observance of them. Consequently we are thrown back 
upon ourselves, and upon what we regard as our own moral resources; 
or if, in the stress of agony, we still cry to Him for help, it is in re- 
ality rather for the aids of his grace to re-enforce the natural strength 
which of itself does not suffice, than for the cleansing of hearts dis- 
ordered at the core. And when we do obey His command in any par- 
ticular, we instinctively congratulate ourselves on our fidelity, and 
look upward for our deserved reward. " What shall we have, there- 
fore? " But as it is the loss of God's life which has brought woe and 
condemnation to the sinner, it is futile to fancy that anything but the 
regaining of it can satisfy him, or that it can be regained in any other 
way than by the surrender which conditioned its first possession. The 
good works which he performs or believes himself to perform as a 
mere individual can never be a substitute for it, or even a means of 
attaining it; for the principle which animates these breaks his con- 
nection with the unity of the moral world. The first and fundamental 
thing is to re-establish this connection, and it can only be re-established 
through his resuming the attitude of self-committal, of receptivity 
toward God, which he has wilfully forsworn. — " The Christ of History 
and of Experience," David W. Forrest, D. D., pp. 257, 258. Edinburgh: 
T. d T. Clark, 1914. 

Laws, Ceremonial and Moral. — • While God remains God, his moral 
law will be binding upon all who would have any part in his life. God's 
moral law is eternal; it is an expression of his very being. As such it 
can no more be abrogated than can God himself. . . . We must, of course, 



LITTLE HORN, LOCATION OF 307 

distinguish clearly between the ceremonial law of the Old Testament and 
the moral law. The eternal requirements of the moral law are always 
binding upon God's people; but the details of ceremonial law which 
typified Christ's atoning and cleansing work, were done away with when 
Christ, their great antitype, completed the work which he came to do, 
and which they foreshadowed. The believing Old Testament saint, 
saved by grace, was under the obligation of a ceremonial law from 
which we have been freed because Christ fulfilled and finished all that 
the ceremonial pointed to. 

But while we are freed from the ceremonial law, the obligation to 
keep the moral law rests even more heavily upon us who live in the 
enlightened age of grace than upon those who were living, by men's 
own choice, under law. We have in fulfilment in Christ that which they 
had at the best only in prophecy. Their belief may have given them, 
through Christ, the same divine power to obey the law that we now have 
in him, but we live in the noonday light of the revelation of his con- 
summated work; they moved in the twilight of yet unfulfilled hope. — 
From an editorial in the Sunday School Times, Jan. 3, 1914. 

Law, Ceremonial. — Pages 501-503. 

Libraries, Semitic, At Babylon. — Page 52. 

Lisbon Earthquake. — Pages 150, 151. 

Little Horn, Geographical Location of. — Antichrist, then (as the 
Fathers delight to call him), or the little horn, is to be sought among 
the ten kingdoms of the western Roman Empire. I say of the western 
Roman Empire, because that was properly the body of the fourth beast; 
Greece, and the countries which lay eastward of Italy, belonged to the 
third beast; for the former beasts were still subsisting, though their 
dominion was taken away. "As concerning the rest of the beasts," 
saith Daniel, "they had their dominion taken away; yet their lives 
were prolonged for a season and a time." Dan. 7: 12. " And therefore," 
as Sir Isaac Newton rightly infers, " all the four beasts are still alive, 
though the dominion of the three first be taken away. The nations of 
Chaldea and Assyria are still the first beast. Those of Media and Persia 
are still the second beast. Those of Macedon, Greece, and Thrace, Asia 
Minor, Syria, and Egypt, are still the third. And those of Europe, on 
this side Greece, are still the fourth. Seeing therefore the body of the 
third beast is confined to the nations on this side the river Euphrates, 
and the body of the fourth beast is confined to the nations on this side 
Greece; we are to look for all the four heads of the third beast among 
the nations on this side the river Euphrates; and for all the eleven 
horns of the fourth beast, among the nations on this side of Greece. 
And therefore, at the breaking up of the Greek empire into four king- 
doms of the Greeks, we include no part of the Chaldeans, Medes, and 
Persians in those kingdoms, because they belonged to the bodies of the 
two first beasts. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies/' Thomas Newton, 
D. D., pp. 239, 240. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Little Horn, Identification of, with the Papacy. — The main 
points in the nature, character, and actings of this " little horn," which 
we must note in order to discover the power intended, are these: 

1. Its place: within the body of the fourth empire. 

2. The period of its origin: soon after the division of the Roman 
territory into ten kingdoms. 

3. Its nature: different from the other kingdoms, though in some 
respects like them. It was a horn, but with eyes and mouth. It would 



30 8 LITTLE HORN, MARKS OF 

be a kingdom like the rest, a monarchy; but its kings would be over- 
seers or bishops and prophets. 

4. Its moral character: boastful and blasphemous; great words 
spoken against the Most High. 

5. Its lawlessness: it would claim authority over times and laws. 

6. Its opposition to the saints: it would be a persecuting power, 
and that for so long a period that it would wear out the saints of the 
Most High, who would be given into its hand for a time. 

7. Its duration: "time, times, and a half," or 1,260 years. 

8. Its doom: it would suffer the loss of its dominion before it was 
itself destroyed. " They shall take away its dominion, to consume and 
destroy it to the end." 

Here are eight distinct and perfectly tangible features. If they all 
meet in one great reality, if we find them all characterizing one and 
the same power, can we question that that is the power intended? They 
do all meet in the Roman Papacy, . . . and we are therefore bold to say 
it is the great and evil reality predicted. — " Romanism and the Refor- 
mation," H. Orattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. S., p. 26. London: J. 
Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Let me inquire, can any one suggest any other power in which all 
these marks, or the majority of them, meet? They are eight in number, 
and definite in character. The prophecy lays its finger on the place 
where we are to find the great enemy — Rome; on the point of time in 
the course of history at which we may expect to see him arise — the 
division of the Roman territory into a commonwealth of kingdoms; it 
specifies the nature of the power — politico-ecclesiastical; its character 
— blasphemously self-exalting, lawless, and persecuting; it measures its 
duration — 1,260 years; and specifies its doom — to have its dominion 
gradually consumed and taken away, and then to be suddenly destroyed 
forever, because of its blasphemous assumptions, by the epiphany in 
glory of the Son of man, introducing the kingdom of God on earth. 

The proof that the Papacy is the power intended is strictly cumula- 
tive. If it answered to one of these indications, there would be a slight 
presumption against it; if to several, a strong one; if to the majority, 
an overwhelming one; while if it answer to all, then the proof that it 
is the power intended becomes to candid minds irresistible. There is 
not a single clause in the prophecy that cannot be proved to fit the 
Roman Papacy exactly, except the last, which is not yet fulfilled. — 
Id., pp. 42, 43. 

Little Horn, Fourteen Marks of. — Popery is here found [in the 
seventh chapter of Daniel] completely described by thirteen or fourteen 
marks. I will try to make you understand how, at each of these marks, 
we are forced to exclaim, not only, " This is indeed the Pope! " but, 
" There is nothing under the sun, nor in the history of all ages, to 
which these divine descriptions can be applied, unless to the Pope! 
It can be nothing else than the Pope! " 

First Mark. — The nature itself of the power prefigured by the little 
horn. Plainly, according to the prophecy, this must be a priest-king. 
It is a king; for it is written: The little horn came up among the other 
ten; and another king shall arise after the ten. It is a priest-king; 
for it is written that it shall be diverse from the other kings; and all 
that follows is designed to tell us in what it shall be diverse, and to 
show it to us at once in a political and a religious character. . . . Where 
will you find, in the whole history of the world, unless in popery, a 
priest-king who has pretended to change times and laws, who has 
reigned with power, and who has made war upon the saints? 



LITTLE HORN, MARKS OF 309 

Second Mark. — You have here, too, the geography of this power. 
Where must we seek for the little horn? Where is its "Holy See"? 
Where its lands, its patrimony, the "domain of the church"? Where 
must we place the theater of its baleful operations? 

No point is clearer in this prophecy. The prophecy is given on 
purpose to point you to the Roman monarchy; to locate this Holy See 
in Rome; these lands of the church in Italy; and this theater of a 
wicked power in the vast empire of the ten Latin kingdoms. . . . 

Third Mark. — The origin of this power, and the nature of its 
growth. How did it come into the world? — Slowly, little by little, by 
constant increase, as the horn grows on the head of a bullock. . . . 
And now inquire of all historians if this is not an exact description of 
the origin of the papal tyranny. . . 

Fourth Mark. — The chronology of this apostasy; by which I mean 
to say the time of its commencement and of its end. When ought it to 
commence, according to Daniel? This is a striking mark. According 
to the vision it is immediately after the division of the Latin Empire 
into its ten Gothic kingdoms; that is to say, toward the sixth or seventh 
century; and, according to the same vision, this divided state must 
continue till the coming of Christ. Now I ask if it is possible to find 
anywhere but in the Papacy the least solution to so clear and distinct 
a problem. . . . 

Fifth Mark. — The territorial acquisitions of this power. Here is 
something marvelous. Three of the first horns, says Daniel (verse 8), 
were plucked up before the little horn; and these horns John represents 
to us as each wearing a crown. Take now a map of Italy; look for 
the Pope's domains, and nnd how many of the ten kingdoms the pon- 
tifical territory now occupies. You will see that it has supplanted 
three. ... 

Sixth Mark. — The extraordinary sagacity, consummate skill, in- 
comparable policy, constant vigilance of this power. . . . What has 
given Rome her power for twelve hundred years is the superhuman 
sagacity, that perpetual policy, of which the eye is emblematical. . . . 

Seventh Mark. — Its deceivaoleness, its falsehoods and lying won- 
ders. This is a striking mark, and without a parallel in history. . . . 
To this head we must refer the false legends, false books, false relics, 
the wonder-working medals, false cures, and more especially the false 
decretals. . . . 

Eighth Mark. — Its more than royal pomp. Daniel tells us (verse 
20) that although this horn was "the least," his "look was more stout 
than his fellows." The pomps of Charlemagne, Charles V, Louis XIV, 
and Bonaparte were very great; but were they comparable to that of 
the Roman Pontiff? The greatest kings were obliged to hold his stir- 
rup, to serve him at table, — what do I say? — to prostrate themselves 
before him, and to kiss his feet; he was even seen to put upon their 
necks his arrogant foot! ... 

Ninth Mark. — Its language, its great, swelling words. The little 
horn had "a mouth" (says Daniel), and this mouth spake very great 
things. . . . Let the most superficial scholar in history, in one of our 
schools, be asked to search, in the whole course of the nine hundred 
years of the Dark Ages and the four hundred years of modern history, 
for the power which has unceasingly filled the world with the noise of 
his great, swelling words,— words of threatening, words of pride, 
words of command, words of cursing, and also words of fire, sending 
the nations obedient to him on remote expeditions and exterminating 
wars. Is there a schoolboy who would not at once reply, It is the Pope; 
it can only be the Pope? In this respect, then, the Pope is without his 
like in history. . . . 



310 LITTLE HORN, MARKS OF 

Tenth Mark. — The duration of this language. According to Daniel, 
it must last till the coming of the Son of man in the clouds of heaven; 
and you see, gentlemen, it lasts still! Who could have believed before- 
hand that in Europe, after so much civilization, after the blessed Ref- 
ormation, after twelve hundred years of scandals, a priest-king in Rome 
could continue with impunity such language among the nations? . . . 

Eleventh Mark. — Its blasphemies. Daniel says (verse 25) he shall 
utter blasphemies against the Most High; but where is there anything 
more blasphemous than the pretensions of the Roman Pontiff? To call 
himself "the Holy Father," the name which Jesus gives to his Father; 
"the Most Holy Father;" "the church's Spouse;" "the Head of the 
universal church," the incommunicable name of the only Son of God; 
to call himself "His Holiness;" to declare himself infallible; to dare 
to put his decrees above even the word of his God; to pretend to release 
men from the commands of their Creator; to maintain that he alone 
creates priests, who alone, in their turn, create their God in a bit of 
bread, by four Latin words, that he may be eaten by the people; to 
pardon sins committed against the Lord of lords; to open to men at his 
pleasure the gates of heaven, — are these blasphemies enough on the 
part of a worm of the dust? . . . 

Twelfth Mark. — His homicidal hatred and his persecutions of true 
Christians. Daniel tells us (verse 21) : "I beheld, and the same horn 
made war with the saints, and prevailed against them;" and he adds 
(verse 25), He "shall wear out the saints of the Most High." Alas! 
here the voice of history responds loudly to that of prophecy. All its 
pages, even to that of the last century, when it speaks of the popes, 
show them to you as persecuting men who would live according to the 
word of God, and putting them to death like sheep for the slaughter. . . . 

Thirteenth Mark. — His audacious heresies. This perhaps is the 
most striking mark of all; and one in which the Roman Pontiff has never 
had his equal. Daniel says of the little horn, that the king diverse from 
the other ten shall " think to change times and laws." This denotes the 
unparalleled attempt which the Pope has made upon the law of his God. 
He pretended to change it in its sovereignty, in its sanction, in its use, 
in its contents, in its morals, and in its doctrine. . . . 

Fourteenth and Last Mark. — The exact duration of his persecu- 
tions against the people of God. Daniel and John declare several times 
that it shall be until " a time and times and the dividing of time," or 
twelve hundred and sixty prophetic days, which are taken, with strong 
reason, for so many years. Who would have believed beforehand that 
a priest-king so violent, so proud, so cruel, so blasphemous, so contrary 
to the Scriptures and so well described by them, so outrageous against 
nations and kings, would last twelve years? But the Holy Spirit tells 
us that it shall last twelve hundred and sixty! and this was so! ... 

Lastly, gentlemen, the same prophecies have also foretold its judg- 
ment and its overthrow. I do not mean to go into this subject; but I 
love to call it to your minds in conclusion, for your encouragement. 
Read the words of Daniel: " The judgment shall sit, and they shall take 
away his dominion, to consume and to destroy it unto the end. And 
the kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under 
the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most 
High, whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions 
shall serve and obey him." 

Gentlemen, this sketch of the seventh chapter of Daniel will suffice, 
I trust, to let you see with what abundant evidence the Scriptures es- 
tablish the doctrine which I desired to bring before you. — Extracts from 
a lecture by L. Oaussen, D. D., Professor of Theology, delivered in the 
School of Theology at Geneva, Oct. 3, 1843. 



LITTLE HORN FULFILLING PROPHECY 311 

Little Horn, Historical Evidence Concerning. — Let us now, 
finally, review the historical evidence, and compare it with these fea- 
tures of the little horn which the prophecy unfolds: 

And first, the little horn was to arise on the body of the fourth 
beast, in contrast with the first, second, or third. The Papacy has had 
its permanent seat among the western kingdoms of Europe, and within 
that territory which belongs exclusively to the fourth or Roman Empire. 

The little horn appears in the vision, when the separation of the 
fourth empire has begun, and next in order after the mention of those 
ten kingdoms or horns which were to obtain the chief power in the 
broken monarchy. The rise of the Papacy, in like manner, followed 
close upon the fall of the Western Empire and the rise of the barbarian 
kingdoms. 

The dominion of the little horn, in the prophecy, is the one main 
event which marks the history of the fourth empire, after its division. 
By the confession of all the best historians, the rise, the supremacy, 
and the decline of the Papacy, is the one center around which we have 
to arrange, for twelve centuries, the history of the European kingdoms. 

To prepare the way of the little horn, three of the horns before it 
are uprooted. After the fall of the empire, exactly three dynasties, and 
no more, were uprooted to make way for the temporal sovereignty of 
the Bishop of Rome. 

The eleventh horn, though vast in its claims and pretensions, was 
to be small in size. The popedom has in like manner, in its outward 
form, been always one of the least among the European kingdoms; 
while its sovereigns have claimed and exercised a supreme dominion 
over the whole. 

The little horn is diverse from all the rest; for it has eyes like 
those of a man, and an articulate voice. The Papacy by its own laws 
claims " a princedom more perfect than every human princedom," and 
surpassing them as far as the light of the sun exceeds the light of the 
moon. It claims the office of a seer, who has full insight into divine 
mysteries; and of a prophet, an infallible interpreter of the divine will. 
All its decisions " are to be so received, as if they were confirmed by 
the voice of the divine Peter himself." Its decrees are given, " aucto- 
ritate, scientia, ac plenitudine," with the fulness of divine knowledge, 
and the fulness also of apostolic power. 

The mouth of the little horn was to speak great words against the 
Most High. The Pope declares, in his own solemn and authorized de- 
crees, that it is certain that he is styled God, and it is manifest that 
God cannot be judged by man. He further pronounces concerning him- 
self, that he is received into the fellowship of Christ's undivided unity. 

The little horn is further to wear out the saints of the Most High. 
The words will apply either to delusion or oppression. Now Pelagius, 
and his successors ever since, have laid down these three maxims: That it 
is schism to deny the supremacy or disobey the mandates of the Roman 
See; that schism ought to be punished by the secular power; and that 
these powers ought to be urged and compelled to exterminate and root 
out all such schismatics from their dominions. From that time onward 
the only alternative allowed by the Papacy to the saints has been sin 
or suffering; the submission to an impious claim, wearing out the 
conscience and wasting the spiritual life; or the open penalties of con- 
fiscation, imprisonment, torture, and death, [pp. 253-255] . . . 

The little horn, further, shall think to change times. The descrip- 
tion applies, in all its force, to the systematic perversion of God's words 
by which all the promises of millennial glory are wrested from their 
true sense, and referred to the dominion and grandeur of the Church 
of Rome. [pp. 257, 258] . . . 

Finally, the little horn thinks to change laws. [pp. 258] . . . 



312 MARRIAGE 

Thus every feature of the prophecy finds its full counterpart in the 
constitution, decrees, and history of the Roman popedom. And hence 
we may gather, with a firm and assured conviction, that this is the true 
meaning of the vision, designed from the very first by the all-seeing 
Spirit of God. [p. 259] — " The Four Prophetic Empires," Rev. T. R. 
Birks, M. A., pp. 253-259, 2d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and 
Seeley, 1845. 

Little Horn.— Pages 30, 31. 

Livingstone, David. — Page 337. 

Locusts. — Pages 543-546. 

Lombards.— Pages 368, 483, 486-488, 588, 589, 598. 

Longobards. — See Lombards. 

Loyola, St. Ignatius. — Pages 277, 278. 

Lutheran Church. — Page 141. 

Maccabees. — Page 290. 

Mahomet.— Pages 544, 545, 549, 550. 

Mandate over Palestine. — Page 168. 

Man of Sin.— Pages 30-32, 34, 307-311, 473. 

Marcomanni. — Page 488. 

Marriage. — Marriage . . . may be defined either (a) as the act, 
ceremony, or process by which the legal relationship of husband and 
wife is constituted; or (b) as a physical, legal, and moral union between 
man and woman in complete community of life for the establishment 
of a family. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XVII, art. " Marriage,'" 
p. 753, 11th edition. 

Marriage, Significance of Betrothal. — A betrothal in the East is 
counted quite as sacred and quite as binding as a marriage ceremony. 
It may indeed be broken, but its breaking is even more of a matter 
than a divorce, and a woman who is betrothed is looked upon as al- 
ready a wife. In India, a girl betrothed in childhood is a widow for 
life, if he to whom she was betrothed die before she has seen him. 
Jacob's betrothal to Rachel was a period of full seven years; and when 
Jacob claimed her, at the close of that period, his words to her father 
were, " Give me my wife; " not, Give to me thy daughter to be my 
wife, but, Give to me the one who is my wife. 

The frequent references in the Levitical law to " a virgin be- 
trothed unto an husband" and to a man who " hath betrothed a wife and 
hath not taken her," as well as the later references to Joseph and Mary 
of Nazareth during the time of their betrothal, show that, the primi- 
tive view of the betrothal compact has been much the same among 
Semitic peoples as among the Aryans. — " Studies in Oriental Social 
Life," H. Clay Trumbull, pp. 26, 27. Philadelphia: John D. Wattles 
d Co., 1894. 



MASS, A SACRIFICE 313 

Martyrs.— Pages 323, 361, 400-409. 

Mass, Explanation of. — 12. Does Christ continue in heaven the 
sacrifice of Calvary? 

He continues it in this sense, that he realizes in his glory the 
effects of his sacrifice on earth, and that he applies these effects to those 
persons who are still in this world. 

13. Ought the sacrifice of the cross to be continued on earth also? 
Yes; for as man is composed of mind and matter, he needs an 

external and sensible religious sacrifice. But since God has rejected all 
the figurative sacrifices of the old law, and accepts no oblation but that 
of his Son, the sacrifice of the cross must be continued till the end 
of time. 

14. What is the sacrifice that continues on earth the sacrifice of 
the cross? 

It is the holy sacrifice of the mass. 

15. What is the sacrifice of the mass? 

It is the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood, offered to God, under 
the appearances of bread and wine, in order to represent and continue 
the sacrifice of the cross. 

18. What relations exist between the sacrifice of the mass and that 
of the cross? 

The sacrifice of the mass is: (1) A representation and a com- 
memoration of the sacrifice of the cross; (2) its continuation and 
consummation. 

19. Is then the mass the same sacrifice as that of the cross? 

It is essentially the same; it differs only in the manner in which 
it is offered. 

22. Of what value is the sacrifice of the mass? 

The sacrifice of the mass is of infinite value, like that of the cross; 
but as a sacrifice of propitiation and of impetration, when applied to an 
individual, it is limited by his dispositions. — " Manual of Christian Doc- 
trine" by a seminary professor (R. C.J, pp. 437-439. Philadelphia: John 
Joseph McVey, 1914. 

Mass, A Propitiatoky Sacrifice. — We, therefore, confess that the 
sacrifice of the mass is and ought to be considered one and the same as 
that of the cross, as the victim is one and the same, namely, Christ 
our Lord, who immolated himself, once only, after a bloody manner, 
on the altar of the cross. For the bloody and unbloody victim are not 
two victims, but one only, whose sacrifice is daily renewed in the 
eucharist, in obedience to the command of the Lord: "Do this for a 
commemoration of me." 

But the priest also is one and the same, Christ the Lord; for the 
ministers, who offer sacrifice, when they consecrate his body and blood, 
act not in their own, but in the person of Christ, as is shown by the 
words of consecration itself; for the priest does not say, " This is the 
body of Christ," but, " This is my body; " and thus representing Christ 
the Lord, he changes the substance of the bread and wine into the true 
substance of his body and blood. 

This being the case, it must be unhesitatingly taught that, as the 
holy Council [of Trent] has also explained, the holy sacrifice of the 
mass is not a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving only, or a mere 
commemoration of the sacrifice accomplished on the cross, but also a 
truly propitiatory sacrifice, by which God is appeased and rendered 
propitious to us. — " Catechism of the Council of Trent," translated 
by Rev. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C.J, p. 226. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons 
& Co. 



314 MASS, CANONS ON 

Mass, Available to the Dead. — Parish priests will next teach that 
such is the efficacy of this sacrifice, that it is profitable not only to the 
celebrant and communicant, but also to all the faithful, whether living 
with us on earth, or already numbered with those who are dead in the 
Lord, but whose sins have not yet been fully expiated. — " Catechism of 
the Council of Trent," translated, by Rev. J. Donovan, D. D. (R. C), p. 
227. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons & Co. 

Mass, Some Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that in the 
mass a true and proper sacrifice is not offered to God; or that to be 
offered is nothing else but that Christ is given us to eat; let him he 
anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that by those words, " Do this for the 
commemoration of me," Christ did not institute the apostles priests; or 
did not ordain that they and other priests should offer his own body 
and blood; let him be anathema. 

Canon III. If any one saith that the sacrifice of the mass is only 
a sacrifice of praise and of thanksgiving; or that it is a bare commemo- 
ration of the sacrifice consummated on the cross, but not a propitiatory 
sacrifice; or that it profits him only who receives; and that it ought 
not to be offered for the living and the dead for sins, pains, satisfactions, 
and other necessities; let him be anathema. — Published in the twenty- 
second session of the Council of Trent, Sept. 17, 1562 ; cited in " Dogmatic 
Canons and Decrees," pp. 142, 143. New York: The Devin- Adair Com- 
pany, 1912. 

Mass, Shape of Wafer in. — In the fourth century, when the queen 
of heaven, under the name of Mary, was beginning to be worshiped in 
the Christian church, this " unbloody sacrifice " also was brought in. 
Epiphanius states that the practice of offering and eating it began 
among the women of Arabia; and at that time it was well known to 
have been adopted from the pagans. The very shape of the unbloody 
sacrifice of Rome may indicate whence it came. It is a small, thin, 
round wafer; and on its roundness the Church of Rome lays so much 
stress that, to use the pithy language of John Knox in regard to the 
wafer-god, " If, in making the roundness, the ring be broken, then 
must another of his fellow cakes receive that honor to be made a 
god, and the crazed or cracked miserable cake, that once was in hope 
to be made a god, must be given to a baby to play withal." 

What could have induced the Papacy to insist so much on the 
"roundness" of its "unbloody sacrifice"? Clearly not any reference 
to the divine institution of the Supper of our Lord; for in all the ac- 
counts that are given of it, no reference whatever is made to the form 
of the bread which our Lord took, when he blessed and brake it, and 
gave it to his disciples, saying, "Take, eat; this is my body; this do in 
remembrance of me." As little can it be taken from any regard to in- 
junctions about the form of the Jewish paschal bread; for no injunctions 
on that subject are given in the books of Moses. The importance, how- 
ever, which Rome attaches to the roundness of the wafer, must have 
a reason; and that reason will be found, if we look at the altars of 
Egypt. " The thin, round cake," says Wilkinson, " occurs on all altars." 
Almost every jot or tittle in the Egyptian worship had a symbolical 
meaning. The round disk, so frequent in the sacred emblems of Egypt, 
symbolized the sun. Now, when Osiris, the sun divinity, became in- 
carnate and was born, it was not merely that he should give his life 
as a sacrifice for men, but that he might also be the life and nourish- 
ment of the souls of men. It is universally admitted that Isn was the 
original of the Greek and Roman Ceres. But Ceres, be it observed, was 



MASS, THE HOST 315 

worshiped not simply as the discoverer of corn; she was worshiped as 
the Mother of Corn." The child she brought forth was He-Siri, " the 
Seed," or, as he was most frequently called in Assyria, " Bar," which 
signifies at once " the Son " and " the Corn." — " The Two Babylons," 
Rev. Alexander Hislop, pp. 159, 160, 7th edition. London: 8. W. 
Partridge <& Go. 

Mass, Signification of the Letters on the Wafer. — There are 
setters on the wafer that are worth reading. These letters are I. H. S. 
What mean these mystical letters? To a Christian these letters are 
represented as signifying, " Iesus Hominum\ Salvator," " Jesus the Sav- 
iour of men." But let a Roman worshiper of Isis (for in the age of 
the emperors there were innumerable worshipers of Isis in Rome) cast 
nis eyes upon them, and how will he read them? He will read them, 
of course, according to his own well-known system of idolatry: "Isis, 
fforus, Seb," that is, " The Mother, the Child, and the Father of the 
gods," — in other words, " The Egyptian Trinity." Can the reader 
imagine that this double sense is accidental? Surely not. — " The Two 
Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 164, 7th edition. London: 8. W. 
Partridge & Go. 

Mass, The Host. — The bread destined to receive eucharistic con- 
secration is commonly called the host, and though this term may like- 
wise be applied to the bread and wine of the sacrifice, it is more espe- 
cially reserved to the bread, [p. 489] . . . 

The valid material of the eucharistic host is unadulterated wheat 
reduced to flour, diluted with natural water, and baked with fire.— 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, art. " Host," pp. 489, 490. 

Mass, Worship Paid to the Host. — 33. What worship ought we to 
pay to Jesus in the tabernacle? 

It is of faith, as defined by the Council of Trent, that Jesus in the 
tabernacle [that is, the host] should be adored with a worship of latria 

18. What is the worship of latria? 

The worship of latria, or adoration, is that which is given to God 
alone on account of his infinite perfection and his supreme dominion 
over all things created. — " Manual of Christian Doctrine," by a seminary 
professor (R. C), pp. 422, 239. Philadelphia: John Joseph McVey, 1914 

Mass, A Priest's View of. — I never invite an angel down from 
neaven to hear mass here. This is not the place for angels. The only 
person in heaven I ever ask to come down here is Jesus Christ, and 
Mm I command to come down. He has to come when I bid him. I 
took bread in my fingers this morning and I said: "This is the body 
and blood of Jesus Christ," and he had to come down. That is one 
of the things he must do. He must come down every time I say mass 
at my bidding, because he made me a priest and said: " Do you this in 
memory of me." I do it in obedience. I do it in reverence. I do it in 
homage. I do it in adoration; but I do it, and when I do it, Christ 
must obey. — Extract from a Sermon by Rev. D. 8. Phelan, LL. D 
(R. C), preached on Sunday, June 13, 1915, and printed in the Western 
Watchman, June 10, 1915. 

Mass, Effect of Real Presence in. — The real presence of our di 
vine Lord in the blessed eucharist [the host kept in the monstrance] 
makes every Catholic church a tabernacle of the Most High. — The True 
Voice (R. C), Omaha, Nebr., April 18, 1913. 



316 MASS, THE CONTINUAL. SACRIFICE 

Mass, Christ Adored in. — Canon VI. If any one saith that, in the 
holy sacrament of the eucharist, Christ, the only begotten Son of God, 
is not to be adored with the worship, even external, of latria [" which 
is due to the true God "] ; and is, consequently, neither to be venerated 
with a special festive solemnity, nor to be solemnly borne about in 
processions, according to the laudable and universal rite and custom of 
holy church; or is not to be proposed publicly to the people to be 
adored, and that the adorers thereof are idolaters; let him be anathema. 
— "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," p. 83. New York: The Devin-Adair 
Company, 1912. s 

Note. — In Roman Catholic countries this doctrine of the real presence in 
the wafer is presented to the people in its baldest form. We will cite one real 
instance : In connection with the celebration of the feast of Corpus Christi " to 
solemnly commemorate the institution of the holy eucharist," held June, 1914, in 
Porto Rico, as reported in the Converted Catholic for July, 1914, an announce- 
ment was printed in the Roman Catholic paper of Ponce, El Ideal Catolico, a 
portion of which we quote : " Catholics of Ponce, to the procession of the most 
holy Corpus Christi ! Tomorrow, at half past five in the afternoon, the most holy 
sacrament of the altar will leave the parish church, in order to pass through 
the customary places. Tomorrow Jesus Christ, true God and true man, hidden for 
love for us beneath the sacramental elements, will leave his habitual dwelling, 
the holy temple, in order to receive the homage which, as King of heaven and 
earth, is due him. . . . Let all the people come to prostrate themselves before 
Jesus in his triumphal march." — Eds. 

Mass, An Interpretation of. — The pretense is, that "the sacrifice 
of the altar is the same as the sacrifice on the cross, the priest and 
victim being the same in both." It is therefore that, in one of your 
Romish prayer books, " The Path to Paradise," we read the following: 

" When the priest goes to the altar, Jesus enters the garden. 

When the priest kisses the altar, Jesus is betrayed with a kiss. 

At the unveiling of the chalice, Jesus is spoiled of his garments. 

At the covering of the chalice, Jesus is crowned with thorns. 

When the priest washes his fingers, Pilate washes his hands. 

When the priest signs the oblation, Jesus is nailed to the cross. 

At the elevation of the Host, The cross is raised up. 

At the elevation of the chalice, Jesus' blood flows from his 

wounds. 

At the breaking of the Host, Jesus dies upon the cross." 

— " Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy," Edward Harper, p. 99. Lon- 
don: Protestant Printing and Publishing Company. 

Mass, Relation of, to " the Continual Sacrifice." — What is this 
"taking away of the continual sacrifice"? It was taken away in type 
at the destruction of Jerusalem. The sacrifice of the temple, that is, 
of the lamb, morning and evening, in the temple of God, was entirely 
abolished with the destruction of the temple itself. Now the prophet 
Malachias says: "From the rising of the sun even to the going down, 
my name is great among the Gentiles; and in every place there is 
sacrifice, and there is. offered to my name a clean oblation." 

This passage of the prophet has been interpreted by the Fathers of 
the church, beginning with St. Irenaeus, St. Justin Martyr, and I know 
not how many besides, to be the sacrifice of the holy eucharist, the 
true paschal Lamb, which came in the place of the type, namely, the 
sacrifice of Jesus himself on Calvary, renewed perpetually and con- 
tinued forever in the sacrifice on the altar. 

Now has that continual sacrifice been taken away? That which 
was typical of it in old days has been already taken away. But has 
the reality been taken away? The holy Fathers who have written upon 



MASS, NOTES CONCERNING 317 

the subject of Antichrist, and have interpreted these prophecies of 
Daniel, say that about the end of the world, during the reign of Anti- 
christ, the public offering of the holy sacrifice for a little time will 
cease. Has there ever come to pass anything which may be called an 
instalment or a forerunner of such an event as this? Look into the 
East. The Mahometan superstition, which arose in Arabia, and swept 
over Palestine and Asia Minor, the region of the seven churches, and 
Egypt, the north of Africa — the home of St. Augustine, St. Cyprian. 
St. Optatus — and finally penetrated into Constantinople, where soon it 
became dominant, has in every place persecuted and suppressed the 
worship and sacrifice of Jesus Christ, [pp. 158, 159] . . . 

Now let us look into the Western world: has the continual sacrifice 
been taken away in any other land? — for instance, in all those churches 
of Protestant Germany which were once Catholic, where the holy sacri- 
fice of the mass was daily offered? throughout Norway, and Sweden, 
and Denmark, and one half of Switzerland, where there are a multitude 
of ancient Catholic churches? throughout England, in the cathedrals 
and the parish churches of this land, which were built simply as shrines 
of Jesus incarnate in the holy eucharist, as sanctuaries raised for the 
offering of the holy sacrifice? What is the characteristic mark of the 
Reformation, but the rejection of the mass, and all that belongs to it, 
as declared in the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England to be 
blasphemous fables and dangerous deceits? The suppression of the 
continual sacrifice is, above all, the mark and characteristic of the 
Protestant Reformation, [pp. 159, 160] . . . 

This prophecy of Daniel has already its fulfilment both in the East 
and West, — in the two wings, as. it were ; while in the heart of Chris- 
tendom the holy sacrifice is offered still. What is the great flood of 
infidelity, revolution, and anarchy, which is now sapping the founda- 
tions of Christian society, not only in France, but in Italy, and en- 
compassing Rome, the center and sanctuary of the Catholic Church, but 
the abomination which desolates the sanctuary, and takes away the 
continual sacrifice? [pp. 160, 161] — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar 
of Jesus Christ," Henry Edward Manning, D. D. (R. C), pp. 158-161. 
London: Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

Mass, Historical Notes Concerning. — The mass is the complex 
of prayers and ceremonies that make up the service of the eucharist in 
the Latin rites. . . . 

In the first period, while Greek was still the Christian language at 
Rome, we find the usual Greek names used there, as in the East. . . . 

The classical name Missa. The first certain use of it is by St. Am- 
brose (d. 397). . . . 

We may consider St. Ambrose as the earliest certain authoritv 
for it. . . . 

The Origin of the Mass. — The Western mass, like all liturgies, be 
gins, of course, with the Last Supper. . . . 

Justin Martyr . . . gives us the fullest liturgical description of 
any Father of the first three centuries. . . . We have hardly any knowl- 
edge at all of what developments the Roman rite went through during 
the third and fourth centuries. ... In these documents we see that 
the Roman liturgy is said in Latin and has already become in essence 
the rite we still use. . . . 

By about the fifth century we begin to see more clearly. Two doc 
uments of this time give us fairly large fragments of the Roman 
mass. . . . 

We come now to the end of a period at the reign of St. Gregory I 
(590-604). Gregory knew the mass practically as we still have it ( . 



318 MASS AN ABOMINATION 

There have been additions and changes since his time, but none to 
compare with the complete recasting of the canon that took place before 
him. At least as far as the canon is concerned, Gregory may be con 
sidered as having put the last touches to it. . . . 

Why and when was the Roman liturgy changed from what we see 
in Justin Martyr to that of Gregory I? The change is radical, especially 
as regards the most important element of the mass, the canon. . . . 
The Roman canon as it stands is recognized as a problem of great 
difficulty. It differs fundamentally from the Anaphora of any Eastern 
rite and from the Gallican canon. . . . 

We have then as the conclusion of this paragraph that at Rome 
the eucharistic prayer was fundamentally changed and recast at some 
uncertain period between the fourth and the sixth and seventh cen- 
turies. . . . 

After Gregory the Great (590-604) it is comparatively easy to 
follow the history of the mass in the Roman rite. — The Catholic En- 
cyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. " Mass," pp. 790-796. 

Mass, The Greatest Abomination. — Oh! what a tremendous, blas- 
phemous, God-dishonoring lie is Rome's sacrifice of the mass! The 
Creator of the world, the Redeemer of mankind, and its future Judge, 
contained in a few ears of wheat, manufactured into a wafer, flattened 
by an iron, and given existence to, divine and human, by a wretched, 
corruptible, and corrupting worm of the earth, called a priest of Rome! 
And not one Christ only, but millions; and not by one priest only, but 
by hundreds of thousands; and not on one day only, but every day and 
hour in the year; and not in one year only, but throughout centuries! 
If there could by any possibility be any spiritual existence in the 
wafer-lie, it would be that of Satan himself; for out of hell there is no 
greater abomination than this blasphemous pretense of lying popes, 
cardinals, bishops, priests, and friars, that they can create myriads of 
gods, yea, of the God of heaven and earth, the King of kings, the Lord 
of lords, by their wizard words and incantations in the spurious sacri- 
fice of the mass. — " Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy," Edward Harper, 
pp. 76, 77. London: Protestant Printing and Publishing Company. 

Mass, A Commemorative Sacrifice. — Our Saviour, in leaving to us 
his body and blood, under two distinct species or kinds, instituted not 
only a sacrament, but also a sacrifice; a commemorative sacrifice, dis- 
tinctly showing his passion and death until he come. For as the sac- 
rifice of the cross was performed by a distinct effusion of his blood, so is 
that sacrifice commemorated in this of the altar by a distinction of the 
symbols. Jesus, therefore, is here given not only to us, but for us; and 
the church is thereby enriched with a true, proper, and propitiatory 
sacrifice usually termed the mass: propitiatory, we say, because repre- 
senting, in a lively manner, the passion and death of our Lord, it is 
peculiarly pleasing to our eternal Father, and thus more effectually 
applies to us the all-sufficient merits of the sacrifice of the cross. — " The 
Faith of Catholics on Certain Points of Controversy Confirmed by Scrip- 
ture," Berington and Kirk (R. C), pp. 263, 264. London: Joseph Booker, 
1830. 

Mass, Compared with Calvary. — So far as the practical effects 
upon the soul are concerned, the holy mass has in some senses the 
advantage over Calvary. The reason is this: on the cross we are re- 
deemed, but on the altar the work of our redemption is carried out. — 
" On the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass," Herbert Cardinal Yaughan (R. C), 
p. 42. 



MASS, VIEWS OF 319 

Mass, Protestant View of. — The offering of Christ once made, is 
that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins 
of the whole world, both original and actual: and there is none other 
satisfaction for sin but that alone. Wherefore the sacrifices of masses, 
in which it was commonly said that the priest did offer Christ for the 
quick and the dead to have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous 
fables, and dangerous deceits. — The Thirty-first Article of the Thirty- 
nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England; " Sermons, or 
Homilies, Appointed to be Read in Churches in the Time of Queen 
Elizabeth" p. 580. London: Ellerton and Henderson, 1817. 

Mass, Catholic View of. — The holy eucharist is the sublime source 
of this intimate union with Jesus Christ during man's earthly pilgrim- 
age, for in receiving holy communion, the Christian soul may truly 
exclaim: "And I live, now not I, but Christ liveth in me." Gal. 2: 20. 
— " The Catholic Church the True Church of the Bible," Rev. C. J. O'Con- 
nell (R. C.J, pp. 132, 133. St. Louis, Mo. : B. Herder, 1913. 

Mass, Luther's View of. — At the present-day the whole body of 
priests and monks, with their bishops and all their superiors, are idola- 
ters and living in a most perilous state. — " On the Babylonish Captivity 
of the Church," Martin Luther; cited in " Luther's Primary Works" 
edited by Wace and Buchheim, p. 324. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 
1896. 

Mass, Luther's Experience at Rome. — Luther heard [at Rome], 
so Protestant legend tells us, a celebrant at the altar say at the awful 
moment, " Panis es, et panis manebis [Bread thou art, and bread shalt 
thou remain]." — "Lectures on the Council of Trent," James Anthony 
Froude, pp. 32, 33. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Mass, Liability to Idolatry in. — But suppose I am satisfied in 
the point" of transubstantiation, it is not enough for me to know in 
general that there is such a change; but I must believe particularly 
that very bread to be changed so, which I am now to worship, and by 
what means can I be sure of that? For my church tells me that it is 
necessary that he be a priest that consecrates, and that he had an 
intention of consecrating that very bread which I am to adore. But 
what if it should come to pass after many consecrations, that such a 
person prove no priest, because not rightly baptized (which is no 
unheard-of thing) ; what became of all their actions who worshiped 
every host he pretended to consecrate? They must be guilty of idolatry 
every mass he celebrated. But how is it possible for me to be sure of 
his priesthood, unless I could be sure of the intention of the bishop 
that ordained him, and the priest that baptized him? which it is im- 
possible for me to be. Yet suppose I were sure he was a priest, what 
assurance have I that he had an intention to consecrate that very wafer 
which I am to adore? If there were thirteen, and he had an intention 
to consecrate only twelve, if I worship the thirteenth, I give divine 
honor to a mere creature; for without the intention of the priest in 
consecration, it can be nothing else; and then I am guilty of downright 
idolatry. So that upon the principles of the Roman Church no man 
can be satisfied that he doth not worship a mere creature with divine 
honor, when he gives adoration to the host. — "A Discourse Concerning 
the Idolatry Practised in the Church of Rome," Edward Stilingfleet^ 
D. D., pp. 123-125. London: Henry Mortlock, 1671. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — The Protestants never occupied a 
more triumphant position, and their prospects were never brighter, than 
in the summer of 1572. For many years the progress of their religion 



320 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 

had been incessant. The most valuable of the conquests it has retained 
were already made; and the period of its reverses had not begun. The 
great division which aided Catholicism afterward to recover so much 
lost ground was not openly confessed; and the effectual unity of the 
Reformed Churches was not yet dissolved. In controversial theology 
the defense was weaker than the attack. The works to which the Refor- 
mation owed its popularity and system were in the hands of thousands, 
while the best authors of the Catholic restoration had not begun to 
write. The press continued to serve the new opinions better than the 
old; and in literature Protestantism was supreme. Persecuted in the 
South, and established by violence in the North, it had overcome the 
resistance of princes in Central Europe, and had won toleration without 
ceasing to be intolerant. In Prance and Poland, in the dominions of 
the emperor and under the German prelates, the attempt to arrest its 
advance by physical force had been abandoned. In Germany it covered 
twice the area that remained to it in the next generation, and, except 
in Bavaria, Catholicism was fast dying out. [pp. 102, 103] . . . 

By the peace of Sf. Germain the Huguenots had secured, within 
certain limits, freedom from persecution and the liberty of persecuting; 
so that Pius V declared that France had been made the slave of heretics. 
Coligny was now the most powerful man in the kingdom. His scheme 
for closing the civil wars by an expedition for the conquest of the Neth- 
erlands began to be put in motion. French auxiliaries followed Lewis 
of Nassau into Mons; an army of Huguenots had already gone to his 
assistance; another was being collected near the frontier, and Coligny 
was preparing to take the command in a war which might become a 
Protestant crusade, and which left the Catholics no hope of victory. 
Meanwhile many hundreds of his officers followed him to Paris, to 
attend the wedding which was to reconcile the factions, and cement 
the peace of religion. 

In the midst of those lofty designs and hopes, Coligny was struck 
down. On the morning of the 22d of August he was shot at and badly 
wounded. Two days later he was killed; and a general attack was made 
on the Huguenots of Paris. It lasted some weeks, and was imitated in 
about twenty places. The chief provincial towns of France were among 
them. 

Judged by its immediate result, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 
was a measure weakly planned and irresolutely executed, which de- 
prived Protestantism of its political leaders, and left it for a time to 
the control of zealots. There is no evidence to make it probable that 
more than seven thousand victims perished. Judged by later events, it 
was the beginning of a vast change in the conflict of the churches. At 
first it was believed that a hundred thousand Huguenots had fallen. It 
was said that the survivors were abjuring by thousands, that the chil- 
dren of the slain were made Catholics, that those whom the priest had 
admitted to absolution and communion were nevertheless put to death. 
Men who were far beyond the reach of the French government lost their 
faith in a religion which Providence had visited with so tremendous a 
judgment; and foreign princes took heart to employ severities which 
could excite no horror after the scenes in France, [pp. 105, 106] . . . 

The opinion that the Massacre of St. Bartholomew was a sudden 
and unpremeditated act cannot be maintained; but it does not follow 
that the only alternative is to believe that it was the aim of every 
measure of the government for two years before, [p. 115] . . . 

By the month of February, 1572, the plan had assumed a practical 
shape, [p. 116] . . . 

The court had determined to enforce unity of faith in France. 
An edict of toleration was issued for the purpose of lulling the Hugue- 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 321 



nots; but it was well known that it was only a pretense. Strict in- 
junctions were sent into the provinces that it should not be obeyed; 
and Catherine said openly to the English envoy, " My son will have 
exercise but of one religion in his realm." On the 26th [of February] 
the king explained his plan to Mondoucet, his agent at Brussels: 

" Since it has pleased God to bring matters to the point they have 
now reached, I mean to use the opportunity to secure a perpetual re- 
pose in my kingdom, and to do something for the good of all Christen- 
dom. It is probable that the conflagration will spread to every town in 
France, and that they will follow the example of Paris, and lay hands 
on all the Protestants. ... I have written to the governors to assemble 
forces in order to cut to pieces those who may resist." 

The great object was to accomplish the extirpation of Protestant- 
ism in such a way as might leave intact the friendship with Protestant 
states. Every step was governed by this consideration; and the diffi- 
culty of the task caused the inconsistencies and the vacillation that 
ensued, [p. 117] . . . 

The belief was common at the time, and is not yet extinct, that 
the massacre had been promoted and sanctioned by the court of Rome. 
No evidence of this complicity, prior to the event, has ever been pro- 
duced; but it seemed consistent with what was supposed to have oc- 
curred in the affair of the dispensation. The marriage of Margaret of 
Valois with the king of Navarre was invalid and illicit in the eyes of 
the church; and it was known that Pius V had sworn that he would 
never permit it. When it had been celebrated by a cardinal, in the 
presence of a splendid court, and no more was heard of resistance on 
the part of Rome, the world concluded that the dispensation had been 
obtained. De Thou says, in a manuscript note, that it had been sent, 
and was afterward suppressed by Salviati; and the French bishop, 
Spondanus, assigns the reasons which induced Gregory XIII to give 
way. Others affirmed that he had yielded when he learned that the 
marriage was a snare, so that the massacre was the price of the dis- 
pensation, [p. 128] . . . 

Camillo Capilupi, a nephew of the Mantuan bard, held office about 
the person of the Pope, and was employed on missions of consequence. 
As soon as the news from Paris reached Rome, he drew up the ac- 
count which became so famous under the title of Lo Stratagemma di 
Carlo IX. [p. 129] . . . 

Charles IX and Salviati both wrote to Rome on St. Bartholomew's 
Day; and the ambassador's nephew, Beauville, set off with the tidings. 
They were known before he arrived. On the 27th, Mandelot's secretary 
dispatched a secret messenger from Lyons with orders to inform the 
Pope that the Huguenot leaders were slain, and that their adherents 
were to be secured all over France. The messenger reached Rome on 
the 2d of September, and was immediately carried to the Pope by the 
Cardinal of Lorraine. Gregory rewarded him for the welcome intelli- 
gence with a present of a hundred crowns, and desired that Rome should 
be at once illuminated. This was prevented by Ferralz, who tried the 
patience of the Romans by declining their congratulations as long as 
he was not officially informed. Beauville and the courier of the nuncio 
arrived on the 5th. The king's letter, like all that he wrote on the 
first day, ascribed the outbreak to the old hatred between the rival 
houses, and to the late attempt on the admiral's life. He expressed a 
hope that the dispensation would not now be withheld, but left all par 
ticulars to Beauville, whose own eyes had beheld the scene. Beauville 
told his story, and repeated the king's request; but Gregory, though 
much gratified with what he heard, remained inflexible. 

Salviati had written on the afternoon of the 24th. He desired to 
21 



322 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 

fling himself at the Pope's feet to wish him joy. His fondest hopes had 
been surpassed. Although he had known what was in store for Coligny, 
he had not expected that there would be energy and prudence to seize 
the occasion for the destruction of the rest. A new era had com- 
menced; a new compass was required for French affairs. It was a fair 
sight to see the Catholics in the streets wearing white crosses, and 
fitting down heretics; and it was thought that, as fast as the news 
spread, the same thing would be done in all the towns of France. This 
letter was read before the assembled cardinals at the Venetian palace, 
and they thereupon attended the Pope to a Te Deum in the nearest 
church. The guns of St. Angelo were fired in the evening, and the city 
was illuminated for three nights. To disregard the Pope's will in this 
respect would have savored of heresy. Gregory XIII exclaimed that the 
massacre was more agreeable to him than fifty victories of Lepanto. 

For some weeks the news from the French provinces sustained the 
rapture and excitement of the court. It was hoped that other countries 
would follow the example of France; the emperor was informed that 
something of the same kind was expected of him. On the 8th of Sep- 
tember the Pope went in procession to the French church of St. Lewis, 
where three-and-thirty cardinals attended at a mass of thanksgiving. 
On the 11th he proclaimed a jubilee. In the bull he said that foras- 
much as God had armed the king of France to inflict vengeance on the 
heretics for the injuries done to religion, and to punish the leaders of 
the rebellion which had devastated his kingdom, Catholics should pray 
that he might have grace to pursue his auspicious enterprise to the end, 
and so complete what he had begun so well. Before a month had passed 
Vasari was summoned from Florence to decorate the hall of kings with 
paintings of the massacre. The work was pronounced his masterpiece; 
and the shameful scene may still be traced upon the wall, where, for 
three centuries, it has insulted every pontiff that entered the Sistine 
Chapel, [pp. 132-135] . . . 

The theory which was framed to justify these practices has done 
more than plots and massacres to cast discredit on the Catholics. This 
theory was as follows: Confirmed heretics must be rigorously punished 
whenever it can be done without the probability of greater evil to reli- 
gion. Where that is feared, the penalty may be suspended or delayed 
for a season, provided it be inflicted whenever the danger is past. 
Treaties made with heretics and promises given to them must not be 
kept, because sinful promises do not bind, and no agreement is lawful 
which may injure religion or ecclesiastical authority. No civil power 
may enter into engagements which impede the free scope of the church's 
law. It is part of the punishment of heretics that faith shall not be kept 
with them. It is even mercy to kill them that they may sin no more. 

Such were the precepts and the examples by which the French Cath- 
olics learned to confound piety and ferocity, and were made ready to 
immolate their countrymen, [pp. 140, 141] . . . 

A time came when the Catholics, having long relied on force, were 
compelled to appeal to opinion. That which had been defiantly acknowl- 
edged and defended, required to be ingeniously explained away. The 
same motive which had justified the murder now prompted the lie. Men 
shrank from conviction that the rulers and restorers of their church 
had been murderers and abetters of murder, and that so much infamy 
had been coupled with so much zeal. They feared to say that the most 
monstrous of crimes had been solemnly approved at Rome,, lest they 
should devote the Papacy to the execration of mankind. A swarm of 
facts were invented to meet the difficulty: The victims were insignifi- 
cant in number; they were slain for no reason connected with religion; 
the Pope believed in the existence of the plot; the plot was a reality; 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 323 

the medal is fictitious; the massacre was a feint concerted with the 
Protestants themselves; the Pope rejoiced only when he heard that it 
was over. These things were repeated so often that they have been 
sometimes believed; and men have fallen into this way of speaking 
whose sincerity was unimpeachable, and who were not shaken in their 
religion by the errors or the vices of popes. Mohler was pre-eminently 
such a man. In his lectures on the history of the church, which were 
published only last year [1868], he said that the Catholics, as such, 
took no part in the massacre; that no cardinal, bishop, or priest shared 
in the councils that prepared it; that Charles informed the Pope that 
a conspiracy had been discovered; and that Gregory made his thanks- 
giving only because the king's life was saved. Such things will cease 
to be written when men perceive that truth is the only merit that gives 
dignity and worth to history, [pp. 148, 149] — " The History of Freedom,'" 
John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (R. C), pp. 102-149. London: 
Macmillan & Co., 1909. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Froude's View of. — The history of 
Europe for a hundred years was the history of the efforts of the church, 
with open force or secret conspiracy, with all the energy, base or noble, 
which passion or passionate enthusiasm could inspire, to crush and 
annihilate its foes. No means came amiss to it, sword or stake, tor- 
ture chamber or assassin's dagger. The effects of the church's working 
were seen in ruined nations and smoking cities, in human beings tear- 
ing one another to pieces like raging maniacs, and the honor of the 
Creator of the world befouled by the hideous crimes committed in his 
name. . . . 

The decrees of the Council of Trent were not received in France, 
and when the gutters of Paris were running with Huguenot blood after 
the black day of St. Bartholomew, and the unhappy country was shud- 
dering with horror, the guilty king tried to excuse what had been done 
by charging the Huguenots with political conspiracy. This is the ex- 
planation now commonly given by those who wish to defend the French 
government, and at the same time to defame its victims. Pope Greg- 
ory XIII rebuked the modesty of the son of St. Louis, and forbade him 
to explain away an action so pious and so glorious. He held processions 
and thanksgiving services at Rome in honor of the destruction of the 
infidels. He sent Cardinal Orsino to France with his congratulations, 
and the expressions of his hope that after such an evidence of the piety 
of the king and the nation, the decrees of Trent would now be introduced. 

The cardinal on reaching Avignon found the Catholics excusing the 
massacre as an unfortunate accident. He invited them to an attitude 
more worthy of themselves and of the signal services which they had 
rendered to the truth. At Lyons there had been a massacre only second 
to that of Paris. The cardinal (I quote from De Thou, the greatest of 
the French historians, who was in the midst of the scenes which he 
described) sought out the leader of the Lyons butchery, and gave him 
his blessing and his absolution. At Paris afterward he urged Charles 
to claim openly the credit of a deed achieved for the glory of God and 
the honor of the holy see, so he said future ages would know that no 
personal fears or feelings had led him to consent to the slaughter of 
his subjects, but zeal for the Catholic and apostolic Roman religion 
which the Council of Trent had purged from heresy, and which now 
required the extermination of the Protestant sect. — "Lectures on the 
Council of Trent," James Anthony Fronde, pp, 301, 802. London: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1896. 

Matthew 28: 1.— Pages 509, 574-576, 



324 MEASURES IN THE BIBLE 

Measures Mentioned in the Bible. — The absolute values of the 
liquid and dry measures are stated differently by Josephus and the 
rabbinists, and as we are unable to decide between them, we give a 
double estimate of the various denominations: 

(Josephus) (Rabbinists) 
Gallons Gallons Bushels 

Homer or Cor 86.696 or 44.286 10% or 5% 

Ephah or Bath 8.6696 or 4.4286 

Seah 2.8898 or 1.4762 

Hin 1.4449 or .7381 

Omer 8669 or .4428 

Cab 4816 or .246 

Log 1204 or .0615 

— "A Dictionary of the Bible" William Smith, LL. D., art. " Weights and 
Measures" p. 742, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 
copyright 1884. 

Medo-Persia, Beginnings of. — In remote times some Aryan tribes, 
separating from the other members of the Aryan family, sought new 
abodes on the plateau of Iran. The tribes that settled in the south 
became known as the Persians, while those that took possession of the 
mountain regions of the northwest were called Medes. The names of 
the two peoples were always very closely associated, as in the familiar 
legend, " The law of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not." 

The Medes were at first the leading people. Cyaxares (625-585 b. c.) 
was their first prominent leader and king. It was this king who, aided 
by the Babylonians, overthrew the last king of Nineveh and destroyed 
that capital. The destruction of the Assyrian power resulted in the 
speedy extension of the frontiers of the new Median Empire to the river 
Halys in Asia Minor. — " General History" Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 
59. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. 

Medo-Persia, First Median Ascendancy, Then Persian. — When 
Nineveh fell, it was not at the behest of Babylonia only. A new power, 
fresh from a long rest and not wasted by civilization's insidious pres- 
sure, had contributed to that overthrow. This new people was the 
Medes, and in the years that followed the Medes had not been idle. To 
them had fallen in the partition of the Assyrian Empire the whole of 
the old land of Assyria, with northern Babylonia. The very ownership 
of such territory as this was itself a call to the making of an empire. 
To this the Medes had set themselves, and with extraordinary and rapid 
success. While Nebuchadnezzar lived, they maintained peace with him 
and offered no threats against Babylonia. To the north and west their 
forces spread. These movements we cannot trace in detail. From the 
Medes, who were men of action, and not writers of books, there have 
come to us no stories of conquest. From the events which follow, of 
which we have Babylonian accounts, we can trace with reasonable cer- 
tainty, even though broadly, their progress. As early as 560 b. c. their 
border had been extended as far west as the river Halys, which served 
as the boundary between them and the kingdom of Lydia, over which 
Croesus, of proverbial memory, was now king (560-546 b. a). If no 
violent end came to a victorious people such as the Medes now were, it 
could not be long before the rich plains, the wealthy cities, and the 
great waterways of Babylonia would tempt them southward, and the 
great clash would come. . . . Their king was now Astyages. ... A man 
of war of extraordinary capacity he certainly was, but perhaps little 
else. However that may be, he was not to accomplish the ruin of 
Nabonidus. What he had gained was to be used to that end by another, 
and he was now preparing. 



MEDO-PERSIA, SYMBOL OF 325 



In Anshan, a province in the land of Elam, a great man had arisen. 
From Elam for centuries no impulse had been given in the world's 
history. The people had rested. Kings had ruled over them, indeed, 
but their influence had been little beyond their own borders. When 
Cyrus was born, son of Cambyses, a place was ready for him, and 
greatness soon found it. Cyrus, king of Anshan — the title had no high 
sound, and to it were added no other titles of rule in other lands. But 
in Cyrus the primary power of conquest was strong. He began at once 
a career of almost unparalleled conquest, and later displayed in extraor- 
dinary degree the power so to organize the result of one victory as to 
make it contributory to the next. His first foe was naturally Astyages, 
king of the Medes, whose attention he had attracted. We do not know 
what deeds of Cyrus led Astyages to determine upon attacking him, 
whether he had made reprisals upon the borders of the empire of the 
Medes, or had shown elsewhere ability which might later prove dan- 
gerous to the aspirations of the Medes. In 553 b. c. Astyages led an 
army against this new Asiatic conqueror. All the advantages seemed to 
lie upon the side of Astyages. He had victories behind him, he had 
the levies of an empire already vast on which to draw. But these and 
all other advantages were overturned by treachery. His own troops 
rebelled against him and delivered him into the hands of Cyrus ("An- 
nals of Nabonidus," col. ii, lines 1, 2), and that bound as a prisoner. 
Cyrus then took Ecbatana, sacked it, and overwhelmed the state. In 
an hour he had leaped from the position of. king of Anshan, a rank 
hardly greater than petty prince, to the proud position of king of the 
Medes. A whole empire already made was his. Well might he assume 
a new title and call himself king of the Parsu — out of which has come 
to us the word " Persians." King of the Persians — in that new title 
of Cyrus was gathered all the impetus of a new and terrible force in 
the world. For his coming the day of judgment had waited. The day of 
great Semitic conquerors was waning, a new conqueror of the great 
unknown Indo-European races had arisen, and a new day had thus 
dawned. What did it mean for humanity — for civilization? — "History 
of Babylonia and Assyria," Robert W. Rogers, Ph. D., Vol. II, pp. 561-565, 
6th edition. New Yorh: The Abingdon Press, 1915. 

Medo-Persia, Greek Poet Who Fought Against Xerxes, on Dual 
Character of. — 

Asia's brave host, 
A Mede first led. The virtues of his son 
Fixed firm the empire; for his temperate soul 
Breathed prudence. Cyrus third, by fortune graced, 
Adorned the throne, and blessed his grateful friends 
With peace. He to his mighty monarchy 
Joined Lydia and the Phrygians; to his power, 
Ionia bent reluctant; but the gods 
With victory his gentle virtues crowned. 

— " The Persians," JSschylus, Potter's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Ram the Symbol of. — The Hebrew word for a ram, 
and the Hebrew word for Persia, both springing from the same root, and 
both implying something of strength, the one is not improperly made 
the type of the other. The propriety of it appears farther from hence, 
as is suggested likewise by another writer in the general preface to 
Mr. Mede's works, that it was usual for the king of Persia "to wear a 
ram's head made of gold and adorned with precious stones, instead of 
a diadem; " for so Ammianus Marcellinus describes him. Bishop 
Chandler and others further observe, that " rams' heads with horns, 



326 MEDO-PERSIA, CYRUS 



one higher and the other lower, are still to be seen on the pillars 
at Persepolis." — " Dissertations on the Prophecies" Thomas Newton, 
D.D.,p.265. London: B. Blake, 



Medo-Persia, Appropriateness of Symbol for, in Prophecy. — 
" The source of this figure of horns for kingdoms," as a learned writer 
observes, " must be derived from the Oriental languages, in which the 
same word signifies a horn, and a crown, and power, and splendor. 
Whence a horn was an ensign of royalty among the Phoenicians, and the 
Hebrew word pp, Jceren, or a horn, is several times by the Chaldee para- 
phrasts rendered fttD'Vft, malchutha, or a kingdom; and horns are fre- 
quently used for kings and kingdoms in the Old Testament." This em- 
pire, therefore, which was formed by the conjunction of the Medes and 
Persians, and is often called the Medo-Persian, was not unfitly repre- 
sented by a ram with two horns. — ■ Id., p. 264. 

Medo-Persia, Cyrus, King of Anzan or Elam. — Next to the fact 
that he was a polytheist, the most startling revelation they [the in- 
scriptions of Cyrus] make is that he was not a king of Persia at all. 
Persia seems to have been acquired by him after his conquest of As- 
tyages, at some time between the sixth and ninth year of Nabonidos. 
Both he and his ancestors were kings of Anzan or Elam. It is true, he 
could trace his descent back to a member of the royal Persian clan, 
Teispes, who appears to have taken possession of Elam during the 
troublous period that followed the fall of Assyria, and to have resigned 
his Persian dominions to his son Ariaramnes, the great-grandfather of 
Darius. It must be this conquest of Elam which was prophesied by 
Jeremiah at the beginning of Zedekiah's reign (Jer. 49: 34-39), and the 
result of it was to make Cyrus an Elamite in education and religion. 
The empire which he founded was not a Persian one; Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, was the real founder of that. It was only as the predecessor 
of Darius, and for the sake of intelligibility to the readers of a later 
day, that Cyrus could be called a king of Persia, as he is in the book of 
Ezra, where the original words of his proclamation, " king of Elam," 
have been changed into the more familiar and intelligible " king of 
Persia." Ezra 1: 2. Elsewhere in the Bible (Isa. 21: 1-10), where 
the invasion of Babylonia is described, there is no mention of Persia, 
only of Elam and Media, that is to say, of the ancestral dominions of 
Cyrus and that kingdom of Ekbatana which he had annexed. This is 
in strict accordance with the revelations of the monuments, and is a 
most interesting testimony to the accuracy of the Old Testament rec- 
ords. — " Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments" A. H. Sqyce, M. A., 
pp. 144, 145. London : The Religious Tract Society, 1890. 

Medo-Persia, Conquests of Cyrus. — The Babylonian rulers that 
followed Nebuchadrezzar set themselves with the other powers of the 
world in opposition to Cyrus. Of these the most important was the 
kingdom of Lydia. It owed its greatness to the dynasty of Gyges who 
at about 700 b. c. had set aside the old ruling family of Midas and put 
himself in its place. Gyges and his successors — in particular Croesus 
(560-546 b. c.) — conquered the entire coast of Asia Minor, making all 
the Greek cities, except Miletus, tributary. They also extended their 
sway to the Hellespont and in the interior to the Halys River, thus 
becoming by far the most powerful and opulent state in the peninsula. 

The fame of Croesus for wealth was so great that his name has 
become a synonym for riches. Through his realm lay a main highway 
from Assyria and Babylon to the iEgean Sea, and a mixed culture de- 
veloped in Lydia which was at once sympathetic to Greece and the 



MEDO-PERSIA, EXTENT OF 327 

Orient. The father of Croesus had fought with the Medes, but later had 
made a peace with them (585 b. a). Now Croesus joined with Egypt, 
and even the leading Greek state, Sparta, in the endeavor to put a stop 
to the victorious career of Cyrus. It was all in vain. Cyrus defeated 
Croesus, king of Lydia, and captured him and his capital, Sardis 
(546 b. a). 

Babylon was then attacked, and yielded to him in 539 b. c. Thus 
the last Semitic empire of the Mesopotamian valley passed away, and a 
new race took the reins of government over a wider world than had 
ever fallen within the bounds of an ancient state. — "A History of the 
Ancient World," George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 56, 57. New 
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Medo-Persia, Power Such that " None Might Stand Before Him " 
(Dan. 8: 4). — Cyrus was able so to penetrate that vast extent of coun- 
try by the sheer terror of his personality that the inhabitants were 
prostrate before him: not one of them dared lift hand against him. 
And yet he was able, at the same time, to inspire them all with so 
deep a desire to please him and win his favor that all they asked was 
to be guided by his judgment and his alone. Thus he knit to himself 
a complex of nationalities so vast that it would have taxed a man's 
endurance merely to traverse his empire in any one direction, east or 
west or south or north, from the palace which was its center. — 
" Cyropwdia: The Education of Cyrus," Xenophon, book 1, chap. 1, par. 
5, Dakyns' translation. Everyman's Library edition, p. 5; London: 
J. M. Dent & Sons. 

Medo-Persia, Extent of Empire. — The geographical extent of the 
fifth monarchy [at its height, under Darius I] was far greater than that 
of any one of the four which had preceded it. While Persia proper is 
a comparatively narrow and poor tract, extending in its greatest length 
only some seven or eight degrees (less than 500 miles), the dominions of 
the Persian kings covered a space fifty-six degrees long, and in places 
more than twenty degrees wide. The boundaries of their empire were 
the desert of Thibet, the Sutlej, and the Indus, on the east; the Indian 
Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Arabian and Nubian deserts, on the south; 
on the west, the Greater Syrtis, the Mediterranean, the ^Egean, and the 
Strymon River; on the north, the Danube, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, 
the Caspian, and the Jaxartes. Within these limits lay a territory, the 
extent of which from east to west was little less than 3,000 miles, while 
its width varied between 500 and 1,500 miles. Its entire area was prob- 
ably not less than two millions of square miles — or more than half 
that of modern Europe. It was thus at least eight times as large as 
the Babylonian Empire at its greatest extent, and was probably more 
than four times as large as the Assyrian. — " The Five Great Mon- 
archies of the Ancient Eastern World" George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. 
Ill, pp. 84, 85; " The Fifth Monarchy," chap. 1. New York: Dodd, 
Mead & Co. 

Medo-Persia, Cyrus's Account of Return of Captives from Baby- 
lon. — I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the mighty king, 
king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters 
of the world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of Anshan, grandson 
of Cyrus, the great king, king of Anshan, great-grandson of Teispes, the 
great king, king of Anshan; an everlasting seed of royalty, whose gov- 
. ernment Bel and Nabu love, whose reign in the goodness of their hearts 
they desire. When I entered in peace into Babylon, with joy and re- 
joicing I took up my lordly dwelling in the royal palace, Marduk, the 
great lord, moved the understanding heart of the people of Babylon to 



328 MEDO-PERSIA PROPHECY FULFILLED 

me, while I daily sought his worship. My numerous troops dwelt 
peacefully in Babylon; in all Sumer and Akkad no terrorizer did I 
permit. In Babylon and all its cities in peace I looked about. The 
people of Babylon [I released] from an unsuitable yoke. Their dwell- 
ings — their decay I repaired; their ruins I cleared away. Marduk, the 
great lord, rejoiced at these deeds and graciously blessed me, Cyrus, the 
king who worships him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my troops, 
while we in peace joyfully praised before him his exalted divinity. AH 
the kings who dwell in palaces, from all quarters of the world, from 
the upper sea to the lower sea, who live [in palaces], all the kings of the 
Westland who live in tents, brought me their heavy tribute in Babylon 
and kissed my feet. From ... to Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunak, 
Zamban, Meturnu, Deri, to the border of Gutium, the cities [beyond] 
the Tigris, whose sites had been founded of old, — the gods who dwelt 
in them I returned to their places, and caused them to settle in their 
eternal shrines. All their people I assembled and returned them to 
their dwellings. — Cyrus' Cylinder recording Capture of Babylon, in 
"Archaeology and the Bible," George A. Barton, Ph. D., LL. D., pp. 385, 
386. Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union, 1916. 

Medo-Persia, Cyrus Fulfils Prophecy of Return of Jews. — (1) In 
addition to the restoration and rehabilitation of captive and dethroned 
deities, he says (Cyl. 32) : " All of their peoples I gathered together and 
restored to their own dwelling-places." This definitely stated national 
policy gives us one reason for the royal proclamation (Ezra 1: 2-4) issued 
in favor of the Jews. (2) It is altogether probable that Cyrus caught 
up from some one in Babylonia the mission which had been assigned 
him by the prophets: " Cyrus is my shepherd, and shall perform all my 
pleasure: even saying of Jerusalem, She shall be built; and to the tem- 
ple, Thy foundation shall be laid." Isa. 44: 28. (3) Palestine had 
been a kind of buffer state from time immemorial between southwestern 
Asia and Egypt. To occupy and hold that strong fortress, Jerusalem, 
was the first step toward the conquest of the rival power. If Cyrus 
could conserve that advantage by aiding the Jews to build and hold it, 
he would be setting up one battlement in the face of Egypt's army. 
For one of his next strokes would be at the rival power on the Nile. — 
••■ The Monuments and the Old Testament," Ira Maurice Price, Ph. D., p. 
234, 5th edition. Philadelphia: American Baptist Pub. Society, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Josephus on the Return of the Jews from Cap- 
tivity. — This [that he was to return the Jews to Jerusalem] was known 
to Cyrus by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his 
prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a 
secret vision: "My will is, that Cyrus, whom I have appointed to be 
king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own 
land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred 
and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when 
Cyrus read this, and admired the divine power, an earnest desire and 
ambition seized upon him to fulfil what was so written; so he called 
for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, 
that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild 
their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their 
assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were 
in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contrib- 
ute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides 
that, beasts for their sacrifices. — Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews," 
Whiston's translation, book 11, chap. 1, par. 2. Philadelphia: The John 
C. Winston Company. 



MEDO-PERSIA, XERXES 329 

Medo-Persia, From Cyrus to Xerxes. — Cyrus, slain in battle in 
529 b. c, was succeeded by his son Cambyses. This ambitious young 
man, to secure his crown, murdered his brother and sister. After eight 
years of apparent success, in a fit of despair, he took his life. For eight 
months a usurper, Gomates [the Magian, pretending to be Smerdis, son 
of Cyrus], held the throne, but was finally slain, and Darius Hystaspes 
(521-485 b. c.) seized the crown. It was under the early years of his 
administration that the Jews at Jerusalem completed and dedicated 
their temple (516 b. a). During these years Darius suppressed revolts 
and uprisings in all parts of his realm. He then carried his conquests 
as far as Scythia in Europe (508 b. a). He fully equipped two great 
expeditions for invading Greece, but both failed, the second at the 
famous battle of Marathon (490 b. c). A third expedition was planned, 
but a revolt in Egypt (487 b. c.) and his own death (485) intervened, 
[pp. 252, 253] ... He was the greatest king that ever sat on Persia's 
throne, both as regards conquests and power of administration. He 
was succeeded by Xerxes I, supposed to be a remote kin of Cyrus the 
conqueror of Babylon. 

Xerxes' first great work was the subjugation of Egypt (485 b. a). 
After chastising rebels in Babylonia, he next turned his attention to the 
still unconquered state of Greece. He called together his nobles and 
counselors from all parts of the empire, as a kind of council of war. 
The conclusion of their deliberations was that the most elaborate prep- 
arations be made, and Greece be brought to their feet. Careful and 
complete provisions were made covering a space of four years. The 
army was thoroughly organized, and the commissary department ade- 
quately equipped. In 480 b. c. the army started on its long campaign, 
aided by a large and well-equipped fleet. It crossed the Hellespont on 
a bridge of double boats and pushed through Macedonia down to Greece. 
Through Thermopylae it poured over the bodies of the brave 300 Spar- 
tans until Athens was captured and burnt. The Persian fleet, disabled 
by storms, was finally destroyed by the Greeks at the battle of Salamis 
(Sept. 23, 480). The land force retreated to Thessaly, where a picked 
army remained over winter. In the spring it resumed active offensive 
operations and recaptured Attica. The Spartans raised a large army, 
crossed the isthmus, and forced the Persians to retire into Boeotia. On 
Sept. 25, 479 b. c, the Persian host was completely routed at Plataea, 
and returned to Asia, never again to invade European Greece, [pp. 253, 
254] — " The Monuments and the Old Testament''' Ira Maurice Price, 
Ph. D., 5th edition, pp. 252-254. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publi- 
cation Society, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Gomates (Smerdis the Impostor) Counted in List 
of Kings (Dan. 11: 2). — The Babylonians called him Barzia. A num- 
ber of contract tablets have been found which are dated in his reign. 
Media and Persia, besides Babylonia, temporarily acknowledge him 
king. — "Light on the Old Testament from Babel,'" Albert T. Clay, Ph. D., 
p. 386. Philadelphia: The Sunday School Times Company, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Xerxes' Aim to " Stir Up All Against the Realm 
of Grecia" (Dan, 11: 2). — Xerxes thus levied his army, searching out 
every region of the continent. 20. For from the reduction of Egypt, he 
was employed four whole years in assembling his forces, and providing 
things necessary for the expedition. In the course of the fifth year he 
began his march with a vast multitude of men; for of the expeditions 
with which we are acquainted, this was by far the greatest. ... 21. 
. . . For what nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against Greece? 
what stream, being drunk, did not fail him, except that of great rivers? 



330 MEDO-PERSIA, XERXES 

Some supplied ships; others were ordered to furnish men for the in- 
fantry, from others cavalry were required, from others transports for 
horses, together with men to serve in the army; others had to furnish 
long ships for the bridges, and other provisions and vessels. — Herodo- 
tus, book, 7, pars. 19-21, translated by Henry Gary, M. A. New York: 
Harper & Brothers, 1864. 

And myriad-peopled Asia's king, a battle-eager lord, 

Prom utmost east to utmost west sped on his countless horde, 

In unnumbered squadrons marching, in fleets of keels untold, 

Knowing none dared disobey, 

For stern overseers were they 
Of the godlike king begotten of the ancient race of Gold. 

— " The Persians," Mschylus, Way's translation. 

Medo-Persia, Xerxes Evidently the Ahasueeus of Esther. — 
Xerxes (the Greek form of the Persian Khshayarsha; Old Testament 
Ahasverus, Akhashverosh, i. e., Ahasuerus). — The Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica, Vol. XXVIII, art. " Xerxes," p. 887, 11th edition. 

In the English of the Old Testament this ruler is known as Ahas- 
uerus. In the inscriptions, his name is written Ahshiivarshu, Akshiar- 
shu, Hishiarshi, etc., which is quite similar to the Hebrew, Ahashwe- 
rosh. . . . Further, the excavations of Dieulafoy in the mounds of Susa, 
where he uncovered " Shushan the palace" (Esther 1: 2), discovering 
also one of the dice with which the people at that time " cast Pur, that 
is, the lot" (Esther 3: 7), make the story so realistic that we cannot 
but feel that it rests upon historical facts. — " Light on the Old Testa- 
ment from Babel," Albert T. Clay, Ph. D., p. 388. Philadelphia: The 
Sunday School Times Company, 1907. 

Medo-Persia, Many Nations Gathered Against Grecia. — Forty- 
nine nations, according to Herodotus, served under his [Xerxes'] stand- 
ard; and their contingents made up a grand total of eighteen hundred 
thousand men. Of these, eighty thousand were cavalry, while twenty 
thousand rode in chariots or on camels; the remainder served on foot. 
There are no sufficient means of testing these numbers. Figures in the 
mouth of an Oriental are vague and almost unmeaning; armies are never 
really counted, [p. 452] . . . Nevertheless there would be limits beyond 
which exaggeration could not go; and if Xerxes was made to believe 
that the land force which he took with him into Europe amounted to 
nearly two millions of men, it is scarcely doubtful but that it must have 
exceeded one million. — " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
Eastern World," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. Ill, pp. 452, 453; " The 
Fifth Monarchy," chap. 7. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Medo-Persia, Riches of Xerxes (Dan. 11: 2). — When Pythius [of 
Asia Minor] offered money [to help defray cost of war], Xerxes asked 
the Persians near him who this Pythius was, and what riches he pos- 
sessed, that he made such an offer. They answered, " king, this is the 
person who presented your father Darius with the golden plane-tree and 
the' vine; and he is now the richest man we know of in the world, next 
to yourself." — Herodotus, book 7, par. 27, translated by Henry Gary, 
M. A. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1864. 

Medo-Persia, Effect of Xerxes' Defeat. — The wreck of Xerxes' 
expedition is the turning-point in the history of the Persian Empire. 
The superiority of the Greeks was so pronounced that the Persians 



MEDO-PERSIA, LAWS OF DOMINION 331 

never found courage to repeat their attack. . . . The really decisive 
point was, rather, that the disasters of Salamis and Platsea definitely 
shattered the offensive power of the empire; that the center of gravity 
in the world's history had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the yEgean 
Sea; and that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their 
courage they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior 
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to subdue 
by their own strength. — The Encyclopedia Britanniqa, Vol. XXI, art. 
" Persia," p. 211, 11th edition. 

With sacred awe 

The Persian law 
No more shall Asia's realms revere; 

To their lord's hand, 

At his command, 
No more the exacted tribute bear. 

Before the Ionian squadrons Persia flies, 
Or sinks engulfed beneath the main; 
Fallen! fallen! is her imperial power, 
And conquest on her banners waits no more. 

— " The Persians," JEschylus, Potter's translation. 

Medo-Persia, From Artaxerxes. I (Successor of Xerxes) to Over- 
throw. — The reigns of Artaxerxes I (464-424), Xerxes II, and Darius II 
(423-405) witnessed the rapid decline of the Persian monarchy. The 
celebrated expedition of Cyrus the Younger (401) against his brother 
Artaxerxes II, ending in Cyrus's victory and death at Cunaxa, showed 
the Greeks how open to attack was their formerly dreaded foe, and thus 
at a later period encouraged Alexander the Great to invade the domin- 
ions of Darius III. 

Crossing the Hellespont in 334, Alexander defeated the Persians at 
Issus (333) and at Gaugamela [near Arbela] (Oct. 1, 331), thus over- 
throwing forever the empire of the Archsemenians. Persia then became 
part of the Macedonian Empire. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. 
"Persia," p. 338. 

Medo-Persia, Passing of Dominion to Greece. — Darius [III] did 
not long enjoy in peace the power which had been so much envied. 
Having ascended the throne the same year as Alexander, some days 
before the battle of the Chersonesus, he saw the dangers threatening 
him from the Macedonian's ambition, and he was powerless to prevent 
them. 

He was beaten at the Granicus, beaten at Issus, beaten at Arbela 
[b. c. 331], and then killed in flight by one of his satraps. Alexander 
then took possession of his empire, and henceforth the Greek race sup- 
planted the Persians in the part they had played for two centuries as 
the ruling power of the world. — " The Historians' History of the World," 
edited oy Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. II, p. 631. New York: The 
Outlook Company, 1904. 

Medo-Persia, Passing of Dominion at Arbela. — It is needless to 
pursue further the dissolution of the empire. The fatal blow was struck 
at Arbela — all the rest was but the long death-agony. At Arbela the 
crown of Cyrus passed to the Macedonian; the fifth monarchy came to 
an end. The he-goat, with the notable horn between his eyes, had come 
from the west to the ram which had two horns, and had run into him 
with the fury of his power. He had come close to him, and, moved 



332 MILLENNIUM 



with choler, had smitten the ram and broken his two horns — there was 
no power in the ram to stand before him, but he had cast him down to 
the ground and stamped upon him — and there was none to deliver the 
ram out of his hand. — " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
Eastern World," George Rawlinson, M. A., Vol. Ill, pp. 538, 539-; " The 
Fifth Monarchy," chap. 7. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Methodist Church. — Page 141. 

Millennium, Predictions of Post-Millennialists. — Just prior to 
the Great War, post-millennialists declared that humanity had made too 
much progress to ever have another war, and while they were denying 
the word of God, the most terrible catastrophe of all time broke loose 
upon the world. And, for a short period, these prophets were silenced. 
But now they are returning to their false philosophy. More human 
beings, men, women, and helpless children, were either killed outright 
or slowly starved to death, as a result of this war, than were destroyed 
by war during the first eight hundred years of the Christian era. And 
today, when the foundations of society and civilization are tottering, 
men are shutting their eyes to facts, and crying, " See! see! the millen- 
nium is nearly here! Perhaps tomorrow it will be ushered in! "... 
During the last five years [1914-1919] man's sin has caused 14,000,000 
men, women, and children to go to their graves. Rivers of blood have 
been shed. The heart of the world is still wrung with grief. God fore- 
warned of all this in his Book, but men are so stupid and blind that 
they will not see. By the side of this groaning ocean of suffering hu- 
manity they think they almost hear the music of the millennium. — 
" The Modern Conflict oner the Bible," G. W. McPherson, Vol. II, pp. 
132, 133. Yonkers, N. Y.: 34 St. Andrew's Place, copyright 1919. 

Millennium, Temporal. — Pages 11, 13, 14, 17, 19. 

Missions, Livingstone on Providential Preparation of the Way. — 
Who would not be a missionary? " They that be wise shall shine as the 
brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness 
as the stars forever and ever." Is God not preparing the world for 
missions which will embrace the whole of Adam's family? The gallant 
steamships circumnavigate the globe. Emigration is going on at a rate 
to which the most renowned crusades of antiquity bear no proportion. 
Many men go to and fro, and knowledge is increased. . . . 

There will yet be a glorious consummation of Christianity. The 
last fifty years have accomplished wonders. — Paper on Missionary 
Sacrifices in " The Personal Life of David Livingstone," W. Garden 
Blaikie, D. D., LL. D., Appendix, p. 499. New York: Fleming H. Revell 
Company. 

Missions, Opening of Closed Lands in This Generation. — Most 
countries shut out Christian missions by organized opposition, so that 
to attempt to bear the good tidings was simply to dare death for Christ's 
sake; the only welcome awaiting God's messengers was that of cannibal 
ovens, merciless prisons, or martyr graves. But as the little band ad- 
vanced, on every hand the walls of Jericho fell, and the iron gates 
opened of their own accord. India, Siam, Burma, China, Japan, Turkey, 
Africa, Mexico, South America, the Papal States, and Korea were suc- 
cessively and successfully entered. Within five years, from 1853 to 1858, 
new facilities were given to the entrance and occupation of seven differ- 
ent countries, together embracing half the world's population. — " The 
Modern Mission Century," Arthur T. Pier son, D. D., p. 25. New York: 
The Baker and Taylor Company, 1901. 



MISSIONS, A CENTURY OF 



333 



Missions, The Turning-Point in Human History. — The next ten 
years will in all probability constitute a turning-point in human his- 
tory, and may be of more critical importance in determining the spirit- 
ual evolution of mankind than many centuries of ordinary experience. 
— From a Message to the Members of the Church in Christian Lands 
by the World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh, June 23, 1910; " The 
History and Records of the Conference," Vol. IX, p. 108. Edinburgh: 
Qliphant, Anderson, and Ferrier. 

Missions, A Century of Progress, Since 1810, When the First 
Foreign Mission Society was Projected in America. — 



1810 

Nearly every country in Asia and 
Africa was closed to the gospel. 

The church did not believe in 
foreign missions. 

There were practically no Prot- 
estant Christians in heathen lands. 

Only one hundred foreign mis- 
sionaries had been sent out. 

The Bible was translated into 
only sixty-five languages. 

Only a few thousands of dollars 
were given yearly for foreign mis- 
sions. 

There were no medical mission- 
aries. 

There were no mission hospitals 
or orphanages. 

There was no native Christian 
ministry. 

Missionary work was not recog- 
nized in American and British col- 
leges. 

There were no unmarried women 
missionaries, and no organized 
work for women. 

There were no mission presses 
or means for preparing and dis- 
tributing Christian literature in 
non-Christian lands. 
— The Missionary Revieiv of the 
Funk and Wagnalls Company. 



1910 

Practically every nation in the 
world is open to missionaries. 

All evangelical churches are in- 
terested in missions. To speak 
against missions is counted a dis- 
grace and a sign of ignorance. 

More than two million Protes- 
tant Christians have been gathered 
in heathen lands, — besides all who 
have died in the faith. 

There are nearly twenty-two 
thousand foreign missionaries in 
the world. 

The Bible has been translated 
into about five hundred languages 
and dialects. 

Total foreign missionary contri- 
butions amount to nearly $25,000,- 
000 annually. 

Thousands of medical mission- 
aries in the heathen lands treat 
three million patients a year. 

There are four hundred mission 
hospitals and over five hundred 
orphanages and asylums in foreign 
lands, operated by missionaries. 

There are over six thousand un- 
married women missionaries to 
heathen women and children. 
World, January, 1910. New York: 



Missions, A Quick Work in. — It is not unreasonable to suppose 
that the last conquests of Christianity may be achieved with incom- 
parably greater rapidity than has marked its earlier progress and sig- 
nalized its first success; and that in the instance of India, "the plow- 
man may overtake the reaper, the treader of grapes him that soweth 
the seed," and the type of the prophet realized, that " a nation will be 
born in a day." — " Christianity in Ceylon," Sir J. E. Tennent, p. 327. 

Missions, Shrinkage of World in This Half-Century. — Since the 
seventies we have entered upon an entirely new era; we are conscious 
of having passed under the dominion of unfamiliar forces. Some of 
these, perhaps not all, it is possible to discern. The first is that of 
physical science. Science has affected politics in a hundred ways. I 



334 MISSIONS, PIONEERS OF 

am concerned only with one. By the immense impetus it has given 
to the means of transport; by the utilization of electricity as a means 
of communication; by telegraphy, telephony, and by the invention of 
aircraft, it has led to a conspicuous shrinkage in the world. For all 
practical purposes the world is much smaller than it was half a century 
ago. Asia, America, Australia, and Africa have come within the ambit 
of European politics; the continental chanceries are as much con- 
cerned with the Pacific as they are with the Mediterranean. — J. A. R. 
Marriott, in the Nineteenth Century and After, London, April, 1918. 

Missions, The Recent Opening of Afeica. — Why does special inter- 
est attach to what is styled in colloquial speech " the opening up of 
Africa"? — Because only twenty-five years ago Europe and civilized 
America were very slightly acquainted with the greater part of the geog- 
raphy, peoples, and products of Africa; . . . yet nevertheless since 1885 
African discovery has proceeded at a rate so astonishing that there is 
nothing quite comparable to it in the history of human civilization. — 
" The Opening Up of Africa," Sir H. H. Johnston, p. 9. New York: 
Henry Holt & Co., 1911. 

I hear people complain that Africa goes slow. When I look at what 
has been effected in my own lifetime, it appears to me that on the con- 
trary it has been rushed. The maps that I learned from as a boy showed 
the whole interior as a blank. There are now no parts that are not 
more or less known. Railways are running over regions unknown 
forty years ago. — Rear-Admiral Wharton, of the British Navy, in the 
London Geographical Journal, October, 1905. 

Missions, Rise of Modern. — Pages 254, 255. 

Missions, Pioneers of, William Carey. — Carey, William, born 
Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, England, Aug. 17, 1761. In his youth 
he worked with his father, who was a weaver, but at the age of sixteen 
was apprenticed to a shoemaker at Hackleton, working at the trade for 
twelve years. At the age of eighteen he was led, through the influence 
of a pious fellow apprentice, to true faith in Christ, became an earnest 
Christian and a preacher of the gospel. In 1786 he became a pastor of 
the Baptist church at Moulton, having previously preached at Pauler- 
spury, his early home, and at Barton. His income being too small for 
the support of his family, he kept school by day, made or cobbled shoes 
by night, and preached on Sunday. At Moulton he was deeply im- 
pressed with the idea of a mission to the heathen, and frequently con- 
versed with ministers on its practicability and importance, and of his 
willingness to engage in it. . . . 

In 1789 he became pastor of the church at Leicester. At a meet- 
ing of the Ministers' Association at Nottingham, May 31, 1792, he 
preached from "Enlarge the place of thy tent" (Isa. 54: 2, 3), laying 
down these two propositions, ' Expect great things from God and at- 
tempt great things for God." The discourse produced a great impres- 
sion, and the result was, through the special co-operation of Fuller, 
Pearce, and the younger Ryland, the formation, at Kettering, Oct. 2, 
1792, of the Baptist Missionary Society. Carey's first wish was to work 
in Tahiti or Western Africa, but he offered to go wherever the society 
might appoint him. India was selected for its first mission, and he was 
appointed with Mr. John Thomas, a surgeon, who had resided in Bengal, 
and been engaged in mission work. ... 

Believing it to be the duty of a missionary, after receiving some 
help at first, to support himself, Mr. Carey soon after reaching India 



MISSIONS, PIONEERS OF 33, 

relinquished his salary, and he and his family were reduced to serious 
straits. Leaving Calcutta, he walked fifteen miles in the sun, passing 
through salt rivers and a large lake, to the Sunderbunds, a " tract scan- 
tily populated, and notorious for pestilence and wild beasts," intending 
to farm the land and instruct the people. Here he was found by Mr. 
Udney, of the company's service, a pious man and a friend of missions, 
who offered him the superintendence of his indigo factory. As he would 
not only have a competent support for his family and time for study, 
but also a regular congregation of natives connected with the factory, 
he accepted the offer. The factory was at Mudnabatty, in the district 
of Malda, and this became the mission station. 

During the five years he spent here he translated the New Testa- 
ment into Bengali, held daily religious services with the thousand work- 
men in the factory, itinerated regularly through the district, twenty 
miles square and containing 200 villages. His first convert was Ignatius 
Fernandez, of Portuguese descent. ... In 1801 the Bengali transla- 
tion of the New Testament was printed by Mr. Ward, and a copy pre- 
sented to the Marquis of Wellesley, the Governor-General, who expressed 
his great gratification at this result of missionary work. 

About this time Fort William College was established at Calcutta, 
and Mr. Carey was appointed by the Marquis Professor of Sanskrit, 
Bengali, and Marathi. This position he held for thirty years, and taught 
these languages. He wrote articles on the natural history and botany 
Of India for the Asiatic Society, to which he was elected in 1805. The 
publication of the entire Bible in Bengali in five volumes was completed 
in 1809. That which gave Carey his fame was the translation of the 
Bible in whole or in part into twenty-four Indian languages or dialects. 
The Serampore press, under his direction, rendered the Bible accessible 
to more than three hundred millions of human beings. He prepared 
also numerous philological works, consisting of grammars and diction- 
aries in the Sanskrit, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, and Telugu dialects. — 
The Encyclopedia of Missions, Vol. I, art. " Carey, William," pp. 234, 
235. New' York: Funk and W agnails, 1891. 

Missions, Pioneers of, Robert Morrison. — Morrison, Robert, born 
Morpeth, Northumberland, England, Jan. 15, 1782, of humble Scotch 
parentage, his father being a maker of lasts and boot-trees. ... At 
the age of fifteen he joined the Scotch Church. As early as 1801 he 
began the study of Latin, Hebrew, and theology with the minister of 
Newcastle, and after fourteen months' study entered the Independent 
Theological Academy at Hoxton, to prepare for the ministry. Soon after 
his admission he decided to become a missionary to the heathen. In 
May, 1804, he offered himself to the London Missionary Society, was ac- 
cepted, and appointed its first missionary to China. ... He was ordained 
and sailed for China Jan. 31, 1807. ... At first he adopted the Chi- 
nese dress, diet, and habits, but soon resumed his usual mode of life. 

An edict being issued about this time by the Chinese government 
prohibiting the printing of religious books and the preaching of the 
gospel, Mr. Morrison set himself at once to study the language and 
translate the Bible. His health having suffered from incessant study 
and too rigid economy, he went, June % 1808, to Macao, a Portuguese 
colony below Canton, where he had to remain in seclusion because of 
the jealousy of the Roman Catholic priests. His health being restored, 
he returned to Canton. But difficulties having arisen between the Chi- 
nese government and the British government, he went again to Macao. 
He resided here a year with an English family named Martin, and in 
1809 married the eldest daughter. On the same day he was offered the 
position of translator to the East India Company's factory at Canton. 



3»36 MISSIONS, PIONEERS OF 

As it relieved him of pecuniary anxiety, secured for him a permanent 
residence in China, ready access to some of the people, and time for the 
translation of the Scriptures and preparation of his dictionary, he ac- 
cepted the appointment. . . . Though much occupied with office work, 
he found time for Bible translation and the preparation of religious 
books. . . . Early in 1814 the whole of the New Testament was ready, 
and the East India Company furnished a press and materials, also a 
printer to superintend its printing. In this year he baptized his first 
Chinese convert, Tsai-A-Ko, the first Chinese convert to Protestant 
Christianity, who continued steadfast in his faith till his death in 1818. 
In 1815 a Chinese grammar of 300 quarto pages, prepared in 1805, was 
printed at the Serampore press. ... In 1818 the translation of the 
entire Bible, in part with the aid of Dr. Milne, was completed, and 
printed in 1821. ... In 1832 he writes: " I have been twenty-five years 
in China, and am now beginning to see the work prosper. By the press 
we have been able to scatter knowledge far and wide." He was cheered 
by the arrival in 1830 of Messrs. Abeel and Bridgman from America. He 
accompanied Lord Napier as interpreter to Canton, and died there Aug. 
1, 1834. — The Encyclopedia of Missions, Vol. II, art. " Morrison, Rob- 
ert," pp. 147, 148. 

Missions, Pioneers or, Adoniram Jrdson. — Judson, Adoniram 
(1788-1850), American missionary, was born in Maiden, Mass. He was 
graduated from Brown University (1807) and from Andover Theological 
Seminary (1810), and his decision to become a missionary was the occa- 
sion of the organization of the American Board of Commissioners for 
Foreign Missions (Congregational), which sent him out with his wife, 
Ann Hasseltine, in 1812. On his voyage to Calcutta, however, he became 
a Baptist, and after 1814 was supported by the newly organized Ameri- 
can Baptist Missionary Union. He labored at Rangoon, Ava, Maulmain, 
and in other parts of Burma, issuing a translation of the Bible into 
Burmese (1835), and a Burmese and English Dictionary, published 
(1852) after his death. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, art. "Judson, 
Adoniram" p. SI. 

Missions, Pioneers of, Robert Moffat. — Moffat, Robert: African 
missionary; born at Ormiston (9 m. s. e. of Edinburgh), Scotland, Dec. 
21, 1795; died at' Leigh (25 m. s. e. of London), Aug. 9, 1883. From a 
boy he was religiously inclined, and after offering himself for mission 
work to the London Missionary Society, he was accepted and sent to 
South Africa, 1816. He went first to Namaqualand, where he was as- 
sisted by Afrikaner, a native chief converted by him. From there he 
went to Lattakoo in 1820, then on to Kuruman in 1825. From 1839 to 
1843 he was in London, lecturing for the Missionary Society, and trans- 
lating the Psalms. He met -Livingstone at this time, and secured his 
services for the Bechuana mission. In 1843 he resumed his work in 
Kuruman, and in 1857 finished his translation of the Bible. In 1870 he 
returned to England permanently. In 1872 he was honored with a 
doctorate in divinity from Edinburgh, and a testimonial of £5,000 from 
his friends. He and Mrs. Moffat, who shared his labors and dangers, 
were pioneers in South African mission work, and stanch friends of 
the natives, while he proved himself a skilful organizer, teacher, and 
translator. During his work in South Africa he labored at intervals on 
a translation of the Bible into Chuana (Bechuana, Sechuana), which 
was published London, 1872, revised 1890. — The New Schaff-Herzog En- 
cyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VII, art. " Moffat, Robert," pp. 
434, 435. 



MISSIONS, PIONEERS OF 337 

Missions, Pioneers of, John Williams. — Williams, John, born 
Tottenham, near London, England, June 29, 1796. ... At the age of 
twenty he offered himself to the London Missionary Society as a mis- 
sionary, and after some special training, was ordained, and sent with 
his wife, November, 1816, to the South Sea Islands. He was first sta- 
tioned at Eimeo, one of the Society Islands, where he soon acquired 
a knowledge of the native language. Thence he went to Huahine, where 
he found the natives had generally renounced idolatry. At the invita- 
tion of the king of Raiatea, the largest of the Society group, he went 
to that island, which became his permanent headquarters. His success 
here was remarkable, not only in Christianizing the people, but with 
Christianity introducing the arts and habits of civilization. In 1823 he 
visited with six native teachers the Hervey Islands, and after several 
days' search discovered Rarotonga, the largest of this group. Remain- 
ing here for some time, he founded a mission, which was greatly suc- 
cessful, not only Rarotonga, but the whole group of the Hervey Islands 
being Christianized. ... He reduced the language of Raiatea to writing, 
translated with Pitman and Buzacot the New Testament into it, and 
prepared books for the schools he had established. 

Rarotonga being out of the way of vessels, he determined to build 
one in which he might visit other islands. With the aid of the natives 
he made the necessary tools, and within four months completed a vessel 
60 feet long, 18 wide, the sails of native matting, the cordage of the 
bark of the hibiscus, the oakum of cocoanut husks and banana stumps, 
the sheaves of ironwood, the rudder of " a piece of a pickax, a cooper's 
adz, and a long hoe." The boat was named " The Messenger of Peace." 
In this vessel, during the next four years, he explored nearly all the 
South Sea Islands, and several times visited Tahiti, Raiatea, and Raro- 
tonga. In 1830 he set out in his vessel to carry the gospel to the Samoan 
Islands, which he had planned to do in 1824, but was deterred by the 
great distance — 2,000 miles — and the ferocious character of the peo- 
ple. In 1832 he made a second visit to the Samoans, and found the 
people waiting for the gospel. " In less than twenty months an entire 
change had taken place in the habits and character of the Samoans. 
Chapels had been built, and everywhere the people seemed waiting to 
receive instruction." Having completed the object of his voyage, and 
visited all the islands of the Samoan group, he returned to his family. 

With health impaired after seventeen years of toil and hardship, he 
sailed in 1833 for England, where he remained four years. During this 
time he had the Rarotongan New Testament published by the Bible 
Society. ... In 1838 he and his wife again embarked, accompanied by 
ten other missionaries. After visiting the stations already established 
by him, and several new groups, he proceeded with one companion to 
the New Hebrides with the view of establishing a mission, but was met 
by hostile natives of Erromanga, by whom he was killed, after he had 
landed, Nov. 20, 1839. — The Encyclopedia of Missions, Vol. II, art. 
" Williams, John," p. 473. 

Missions, Pioneers of, David Livingstone. — Livingstone, David 
(1813-73), African traveler, born at Blantyre in Scotland. From the age 
of ten he worked in a cotton factory, at the same time teaching him- 
self Latin and studying natural history. In 1836 he attended the 
medical class at Anderson College, Glasgow, and lectures at Glasgow Uni- 
versity, afterward receiving the diploma of the Glasgow faculty of 
Physicians and Surgeons (1840), in which year he was ordained a mis- 
sionary by the London Missionary Society, and set sail for the Cape. Set- 
tling in Bechuanaland, he married in 1844 Mary, daughter of Dr. Moffat. 
In 1849 he began his explorations by a journey to Lake Ngami, which 
22 



33 8 MISSIONS, PIONEERS OP 

he discovered and surveyed, and the Zambesi River, accompanied by 
Oswell and Murray. Again, in 1852, he reached the Zambesi at Sesheke, 
ascended the river, crossed the watershed to the Kasai, and arrived at 
the coast at Loanda. Retracing his steps to Sesheke, he passed down 
the river, discovering the Victoria Falls, and came to Quilimane in May, 
1856. 

After a visit to England, where various honors were conferred upon 
him, Livingstone returned to the Zambesi, having severed his connec- 
tion with the London Missionary Society, and accepted the post of H. M. 
consul at Quilimane (1858). From 1858 to 1864 he, with Dr. (afterward 
Sir John) Kirk, explored the Zambesi, Shire, and Rovuma rivers, and 
discovered Lake Nyasa (1859). Returning to England in 1864, Liv- 
ingstone spent about a year at home, and paid a visit to India before 
starting on his last journey. His great object now was to discover 
the ultimate sources of the Nile. In April, 1866, he was landed at 
Mikindani, whence he marched by the Rovuma River and the south- 
ern extremity of Lake Nyasa, and across the Loangwa and Cham- 
bezi rivers to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, or, as he called 
it, Liemba. In the Lofu valley he made the acquaintance of the noto- 
rious slave dealer, Tippoo-Tib, with whom he traveled to the north- 
eastern shore of Lake Mweru. He then visited the chief Kazembe, and 
discovered Lake Bangweolo (1869), and rejoining the Arabs, crossed 
Lake Tanganyika, and came to Ujiji. Though suffering severely from 
illness, he left Ujiji again in July, 1869, and after many hardships and 
dangers struck the Lualaba at Nyangwe. On his return to Ujiji in 
October, 1871, he was, when in great straits, relieved by Stanley, who 
had been sent out by the New York Herald to find him. Stanley re- 
turned to the coast, taking with him Livingstone's journals, while the 
worn-out traveler marched southward in 1872, and skirting the south- 
eastern shore of Tanganyika struggled on in a dying state till he 
reached Chitambo's village, south of Lake Bangweolo, where he expired 
in May, 1873. His body was carried by his faithful followers to the 
coast, and was buried in Westminster Abbey in April, 1874. In 1902 a 
monument was erected on the spot where he died. — Nelson's Encyclo- 
pedia, Vol. VII, art. " Livingstone, David," pp. 358, 359. 

Missions, Pioneebs of, James Chalmers. — Chalmers, James (1841- 
1901), Scottish missionary to New Guinea, was born at Ardrishaig in 
Argyll. After serving in the Glasgow City Mission, he passed through 
Chestnut College, and being accepted by the London Missionary Society, 
was appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in 1866. Here the na- 
tives gave him the well-known name " Tamate." After ten years' serv- 
ice, especially in training native evangelists, he was transferred to New 
Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but sane missionary work, 
Chalmers did much to open up the island, and with his colleague, W. G. 
Lawes, gave valuable aid in the British annexation of the southeast 
coast of the island. On the eighth of April, 1901, in company with a 
brother missionary, Oliver Tompkins, he was killed by cannibals at 
Goaribari Island. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. V, art. " Chal- 
mers, James," p. 809, 11th edition. 

Missions, Pioneebs of, Zinzendorf . — In 1722 two families named 
Neisser, led by Christian David, " the servant of the Lord," fled from 
Moravia, and by invitation of Count Zinzendorf, settled on his domain 
of Berthelsdorf in Saxony. About 300 Brethren, in the course of the 
next seven years, emigrated from Moravia and Bohemia to the same 
place. They built a town called Herrnhut, and were joined by a num- 



MISSIONS, PIONEERS OF 339 

ber of other Protestants from various parts of Germany. This settle- 
ment became the center of the renewed Brethren's church. ... 

When Zinzendorf permitted the Brethren to settle on his estate, he 
knew little or nothing of the church of their fathers; and the projects 
which he had formed for the extension of God's kingdom looked in a 
different direction. It was only after these projects had failed, that he 
was made to see that Herrnhut, to use his own words, constituted " the 
parish to which he had from all eternity been ordained." 

By that time, however, there was gathered a body of Christians, not 
exclusively descended from the Bohemian fathers, but representing a 
union of survivors of the almost extinct church of the Bohemian- 
Moravian Brethren with representatives of German Pietism. ... A mis- 
sionary spirit was fostered, which sent messengers of the gospel to all 
parts of the heathen world, and found fields at home, through the so- 
called " Diaspora," on the continent of Europe, and, through domestic 
missions, in Great Britain and America. . . . Zinzendorf was consecrated 
a bishop in 1737, and during his lifetime practically stood at the head 
of the church, although he had many assistants; and synods, in which 
his influence was all-powerful, were often held. . . . 

Although three Protestant missions existed prior to the Moravian 
missionary work, such enterprises were all undertaken in connection 
with the planting of colonies. The Moravians were the first Protestants 
who went among the heathen with no other purpose in view than that 
of saving souls. In 1732 Leonard Dober and David Nitschmann inau- 
gurated on the island of St. Thomas that work to which the church still 
chiefly devotes itself, which God has wonderfully blessed. At various 
times missions — in the service of which large amounts of money were 
spent and many lives sacrificed, but which eventually proved unsuc- 
cessful — were undertaken in the following countries: Lapland (1734- 
36), shores of the Arctic Ocean (1737-38), Ceylon (1738-41), Algiers 
(1740), Guinea (1737-41 and 1767-70), Persia (1747-50), Egypt (1752- 
83), East Indies (1759-96), and the Calmuck territory (1768-1823). In 
1900 the mission among the Eskimos of Greenland, commenced in 1733, 
was transferred to the care of the state church of Denmark, there being 
no more professed heathen in this region. The field at the present day 
embraces the following mission provinces: Labrador (1771), Alaska 
(1885), Indians of North America (1734), St. Thomas and St. John 
(1732), St. Croix (1732), Jamaica (1754), Antigua (1756), St. Kitts 
(1775), Barbados (1765), Tobago (1790, renewed 1827), Trinidad (1890), 
Santo Domingo (1907), Demerara (1835, renewed 1878), Nicaragua 
(1848), Surinam (1735), South African Western Province (1736, re- 
newed 1792), South African Eastern Province (1828), German East 
Africa (1891), Australia (1849), and West Himalaya (1853). The an- 
nual cost of this extensive work is about $500,000. — The New Sofiaff- 
Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. XII, art. " Unity of 
the Brethren" pp. 91-94. 

Missions, Protestant Population) of the Earth. — The total nom- 
inally Protestant population of the earth is not quite twice the population 
of the United States. The relation of the Protestant forces of the 
earth to the Non-Christian forces is, therefore, as one is to six or seven. 
— -"World Survey " Vol. II, p. 15. New' York: Interchurch Press, copy- 
right 1920. 

Missions, Density op Population in the Non-Christian World. — 
The density of population in the non-Christian world is, when one sub- 
tracts from the estimate the inarable land, one and one-half times that 
of the United States, while the density of population in South America 
is only one third that of the United States. 



340 MISSIONS, NON-CHRISTIAN LANDS 

China has three and one-half times, India five and one-half times, 
and Japan thirteen times the density of population of the United 
States for the arable land. 

The highly congested centers of the world, with the exception of 
cities and certain small areas like Belgium, are non-Christian. Even 
more significant is the fact that the population of these congested areas 
is increasing much more rapidly than that of the Christian areas. — 
"World Survey," Vol. II. p. 15. New York: Inter church Press, copy- 
right 



Missions, The Individual Responsibility for Evangelization. — 
As a matter of fact, if the twenty-six million Protestant church mem- 
bers in the United States were to assume much more than is necessary, 
viz., the responsibility for the evangelization of every non-Christian 
in the world after subtracting those for whom British and European 
Protestants have assumed the care, the load would be by no means 
overwhelming. The individual American responsibility would be for 
less than thirty-five persons. — Id., p. 17. 

Missions, Forbidden Lands. — Tibet, Afghanistan, Nepal, and Bhu- 
tan are the only lands where it is forbidden to preach the gospel. In 
Portuguese East Africa the teaching of Christ is 'opposed in the area 
controlled by a great company which, though from a nominally Chris- 
tian land, does not wish to be hindered in its ruthless exploitation of 
the native by the spread of the knowledge that all men are equal be- 
fore God. The French government forbids missionaries to cross the 
border from Siam into French Indo-China. In other limited areas, 
fanaticism and intolerance act as barriers against the Christian mis- 
sionary. But with these few exceptions, the gospel can be preached 
today in every part of the world. — Id., p. 18. 

Missions, Illiteracy in the Non-Christian Lands. — Only one man 
in a dozen in the non-Christian world can read or write. Only one 
woman in twenty-five is literate. We think that the United States is 
handicapped by an illiteracy rate of seven out of a hundred; but among 
three fifths of the inhabitants of the world the rate is ninety-five in a 
hundred. 

In Central Africa there are not only whole villages in which there 
is not a single person who can read, but whole tribes that have no writ- 
ten language. 

Only one tribe in Africa had a written language before the mis- 
sionaries came. Now, after years of missionary effort, scarcely one 
sixth of the more than 830 languages and dialects of Africa have been 
reduced to writing. 

Only about 1 per cent of the men and one fourth of 1 per cent 
of the women in Central Africa are literate. Except for Egypt and lim- 
ited areas along the Mediterranean coast, these figures hold good for all 
Africa, [p. 27] . . . 

The present literacy of China is estimated at about 8 per cent for 
the men and about 2 per cent for the women. Until very recently the 
language of education differed from that of the common people; only 
those who made a profession of scholarship could even begin to master 
the 40,000 characters. One had to know about 2,500 characters to read 
the New Testament. 

The missionaries have done more than any other class toward the 
popularization of the simplified system of writing that has been adopted 
by the Chinese government. 



MISSIONS, STATUS OF WOMEN 341 

For seventy-seven million children China has only fifty thousand 
primary schools. To make education universal, one million schools 
and two million teachers are needed. 

There are more than fifty million children of school age in India, 
but only between five and six million children are enrolled in primary 
schools. The literacy rate for India is six out of one hundred, and 
fully five out of the six are men. 

Education in India, like almost every other activity of life, is 
influenced by caste. At the top of the ladder are the comparatively 
few members of the higher castes among whom education is traditional. 
At the bottom are the depressed classes — sixty or seventy million of 
them — the untouchables, they are called, who are considered almost 
as mere beasts. If it were not for the Christian missionaries, who 
know no caste, the outcastes would be wholly illiterate now as they were 
not many years ago. 

The Indian converts to Christianity are recruited mainly from these 
low castes and outcastes, such as the sweepers and leather workers. But 
this Christian community has, in proportion to its numbers, three times 
as many literate persons as the Hindus and more than four times as 
many as the Mohammedans. 

The non-Christian world is not illiterate because it has no desire 
for education or because it has no capacity for learning. It is so be- 
cause it has never had a chance. 

Japan has demonstrated the practicability of popular education in 
the non-Christian world. Half a century ago, Japan adopted as her 
slogan, "Not a village with an ignorant family; not a family with an 
ignorant member." Today there is scarcely an illiterate to be found 
in all Japan under the age of thirty years. 

The Philippines have been another proving ground. When the 
United States sent one thousand teachers to the islands in 1901, the 
illiteracy was 95 per cent. Today it is 55 per cent for the population 
over ten. There are not enough schools in the Philippines — only 
about half the population of school age is served by schools; but the 
schools are successful — they teach what the population needs, not 
merely academic subjects, but standards of living and practical means 
of livelihood, [pp. 27, 28] — " World Survey," Vol. II, pp. 27, 28. New 
York: Interchurch Press, copyright 1920. 

Missions, Status of Women in the non-Christian World. — For 
two thirds of the women of the world, marriage is not by their free 
choice. Nowhere in the non-Christian world, except in a few places 
such as Sumatra, Siam, and parts of Oceania, is it the general practice 
for the woman to be consulted in the choice of a husband. In Africa 
women are bartered for a few beads, or perhaps a blanket. 

In Mohammedan households the heavy burden of polygamy drags 
down the spiritual meaning of the home. Shut out of heaven by the 
Koran, treated either as slave or toy, confined within the harem, 
illiterate, childish, what possible force can these women be for the 
revitalizing of the life around them? 

Thirteen is the average marriage age in India, and child-bearing 
begins in the very shadow of childhood. Behind the purdah, in the 
zenana, life quickly fades. The average life of an Indian woman is 
but twenty-three years. Is it any wonder that in India it is estimated 
that babies are born a pound lighter than in the Western world? 

Child marriage, like every other lowering of the status of woman, 
is costly not alone to the woman but to the race. Child marriage 
means the breeding of children by immature women, undeveloped in 



342 MISSIONS, RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 

body and unready in mind. The result is ill health and unhappiness 
for women. They grow old too soon. They share little in the com- 
forts and adventures of life. They create little bodies, but they cannot 
create homes where children can grow healthy and wise. 

Through Central Africa the marriage age for women is from ten 
to fourteen. In North Africa the marriage age for women is from nine 
to fifteen. In India there are two and one-half million wives under ten 
years old. In Japan the age is rising. The marriage age for women is 
now around twenty. The change can be laid to Christian influence, 
and to general recognition that to allow the development of the mother 
before marriage is the greatest insurance against producing a feeble 
race with mothers ill equipped to nourish and mold it. 

In China girls of thirteen and fourteen are married to men of 
forty and fifty. The husband is his wife's master. He may beat her. 
He may collect all her wages. The endless bargains between families 
over marriages and marriage settlements leave no place for the free 
development of the bride. — " World Survey" Vol. II, pp. 35, 36. New 
York: Interchurch Press, copyright 1920. 

Missions, Christian Population of Heathendom. — In all the world 
there are, as nearly as can be estimated, one hundred and thirty million 
Protestant church members. Over 95 per cent of this number live in 
the United States, the British Isles, Canada, Continental Europe, or 
Australasia. 

About one fifth of 1 per cent are scattered through the Latin-Ameri- 
can countries. Pour per cent live in what we know as the non-Christian 
world. In this number are included Europeans and descendants of 
Europeans. About 2 per cent of the Christians of the world have 
been converted from heathenism by the missions. 

One person out of every four in the United States is a communi- 
cant in a Protestant church. In the British Isles the proportion is 
one person out of every seven, in Continental Europe it is one out of 
five. But in the non-Christian world, there is only one Protestant 
church member for every 200 of population, if Europeans and their 
descendants are included, and only one for every 400 among the 
native races. 

Counting converts to the Roman Catholic Church and converts who 
are not church members, the Christian population of heathendom 
reaches fifty million. — Id., p. 43. 

Missions, Principal Religions of the World. — Today the principal 
religions of the world are as follows: 

RELIGION ADHERENTS PERCENTAGE 

Christians • • 565,000,000 34.2 

Taoists and Confucianists 301,000,000 18.3 

Mohammedans 222,000,000 13.44 

Hindus 211,000,000 12.8 

Animists 158,000,000 917 

Buddhists 138,000,000 8.4 

Shintoists 25,000,000 1.5 

Jews 12,000,000 .74 

Unclassified 15,000,000 .92 

Fifty-four per cent of the peoples of the world are adherents of 
some one of the five great Oriental religions. — Id., p. 44. 

Missions, Untouched Areas. — According to the most conservative 
estimate, there are at least one hundred sixty million people of the non- 
Christian world utterly untouched by missionary effort. This figure 



MODERNISM 3 43 

does not include the peoples of localities — and there are many such — 
where there are merely not enough missionaries to handle the work; 
it includes only the peoples living in areas where there are no mis- 
sionaries at all. 

There are still 480,000 square miles of territory in China proper 
with thirty-five million to forty million inhabitants utterly unclaimed 
by any missionary agency, and in Turkestan, Tibet, and Mongolia 
there are eleven or twelve million more forgotten non-Christians. 

At least twenty-six million of the natives of Central Africa have 
no missions among them or near them. Of the remaining twelve 
million over one half are practically untouched by the influence of the 
missions. 

Afghanistan, with a population of 6,380,500; Nepal, with a popula- 
tion of 5,639,092, and Bhutan, with about 300,000 inhabitants, are all 
without missionaries. 

In Central and Southeastern Asia, in the Near East, in Latin 
America, there are millions waiting to hear the word of God. 

With the exception of Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet, there 
is practically no country in the world where it is not legally permissible 
to preach the religion of Christ. 

It is estimated that, given men and money, all China could be 
occupied by missionaries in the next five years. — " World Survey," 
Vol. II, p. 48. New York: Inter church Press, copyright 1920. 

Modernism, Definition of. — Modernism is a movement within the 
Roman Catholic Church which seeks and aims to force an adjustment 
between the church in her medieval garb and the results of physical 
science and literary criticism. Back of, and associated with, both 
science and criticism there lies a philosophical theory, speculative and 
rationalistic in type. Modernism received its name from the Jesuit 
Fathers in Rome, and [the name] was adopted by the Pope and the 
Vatican authorities, who have combated it at every turn in the tide, 
first by excommunicating its leaders, men like Tyrrell, Mivart, and 
Loisy, then by papal encyclical, and finally by exacting a reprofession 
of faith from every priest actively engaged in the ministry. — " Modern- 
ism and the Reformation," John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. I)., p. 168. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Mohammedanism. — Pages 544-546. 

Moffat, Robert.— Page 336. 

Mormon Church. — Page 145. 

Morrison, Rohert. — Page 335. 

Nantes, Edict of. — Pages 405, 406. 

Napoleon.— Pages 154, 155, 194-196, 199, 267, 288, 364, 390, 391, 393. 

National Reform Association. — Pages 586, 587. 

Nature of Man, No Inherent Immortality. — The introduction of 
the anti-Christian figment of man's immortality has given a wrench to 
the whole of Christianity, and rendered it difficult for logical minds 
to hold some of the plainest gospel doctrines. The recovery of the 
truth respecting Christ, as the only source of immortal life to mankind, 



344 NATURE OF MAN, DR. HALES ON 

will bring out into fresh beauty the whole facade of the evangelical 
theology. 

For this truth places in a new light all that the New Testament 
teaches on the church's union with Christ. As descendants of Adam, 
we possess no inherent principle of eternal life. We must be " born 
again," i. e., united by regeneration to Christ, the incarnate life of God, 
the second head of the human race. And this union by the Holy Spirit 
personally dwelling in us is no legal fiction, no dream, or mere imagina- 
tion, or figure of speech. It is the deepest reality in human existence. — 
"Life in Christ," Edward White, p. 248. London: Elliot Stock, 1876. 

Nature of Man, Silence of Sceipture on Man's Immortality. — 
That the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is never once explicitly 
delivered throughout the whole range of the Jewish and Christian Scrip- 
tures, is a fact of which every reader may satisfy himself by exam- 
ination; and it is a fact which long ago has drawn the attention of 
thoughtful and exact inquirers. — Id., pp. 85, 86. 

In every other instance we obtain from the prophets and apostles 
clear and frequent expressions of the doctrines which they were com- 
missioned to deliver, even of those which unaided reason was able to 
discover, as the existence of God and the difference between good and 
evil. But in this instance nearly a hundred writers have by some 
astonishing fatality omitted, with one consent, all reference to the 
immortality . of the soul; no sentence of the Bible containing that 
brief declaration " from God," or even a passing reference, which would 
have set the controversy forever at rest. In our own times scarcely a 
religious work issues from the press addressed to sinful men, scarcely 
a public exhortation directed to them, without a distinct exhibition of 
the doctrine of immortality, of deathless being in the nature of man, 
as the basis of the whole theological superstructure. Now, how shall 
we explain the remarkable fact that neither apostles nor prophets have 
ever once employed this argument in dealing with the wicked: "You 
have immortal souls, and must live forever in joy or woe, therefore re- 
pent! " — an argument of almost irresistible force, if it be true? How, 
otherwise than by concluding that this was not their philosophy, that 
this doctrine formed no part of the " wisdom of God," and that they 
were withheld from proposing it to the world by Him who has de- 
clared that the eternal life of the righteous is the gift of his grace, and 
that "all the wicked he will destroy" ? — Id., pp. 86, 87. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Hales on Immortality Only in Christ. — But 
when it is said that man was made " an heir " of immortality, " accord- 
ing to the hope of eternal life " (Titus 3:7), this is not to be understood 
as being derived from any inherent virtue in his nature; as if the spirit 
or mind was necessarily immortal, according to the arrogant notions of 
heathen philosophers, and philosophizing divines of their school. The 
divine sentence pronounced on Adam, " Dust thou art, and unto dust 
shalt thou return" (Gen. 3: 19), included the dissolution of the spirit 
also. ..." And this, I say," says St. Paul, " that flesh and blood [or 
mankind, Matt. 16: 17] are not able [naturally] to inherit the kingdom 
of God, neither shall corruption inherit incorruption: " in order to this 
end, a great and sudden change is to be wrought in both soul and body; 
for the apostle proceeds, " Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall not all 
sleep [an eternal sleep, in death], but shall all be changed, in a moment, 
in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet (for the trumpet shall 
sound), and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be 
changed: for this corruptible [body] must put on incorruption, and this 



NATURE OF MAN, THE INCARNATION 3 45 

mortal [soul] put on immortality." 1 Cor. 15 : 50-53. " Eternal life, 
indeed, is the free gift of God, through Jesus Christ our Lord " (Rom. 
6:23); "Who illustrated life and incorruption both by the gospel" 
(2 Tim. 1: 10), which he preached (John 6: 68; 20: 21); and by the 
example of his own resurrection, in a glorified body, as " the first fruits," 
the sample and the pledge, of " the resurrection of the just," to " glory, 
honor, and immortality." 1 Cor. 15: 20-23; Luke 14: 14; Rom. 2:7; Col. 
3: 1-4. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography" Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. II, pp. 5, 6. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Note. — The Greek word dcpdapros (aphthartos) , meaning "immortal, incor- 
ruptible," occurs as follows : Rom. 1 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 25 ; 15 : 52 ; 1 Tim. 1 : 17 ; 
1 Peter 1:4, 23 ; 3:4. The word ddavaaia (athanasia) , meaning " immortality," 
occurs: 1 Cor. 15:53, 54; 1 Tim. 6:16. The word a<f>dap<rLa (aphtharsia) , 
meaning " immortality, incorruption, sincerity," occurs : Rom. 2:7: 1 Cor. 
15:42, 50, 53, 54; Eph. 6:24; 2 Tim. 1:10; Titus 2:7. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Immortality Through the Incarnation. — The one 
line of thought, transcending all natural ideas of man, which pervades 
John's Gospel, is the incarnation of the Deity, of the Logos-Theos, in 
the person of Jesus our Lord. The other line of thought is the parallel 
affirmation from the lips of this incarnate Deity, that man owes the 
prospect of everlasting life, not to his own nature, but to redemptive 
union with Him, the life of the world. — " Life in Christ," Edward 
White, p. 236. London: Elliot Stock, 1876. 

That doctrine, which beyond all others moves the unbelief and scorn 
of Asia and of Europe, the incarnation of the Word, is seen to be at 
once the essential condition of man's immortality and its only solid 
foundation. " Behold I lay in Zion for a foundation, a Rock, a solid 
Rock; and he that believeth shall not be confounded." This Rock is 
the incarnation of the life-giving Word. — Id., p. 237. 

Nature of Man, Relation of Incarnation to. — What, then, if we 
may follow the natural and proper sense of these declarations of Christ 
[concerning the reception of eternal life through faith in him], is the 
result to which they lead us? 

Beyond all question it is that the very object of the incarnation is 
to immortalize mankind; that man can live forever only by spiritual 
union with the incarnate Deity; that apart from such union man will 
die, perish, and be destroyed. 

When we wish to express the idea of perpetual existence, or the loss 
of being, there is no language in which we can so naturally and properly 
convey our meaning as in these words of Christ. Some will live forever, 
others will perish. Were it not for certain extrinsic considerations, 
derived from foreign fields of thought, no one would ever have imagined 
a different sense. Unless a reader had been warned beforehand, that 
every man's soul, being destined by its nature to last forever and not 
to die (being im-mortal), he must therefore not put upon the terms of 
Christ's discourses any meaning which will contradict that doctrine 
of natural immortality, — he would not have dreamed of imposing such 
a figurative sense upon them, or of making life eternal stand for hap- 
piness, or perishing stand for endless misery. It is altogether due to 
foreign and unusual considerations, if readers have learned to take 
such words in an unnatural sense. For life signifies life, and to live 
forever signifies to live forever, and to perish signifies not to live for- 
ever, but to lose organized and conscious being. That is the first and 
the natural meaning of the words. — Id., p. 225. 



346 NATURE OF MAN, VIEWS ON 

Nature of Man, Greeks Received Doctrine of Immortality of Soul 
from Egypt. — The Egyptians . . . were also the first to broach the 
opinion that the soul of man is immortal, and that when the body dies, 
it enters into the form of an animal which is born at the moment, 
thence passing on from one animal into another, until it has circled 
through the forms of all the creatures which tenant the earth, the 
water, and the air, after which it enters again into a human frame, and 
is born anew. The whole period of the transmigration is (they say) 
three thousand years. There are Greek writers, some of an earlier, 
some of a later date, who have borrowed this doctrine from the Egyp- 
tians, and put it forward as their own. — Herodotus, book 2, chap. 123, 
translated by George Rawlinson. Everyman's Library edition; London: 
J. M. Dent & Sons. 

Nature of Man, Clarke on " Living Soul." — Nephesh chaiyah: a 
general term to express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of 
its infinitely varied gradations. — " A Commentary and Critical Notes'' 
Adam Clarice, LL. D., on Gen. 1:24. New York: Lane and Scott, 1850. 

Note. — This is the term used in Gen. 2:7, of man ; also of animals Id 
Gen. 1 : 20, 21, 24, 30. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Kitto on " Living Soul." — And Jehovah God 
formed the man (Heb., the Adam) dust from the ground, and blew into 
his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living animal. . . . 
Some of our readers may be surprised at our having translated nephesh 
chaiyah by " living animal." There are good interpreters and preach- 
ers, who, confiding in the common translation, " living soul," have 
maintained that here is intimated a distinctive pre-eminence above the 
inferior animals, as possessed of an immaterial and immortal spirit. 
But, however true that distinction is, and supported by abundant argu- 
ment from both philosophy and the Scriptures, we should be acting un- 
faithfully if we were to affirm its being contained or implied in this 
passage. — Religious Encyclopedia, John Kitto, D. D., art. "Adam," p. 58. 
Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1862. 

Nature of Man, Professor Bush on "Living Soul." — The phrase 
" living soul " is in the foregoing narrative repeatedly applied to the 
inferior orders of animals, which are not considered to "be possessed of 
a " soul " in the sense in which that term is applied to man. It would 
seem to mean the same, therefore, when spoken of man that it does when 
spoken of beasts; viz., an animated being, a creature possessed of life 
and sensation, and capable of performing all the physical functions by 
which animals are distinguished, as eating, drinking, walking, etc. . . . 
Indeed, it may be remarked that the Scriptures generally afford much 
less explicit evidence of the existence of a sentient, immaterial prin- 
ciple in man, capable of living and acting separate from the body, than 
is usually supposed. — " Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of 
Genesis," Prof. George Bush, on Gen. 2:7. Neiv York: Mark H. Newman, 
1843. 

Nature of Man, Adam's Mortality Shown. — The expression, " liv- 
ing soul," as used in Genesis, is often taken to indicate an order of 
being superior to the brute, and is the text of many an argument to 
prove the immortality of the soul. The incorrectness of this assump- 
tion will be readily seen by referring to Gen. 1: 20, 21, 24, and elsewhere, 
in which passages the words translated " living soul " are applied also 
to the entire lower creation. They are used indifferently of man and 
beast to express animal life in general; and it is in this light that the 



NATURE OF MAN, ON WORDS USED 3 47 

apostle uses them [1 Cor. 15: 45], as the very course of his argument 
shows. Adam is spoken of as a living soul, not to prove his immortality, 
but rather his mortality. — "A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," 
John P. Lange, D. D., on 1 Cor. 15: 45, translated by Philip Schaff, p. 339. 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906. 

Note. — In his book, " Here and Hereafter," Uriah Smith says : " Gesenius, 
the standard Hebrew lexicographer, defines nephesh as follows : ' 1. Breath. 
2. The vital spirit, as the Greek psuche, the Latin anima, through which the body 
lives ; i. e., the principle of life manifested in the breath.' To this he also 
ascribes ' whatever has respect to the sustenance of life by food and drink, 
and on the contrary.' ' 3. The rational soul, mind, animus, as the seat of feel- 
ings, affections, and emotions. 4. Concr. living thing, animal in which is the 
nephesh, life.' " — Page 61, edition 1907. 

" The word nephesh occurs 745 times in the Old Testament, and is trans- 
lated by the term ' soul ' about 473 times. In every instance in the Old Testa- 
ment where the word ' soul ' occurs, it is from nephesh, with the exception of 
Job 30 : 15, where it comes from H^ftl (n'dee-vah), and Isa. 57 : 16, where it is 

from nfav#3 (n'shah-mah). But the mere use of the word ' soul ' determines noth- 
ing ; for it cannot be claimed to signify an immortal part, until we somewhere 
find immortality affirmed of it. 

" Besides the word ' soul,' nephesh is translated * life ' and ' lives,' as in 
Gen. 1 : 20, 30, in all 118 times. It is translated ' person,' as in Gen. 14 : 21, in 
all 29 times. It is translated ' mind,' as in Gen. 23 : 8, in all 15 times. It is 
translated ' heart,' as in Ex. 23 : 9, in all 15 times. It is translated * body,' or 
4 dead body,' as in Num. 6:6, in all 11 times. It is translated ' will,' as in 
Ps. 27 : 12, in all 4 times. It is translated ' appetite,' as in Prov. 23 : 2, twice ; 
' lust,' as in Ps. 78 : 18, twice ; ' thing,' as in Lev. 11 : 10, twice. 

" Besides the foregoing, it is rendered by the various pronouns, and by the 
words, ' breath, beast, fish, creature, ghost, pleasure, desire,' etc. — in all forty- 
three different ways. Nephesh is never rendered ' spirit.' 

" Nephesh Is Mortal. — This ' soul ' (nephesh) is represented as in danger of 
the grave. Ps. 49 : 14, 15 ; 89 : 48 ; Job 33 : 18, 20, 22 ; Isa. 38 : 17. It is also 
spoken of as liable to be destroyed, killed, etc. Gen. 17 : 14 ; Ex. 31 : 14 ; Joshua 
10:30, 32, 35, 37, 39, etc."— Pages 62, 63, edition 1907. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Clarke on " Gave Up the Ghost " (Gen. 25: 8). 
— Highly as I value our translation for general accuracy, fidelity, and 
elegance, I must heg leave to dissent from this version. The original 
word riy (yigva), from the root #f)) (gava), signifies to pant for breath, 
to expire, to cease from breathing, or to breathe one's last; and here, 
and wherever the original word is used, the simple term expired would 
be the proper expression. In our translation this expression occurs 
Gen. 25: 8, 17; 35: 29; 49: 33; Job 3: 11; 10: 18; 11: 20; 13: 19; 14: 10; 
Lam. 1: 19; in all of which places the original is i?U (gava). — "A 
Commentary and Critical Notes," Adam Clarke, LL. D., on Gen. 25:8. 
New York: Lane and Scott, 1850: 

Nature of Man, Bullinger's Greek Lexicon on " Soul." — Soul, 
psuche, one of the manifestations of zoe (life), viz.: that which is mani- 
fested in animals, animal life; hence, breath (not breath as mere air, 
but as the sign of life). Once applied to vegetable life. Isa. 10: 18. 

In Old Testament everywhere LXX for nephesh, and is said to be 
possessed by all the lower creatures. Gen. 1: 20, 21, 24, 30; 2:7, 19; 
9: 10, 12, 15, 16; Lev. 11: 10, 46; Num. 31: 28; Prov. 7: 23; 12: 10; 
Eze. 47: 9. So also Rev. 8:9; 16: 3. 

It denotes the vital principle in animal bodies. 1 Sam. 22: 23; 
1 Kings 1: 12; 2 Chron. 1: 11; Esther 7: 3; Prov. 1: 19; 6: 26; 16: 25, 
26;" Luke 12: 19-23; 1 John 3: 16. 

It is used of the person as possessed of such life. Gen. 12: 5; 14: 21; 
17: 14; 19: 17, 19, 20; 46: 18; Ex. 12: 15; Lev. 4: 2; 5: 15; 7: 27; Esther 
9: 31; Isa. 47: 14 (cf. Rev. 6: 9). Also of a dead person (with the adj.). 
Lev. 21: 11. And of those raised, Rev. 20: 4, as contrasted with those 
yet unraised, Rev. 20: 5. 

It can die or be killed. Lev. 24: 17, 18; Num. 23: 10; 31: 19; Deut, 



3 48 NATURE OF MAN, " SOUL " 

19: 6; 22: 26; 27: 25; Judges 16: 30; Prov. 7: 23; Eccl. 3: 19. So of per- 
sons. Joshua 10: 28, 30, 39; Lev. 23: 30. Also Matt. 10: 28; Mark 3: 4; 
Luke 9: 54-56; Rev. 16: 3. 

• It goes to the grave (Job 33: 22), and can be hazarded by danger. 
Acts 15: 26; Rom. 11: 3. 

It is identified with the blood (as the spirit never is). Gen. 9: 4, 5; 
Lev. 17: 11, 14; Ps. 72: 14; 94: 21; Prov. 28: 17. 

The Greek psuche is identified with Hebrew nephesh by comparing 
Acts 2: 27 with Ps. 16: 10; Rom. 11: 3 with 1 Kings 19: 10; 1 Cor. 15: 
45 with Gen. 2:7; Matt. 20: 28 with Isa. 53: 10. 

" My soul " is the same as " me " or " myself." Num. 23: 10; Judges 
16: 30; 1 Kings 20: 32; Ps. 35: 13; 59: 3; 131: 2; Jer. 18: 20 (cf. 38: 6). 

"His soul" is the same as "him" or "himself." Gen. 37: 21; Job 
18: 4; Ps. 23: 29 [22: 29]; 105: 17, 18.— ■" Critical Lexicon,'' Rev. E. W. 
Bullinger, D. D., under "Soul." London: Longmans, Green & Co. 

Note. — Of psuche (soul) the Greek word corresponding to the Hebrew 
nephesh, Uriah Smith sums up the use as follows : 

" Psuche Defined. — Greenfield gives to psuche the following definition : . . . 
"'Breath; life; i. e., the animal soul, principle of life (Luke 12:19, 20; Acts 
20 : 10) ; life ; i. e., the state of being alive, existence (spoken of natural life) 
(Matt. 2 : 20 ; 6: 25) ; and by implication, of life as extending beyond the grave 
(Matt. 10:39; John 12:25) ; by metonymy, that which has life, a living crea- 
ture, living being (1 Cor. 15:45) ; spoken of a man, person, individual (Acts 
2:41).' 

" Bagster's analytical Greek lexicon gives substantially the same definition 
as follows : 

" * Breath : the principle of animal life ; the life (Matt. 2 : 20) ; an inanimate 
being (1 Cor. 15:45) ; a human individual, soul (Acts 2:41) ; the immaterial 
soul (Matt. 10: 28) ; the soul as the seat of religious and moral sentiment (Matt. 
11:29) ; the soul as a seat of feeling (Matt. 12:18) ; the soul, the inner self 
(Luke 12: 19). 

" Psuche as Used in the Scriptures. — The word * soul ' in the New Testa- 
ment comes invariably from the Greek \pvxh (psuche); which word occurs 105 
times. It is translated * soul ' 58 times ; ' life ' 40 times ; ' mind ' 3 times ; ' heart ' 
twice ; ' us ' once ; and * you ' once — six different ways." — " Here and Here- 
after," p. 03, edition 1907. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Bullinger's Greek Lexicon on " Spirit." — Spirit, 
pneuma (from pneo, to blow, breathe; send forth an odor; to breathe or 
smell of a thing; of animals, to breathe hard, pant, gasp; gen., to draw 
breath, breathe, and so to live); hence, the air we breathe, wind; 
breathing as the sign and condition of life, breath. When it is not used 
for wind, it expresses immateriality, that which cannot be apprehended 
by the senses, but is recognized only by its operations or manifestations, 
as it is seen by the life, the liveliness, the activities, whether these 
activities be mental, moral, or physical. In the Old Testament pneuma 
is everywhere the translation of ruach, and is the life principle spring- 
ing from God, and is said to be possessed by all the lower creatures. 
Gen. 6: 17; 7: 14; Ps. 104: 29, 30; Eccl. 3: 19, 20; Isa. 42: 5. The ruach, 
or pneuma, of God is the source of life in all its manifestations. . . . 
The withdrawal of it leaves thanatos (death), the opposite of zoe (life). 
Ps. 114: 30 [104: 29]; 137: 17 [107: 17, 18]; 146: 4; Job 15: 30; 27: 3; 
Eccl. 8:8; 12: 7; James 2: 26. — "Critical Lexicon," Rev. E. W. Bullin- 
ger, D. D., under "Spirit." London: Longmans, Green & Co. 

Note. — Of the use of the words ruach (Hebrew) and pneuma (Greek), 
Uriah Smith says : 

" Ruach Defined. — For the definition of this word we appeal again to 
Gesenius : 

" ' nil . 1. Breath, a breathing, blowing ; i. e., (a) breath of the nostrils, 

a snuffing, snorting; (&) breath of the mouth. Often of the vital breath, breath 
of life ; fully, B^tji fff\ (Gen. 6 : 17) ; (c) Breath of air, in motion. 2. The same 
as ^?.<3, ty v xh Tpswcfte], anima; i. e., the vital spirit, breath of Life. 3. The 



NATURE OF MAN, "SPIRITS IN PRISON" 349 



rational soul, mind, spirit; (a) as the seat of the affections; (&) in reference to 
the disposition, the mode of feeling and acting ; (c) of will, counsel, purpose ; 
(d) more rarely of the understanding. 4. The Spirit of God.' 

" Ruach as Used in the Scriptures. — This word occurs in the Old Testament 
442 times. The word ' spirit ' in every instance of its occurrence in the Old 
Testament, 234 times, is from this word, except in Job 26 : 4 and Prov. 20 : 27, 
where it is from n'shah-mah. Besides being rendered 232 times ' spirit,' it is 
translated ' wind ' 97 times, ' breath ' 28 times, ' smell ' 8 times, ' mind ' 6 times, 
' blast ' 4 times, also ' anger, courage, smell, air,' etc. — in all sixteen different 
ways. 

" ' Spirit ' in the New Testament is from the Greek irvevfia (pneuma) in 
every instance. 

" Pneuma Defined. — Robinson, in his Greek Lexicon of the New Testament, 
defines this word to mean, primarily, ' 1. A breathing, breath, breath of air, air 
in motion, 2. The spirit of man ; i. e., the vital spirit, life, soul, the principle 
of life residing in the breath breathed into men from God, and again returning 
to God.' Parkhurst, in his Greek Lexicon, says : ' It may be worth remarking 
that the leading sense of the old English word "ghost" [which in Matt. 27: 
50 ; John 19 : 30, and ninety other places is from this word pneuma] is breath ; 
. . . that ghost is evidently of the same root with gust of wind ; and that both 
these words are plain derivatives from the Hebrew, to move with violence; 
whence also gush, etc' 

" Pneuma as Used in the Scriptures. — This word occurs in the New Testa- 
ment 385 times ; and besides being rendered ' spirit ' 288 times, is rendered 
' ghost ' 92 times, ' wind ' once, and ' life ' once — four different ways." — " Here 
and Hereafter/' pp. 63-65, edition 1907. — Eds. 

Nature of Man, Dr. Clarke on the " Spirits in Prison " (1 Peter 
3: 19). — The inhabitants of the antediluvian world, who, having been 
disobedient, and convicted of the most flagrant transgressions against 
God, were sentenced by his just law to destruction. But their punish- 
ment was delayed to see if they would repent; and the long-suffering of 
God waited one hundred and twenty years, which were granted to them 
for this purpose; during which time, as criminals tried and convicted, 
they are represented as being in prison — detained under the arrest of 
divine justice, which waited either for their repentance or the expiration 
of the respite, that the punishment pronounced might be inflicted. 

This I have long believed to be the sense of this difficult passage, 
and no other that I have seen is consistent with the whole scope of the 
place. That the Spirit of God did strive with, convict, and reprove 
the antediluvians is evident from Gen. 6: 3. . . . The word irvetjfxaa-i 
(pneumasi, spirits) is supposed to render this view of the subject im- 
probable, because this must mean disembodied spirits; but this certainly 
does not follow, for " the spirits of just men made perfect " (Heb. 12: 23), 
certainly means righteous men, and men still in the church militant; and 
"the Father of spirits" (Heb. 12: 9), means men still in the body; and 
the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. 16: 22; 27: 16), means men not 
in a disembodied state. — "A Commentary and Critical Notes.'" Adam 
Clarke, LL. D„, on 1 Peter 3:19. New York: Lane and Scott, 1851. 

Nature of Man, Spirits in Prison Were Living Men. — First, I 
stated that it was the same Spirit that raised up Christ from the dead 
that preached to these wicked antediluvians; but that it was through 
Noah, three thousand years before, and not while his body lay in the 
grave, after he was crucified; and that this Spirit preached through 
Noah to this people while they were still physically alive, before the 
great flood came on the earth. 

I have examined every text and context of Scripture bearing on this 
subject. I have consulted commentators and referred to footnotes and 
marginal statements, and they all affirm, directly or indirectly, that it 
was through Noah, this same Spirit that raised up Christ from the dead, 
the antediluvians were preached to, and that, too, while they were still 
physically alive. Therefore it could not be 1 the Spirit of Christ that 



350 NATURE OF MAN, THE DYING THIEF 

preached to them, while his body lay in the tomb. — Rev. I. H. Parker, 
Austin, Tex., in Cumberland Presbyterian, Nashville, Tenn., Nov. 27, 
1919. 

Nature of Man, Edeesiieim on the Dying Thief's Request. — The 
familiar words of our Authorized Version — " When thou comest into 
thy kingdom " — convey the idea of what we might call a more spiritual 
meaning of the petition. But we can scarcely believe that at that mo- 
ment it implied either that Christ was then going into his kingdom, or 
that the " penitent thief " looked to Christ for admission into the heav- 
enly kingdom. The words are true to the Jewish point of vision of the 
man. He recognized and owned Jesus as the Messiah, and he did so by 
a wonderful forthgoing of faith, even in the utmost humiliation of 
Christ. And this immediately passed beyond the Jewish standpoint, for 
he expected Jesus soon to come back in his kingly might and power, 
when he asked to be remembered by him in mercy. — " The Life and 
Times of Jesus the Messiah,'" Rev. Alfred Edersheim, M. A. Oxon., D. D., 
Ph. D., book 5, chap. 15 (Vol. II, p. 600), 8th edition. London: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1896. 

Nature of Man, Rotherham's Translation of Luke 23: 43, and 
Comment. — " And he said unto Jesus, Lord, remember me when thou 
comest into thy kingdom. And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto 
thee, Today shalt thou be with me in paradise." Luke 23: 42, 43. 

It is left for the reader to determine whether the words " this day " 
should be joined (a) with the former part of the sentence, or (b) with 
the latter. In favor of (a) may be urged (1) the fact that semeron, 
" this day," does not always stand first in the clause to which it belongs 
(see Luke 2: 11; 5: 26; 22: 34; Acts 20: 26; '22: 3; 24: 21; 26: 29); (2) 
that being essentially a demonstrative word, it will bear any reasonable 
stress that may be laid upon it, whether it be placed before or after the 
words which it qualifies; (3) that it is far from meaningless if regarded 
as belonging to the opening words of asseveration ("Thou dost ask to 
be remembered then: verily thou art assured now. As on this day of 
my weakness and shame, thou hast faith to ask, I this day have author- 
ity to answer"); (4) that the latter part of the verse is thus left free 
to refer to the very matter of the supplicant's request (" Thou dost ask 
to be remembered when I come in my kingdom: thou shalt be remem- 
bered then, and with distinguished favor: thou shalt be in my kingdom; 
shalt be with me in the very paradise of my kingdom, in the garden of 
the Lord — Isa. 51: 3 [Septuagint, paradeisos] ; Rev. 2: 7 — in that 
most central and blessed part of the coming kingdom, of which thou 
dost believe me to be the destined king"). — "Translation of the New 
Testament," Rotherham, note on Luke 23:43. 

Nature of Man, Lexicons on Use of Word " Hell." — This is the 
word generally used by our translators to render the Hebrew sheol. It 
would perhaps have been better to retain the Hebrew word, or else ren- 
der it always by "the grave" or "the pit." — "A Dictionary of the 
Bible," edited by William Smith, LL. D., art. " Hell," p. 373 (1 vol. ed.). 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Gehenna, . . . the "valley of Hinnom; "... a deep, narrow glen 
south of Jerusalem, where, after the introduction of the worship of the 
fire-gods by Ahaz, the idolatrous Jews offered their children to Molech. 
— Id., art. " Gehenna," p. 325. 

Note. — The Hebrew word for grave is sheol, translated " grave " (as Gen. 
37:35) and "hell" (as Ps. 16:10). The New Testament equivalent is shown 



NATURE OF MAN, " GEHENNA '* 351 

by Acts 2 : 27, where this same text (Ps. 16 : 10) is quoted, using the word 
adrji hades. Of the original Greek words in the New Testament which appear 
in the English translation (King James Version) as " hell " or " cast into hell," 
Uriah Smith says in his "Here and Hereafter " : 

" These words are adrjs (hades), yetvva (ge-enna), and raprapbw (tar 
taro-o, a verb signifying "to thrust down to Tartarus). These all designate 
different places ; and the following full list of the instances, of their occurrence 
in the New Testament, will show their use : 

"Hades occurs in the following passages: Matt. 11:23; 16:18; Luke 10: 
15 ; 16 : 23 ; Acts 2 : 27 ; 2 : 31 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 55 ; Rev. 1 : 18 ; 6:8; 20 : 13 ; 20 : 14. 

" Ge-enna signifies Gehenna, the valley of Hinnom, near Jerusalem, in which 
fires were kept constantly burning to consume the bodies of malefactors and the 
rubbish which was brought from the city and cast therein. It is found in the 
following places : Matt. 5 : 22, 29, 30 ; 10 : 28 ; 18 : 9 ; 23 : 15, 33 ; Mark 9 : 43, 
45, 47 ; Luke 12 : 5 ; James 3 : 6. 

" Tartaro-o is used only in the following text : ' God spared not the angels 
that sinned, but cast them down to hell.' 2 Peter 2 : 4. 

" From these references it will be seen that hades is the place of the dead, 
whether righteous or wicked, from which they are brought only by a resurrection. 
Rev. 20 : 13. On the contrary, Gehenna is the place into which the wicked are 
to be cast alive with all their members, to be destroyed soul and body." — Pages 
111, 112, edition 1907. — Ens. 

Nature of Man, " Gehenna " the Place of Utter Consumption. — 
Gehenna, or Gehennon, or valley of the sons of Hinnom (see Joshua 
15: 8; 2 Kings 23: 10, Heb.), a valley adjacent to Jerusalem, through 
which the southern limits of the tribe of Benjamin passed. ... It is 
thought to have been the common sewer belonging to Jerusalem, and 
that a fire was always burning there to consume the filth of the city. — 
" Calmet' s Dictionary of the Holy Bible'' revised, by Edward Robinson, 
art. "Gehenna." New York: N. Tibbals & Sons, 1832. 

The English word " hell," in the New Testament, usually stands for 
the word " gehenna," underneath. That was the word used for the place 
outside Jerusalem, where the refuse of the city was burned. Of course 
the Gehenna fires of Jerusalem were for the health of the city, to burn 
up what would endanger health and life. — " Quiet Talks About Our 
Lord's Return," S. D. Gordon, pp. 255, 256. New York: FlewAng H. Re- 
veil Company. 

Nature of Man, " Forever." — Scripture says of the earth itself, 
that it " abideth forever " (Eccl. 1:4); besides speaking of the everlast- 
ing hills (Gen. 49: 26). Here, no doubt, the general view taken by the 
Fathers is, that by the phrase " forever " is expressed " a relative 
eternity, an unbroken perpetuity for a given time, holding on through a 
period or system of things" (Davison, On Proph., p. 205), and ending 
only when that system ends. — "A Dictionary of Christian Biography," 
Smith and Wace, Vol. II, art. " Eternity," p. 210. London: John Mur- 
ray, 1880. 

Note. — In his " Here and Hereafter " Uriah Smith gives definitions from 
lexicons of the Greek word al&v {aion) which appears in the phrase eis tous 
aionas ton aionon, and which gives rise to the adjective alwvios (aidnios,) both 
of which are translated " forever " or " forever and ever." He says : 

" Aion is defined by different lexicographers as follows : 

" Greenfield : ■ Duration, finite or infinite, unlimited duration, eternity, a 
period of duration past or future, time, age, lifetime ; the world, universe.' 

" Schrevelius : ' An age, a long period of time ; infinite duration ; time, 
whether longer or shorter.' 

" Liddell and Scott : ' A space or period of time, especially a lifetime, life, 
cevum; an age, a generation; long space of time, eternity; in plural eis tous 
aionas ton aionon, unto ages of ages, forever and ever, New Testament. Gal. 
1:5. 3. Later, a space of time clearly defined and marked out, an era, age, 
period of a dispensation : ho aidn houtos, this present life, this world.' " — Pages 
298, 29if, edition 1907. — Eds. 



352 NEW EARTH 

Nature of Man, Consolation of True View of Fate of the Lost. — 
It has for me thrown a light on God's character, and God's "Word, and 
the future of his world, which I once thought I should never have seen 
on this side of the grave. It has not removed the wholesome and neces- 
sary terrors of the Lord from the mind, but it has clothed God with a 
loveliness which makes him, and the eternal Son who represents him 
to man, incalculably more attractive. I am no longer looking for shifts 
to excuse his conduct in my own eyes and those of others, and forced to 
feel that here at least I could never find one to answer my object". I can 
look at all he has done, and all he tells me he will hereafter do, and, 
scanning it closely, and examining it even where it has most of awe and 
severity, exclaim with all my heart and with all my understanding, 
" Just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints." — " Duration and 
Nature of Future Punishment" Henry Constable, A. M. (England), p. iv. 

Nebuchadnezzar. — Pages 40, 47, 49, 51-56, 324, 460. 

Nero.— Pages 270, 398, 400, 402, 456. 

New Earth, Connected with Eternal Scenes. — The predicted glory 
that awaits this earth is connected, not with temporal, but with eternal 
scenes. It is not the sunset glow which gilds the eventide of a dis- 
ordered world as it hastens on to the blackness of darkness forever 
and ever, but it is the rising of the Sun of Righteousness with healing 
in its wings, when the darkness of night has vanished, and the sun shall 
nevermore go down. The kingdom which God shall set up is " a king- 
dom which shall never be destroyed; which shall not be left to other 
people, but which shall stand forever." Dan. 2: 44. To the Babe of 
Bethlehem shall be given " the throne of his father David," and he 
shall reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there 
shall be no end. Luke 1: 32. The kingdoms of this world shall become 
our Lord's and his Christ's, and he shall reign forever and ever. Rev. 
11: 15. Thus the stamp of eternity is set upon all the prophetic pic- 
tures of " the glory that shall be revealed." The whole Scripture agrees 
in these representations. This present world is dark and evil, and 
grows darker and more evil to the end; and when the darkness passes, 
then comes the light of life forevermore. There is first the gloom and 
then the glory; first the storm and then the calm; first the darkness 
and then the light; first the great struggle with the powers of sin and 
evil, and then the eternal triumph of the ransomed host. The old 
world must be dissolved before the new one can appear; Satan must 
be dethroned ere Christ shall reign; and death itself must be swallowed 
up in victory, before the ransomed saints can sing the conquerors' joy- 
ful song. — " The Reign of Christ on Earth" Daniel T. Taylor, Editor's 
Preface, pp. xvii, xviii. Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

New Earth, God's Will to Be Done on. — The assurance that this 
globe is yet to be the theater of the grandest displays of divine goodness, 
mercy, grace, and glory, is confined to Christians of no sect or age; it 
is the universal faith of the universal church. Since the time when 
man went out from his lost Paradise, separated by sin from the pres- 
ence of his God, the hope of the triumph of good over evil, and of the 
bruising of the serpent's head by the woman's conquering Seed, has been 
the joy of every faithful heart. The promise of universal blessing 
through Abraham and his Seed can never fail of its accomplishment; 
and he who said, " As truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with 
the glory of the Lord," and who has declared that " the earth shall be 



ORDER, CANONS ON 353 

filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord, as the waters 
cover the sea," will not fail to make good all that he has promised. 
For eighteen hundred years the prayer, " Thy kingdom come, thy 
will be done in earth as it is done in heaven," has ascended to the 
throne. And that this prayer will eventually be answered, and that 
God's will shall yet be done in earth as it is now done in heaven, admits 
of no doubt in the mind of the believing child of God. — " The Reign of 
Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, Editor's Preface, p. vii. Boston: 
Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

Oaths, Roman Catholic Views of. — An oath taken against the 
good of the church does not bind. . . . Because those are not oaths but 
rather perjuries which are taken against the interests of the church. 
— " The Decretals of Gregory IX," i book 2, title 24, chap. 27. 

Oaths.— Pages 238, 239. 

Offerings.— Page 518. 

Order, Canons on. — Canon I. If any one saith that there is not 
in the New Testament a visible and external priesthood; or that there 
is not any power of consecrating and offering the true body and blood 
of the Lord and of forgiving and retaining sins; but only an office and 
bare ministry of preaching the gospel; or that those who do not preach 
are not priests at all; let him be anathema. 

Canon II. If any one saith that, besides the priesthood, there are 
not in the Catholic Church other orders, both greater and minor, by 
which, as by certain steps, advance is made unto the priesthood; let 
him be anathema. 

Canon III. If any one saith that order, or sacred ordination, is not 
truly and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ the Lord; or that 
it is a kind of human figment devised by men unskilled in ecclesiastical 
matters; or that it is only a kind of rite for choosing ministers of the 
word of God and of the sacraments; let him be anathema. 

Canon IV. If any one saith that, by sacred ordination, the Holy 
Ghost is not given; and that vainly therefore do the bishops say: 
" Receive ye the Holy Ghost; " or that a character is not imprinted by 
that ordination ; or that he who has once been a priest can again become 
a layman; let him be anathema. 

Canon V. If any one saith that the sacred unction which the church 
uses in holy ordination is not only not required, but is to be despised 
and is pernicious, as likewise are the other ceremonies of order; let 
him be anathema. 

Canon VI. If any one saith that in the Catholic Church there is 
not a hierarchy by divine ordination instituted, consisting of bishops, 
priests, and ministers; let him be anathema. 

Canon VII. If any one saith that bishops are not superior to priests; 
or that they have not the power of confirming and ordaining; or that 
the power which they possess is common to them and to priests; or 
that orders, conferred by them, without the consent or vocation of the 
people, or of the secular power, are invalid; or that those who have 
neither been rightly ordained, nor sent, by ecclesiastical and canonical 
power, but come from elsewhere, are lawful ministers of the word and 
of the sacraments; let him be anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and De- 
crees," pp. 156-158. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 



1 This collection is authentic, and has the force of law in every particular ; 
the same holds of the Clementine collections. The titles even are authentic, and 
serve as rules of law. — "Elements of Ecclesiastical Law." Rev. S. B. Smith, D. D. 
(R. C), book 1, part 1, chap. 9, par. 158 (Vol. I, p. 70). New York: Benziger 
Brothers. 1877. 

23 



3 54 PAGANISM UNDER CONSTANTINE 

Order, Roman View of Origin of. — From Scripture we learn that 
the apostles appointed others by an external rite (imposition of hands), 
conferring inward grace. The fact that grace is ascribed immediately 
to the external rite, shows that Christ must have thus ordained. The 
fact that xei/>oToj>eij>, x €t P OTOt, L a [cheirotonein, cheirotonia], which meant 
electing by show of hands, had acquired the technical meaning of ordina- 
tion by imposition of hands before the middle of the third century, 
shows that appointment to the various orders was made by that external 
rite. . . . Grace was attached to this external sign and conferred by it. 

— The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, art. " Orders," p. 279. 

Ordinance of Humility. — Page 607. 

Ottoman Empire. — Pages 155-167, 549, 550. 

Paganism, Influence of, upon Christianity. — Earnestness is the 
attribute of savage life. That divorce between morality and faith which 
the southern nations had experienced, was not possible among these 
converts. . . . The infusion of paganism into religion was far more due 
to the people of the classical countries. The inhabitants of Italy and 
Greece were never really alienated from the idolatries of the old times. 
At the best, they were only Christianized on the surface. With many 
other mythological practices, they forced image worship on the clergy. 

— " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe" John William 
Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 368. New York: Harper & Brothers, 
copyright 1876. 

Paganism, Laws Against. — The ability and right of making wills 
shall be taken from those who turn from Christians to pagans, and the 
testament of such an one, if he made any, shall be abrogated after his 
death. (Cod. Theod. XVI, 7, 1. Time of Emperors Gratian, Valentin- 
ian, and Valens.) 

It is decreed that in all places and all cities the temples should be 
closed at once, and after a general warning, the opportunity of sin- 
ning be taken from the wicked. We decree also that we shall cease from 
making sacrifices. And if any one has committed such a crime, let 
him be stricken with the avenging sword. And we decree that the 
property of the one executed shall be claimed by the city, and that 
rulers of the provinces be punished in the same way, if they neglect 
to punish such crimes. (Cod. Theod. XVI, 10, 4. Time of Emperors 
Constantine and Constans.) — " The Library of Original Sources," 
edited by Oliver J. Thatcher, Vol. IV, pp. 70, 71. Milwaukee, Wis.: 
University Research Extension Company, copyright 1907. 

Paganism, Toleration of, under Constantine. — When Constantine 
embraced Christianity, he allowed paganism to remain the established 
religion of the state, and left the pagans in the possession of all their 
privileges. The principle of toleration was received as a political 
maxim of the Roman government; and it continued, with little inter- 
ruption, to be so, until the reign of Theodosius the Great, who under- 
took to abolish paganism by legislative enactments. The Christian 
emperors continued, until the reign of Gratian, to bear the title of 
Pontifex Maximus, and to act as the political head of the pagan religion. 
This political supremacy of the emperor over the pagan priesthood was 
applied also to the Christian church; and in the reign of Constantine, the 
imperial power over the external and civil affairs of the church was 
fully admitted by the whole Christian clergy. — " Greece under the 
Romans" George Finlay, LL. D., pp. 141, 142. London: J. M. Dent & 
Co.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 



PAGANISM UNDER JULIAN 3 55 

Paganism, Attempted Revival of, by Julian. — Constantine had 
found himself strong enough to carry off the gold and silver statues and 
ornaments from many temples; but as this was done with the sanction 
and assistance of the Christian population where it occurred, it seems 
probable that it only happened in those places where the whole com- 
munity, or at least the corporation possessing the legal control over the 
temporal concerns of these, had embraced Christianity. An arbitrary 
exercise of the emperor's authority as Pontifex Maximus, for the purpose 
of plundering the temples he was bound to protect, cannot be suspected; 
it would be too strongly at variance with the systematic toleration of 
Constantine's reign. 

The pagan Julian was strongly incited to persecute the Christians 
by the more fanatical of the pagans; nor did he himself ever appear to 
doubt that his power was sufficient to have commenced a persecution; 
and, consequently, he takes credit to himself, in his writings, for the 
principles of toleration which he adopted. The attempt of Julian to 
re-establish paganism, was, however, a very unstatesmanlike proceed- 
ing, and exhibited* the strongest proof that the rapidly decreasing num- 
bers of the pagans proclaimed the approaching dissolution of the old 
religion. — " Greece under the Romans" George Finlay, LL. B., p. 139. 
London: J. M. Bent & Co.; New York: E. P. Button & Co. 

Paganism, Suppression of. — In 382 Gratian issued an order abol- 
ishing the altar of Victory, as hitherto retained in the senate house, 
and the other traces of paganism which still remained. He also con- 
fiscated the property of the vestal virgins, and probably seized their 
college. In 383 an effort was made to rescind this order, which was 
defeated by the vigorous action of Pope Damasus. Symmachus renewed 
the attempt in 384, and addressed an appeal to the young emperor 
Valentinian, to which Ambrose made a reply marked by extreme intol- 
erance, and Warning the young sovereign to consult Theodosius before 
he should decide to comply with the senate's prayer. . . . The protest 
of Ambrose was successful as usual. Bugenius, the usurper, restored 
indeed the pagan emblems and ritual, but Theodosius, on his victory, 
again abolished them and adopted sterner measures against the vestal 
college. . . . After the fall of Eugenius on Sept. 6, 394, the work of 
destruction of the pagan temples went on rapidly, till at last in 399 a 
decree was issued by Arcadius ordering the overthrow of all rural 
temples. — "A Bictionary of Christian Biography" Smith and Wave, 
Vol. TV, art. " Theodosius I" p. 963. London: John Murray, 1887. 

The decree [issued a. d. 382] that the statue of Victory was to be 
ignominiously dragged from its pedestal in the senate house, that the 
altar was to be removed, and the act of public worship, with which the 
senate had for centuries of uninterrupted prosperity and glory com- 
menced and hallowed its proceedings, discontinued, fell like a thunder- 
bolt among the partisans of the ancient worship. — " The History of 
Christianity" Henry Hart Milman, B. B., book 3, chap. 8 (Vol. Ill, p. 83). 
London: John Murray, 1867. 

This first open aggression on the paganism of Rome was followed 
by a law which confiscated at once all the property of the temples, and 
swept away the privileges and immunities of the priesthood. — Id., p. 84. 

In the empire of the East (Arcadius 395-408, Theodosius II, till 
450), which was less disturbed from without, the ordinances of Theo- 
dosius against paganism could be strictly enforced. Crowds of monks 



356 PAGANISM UNDER THEODOSIUS 

were sent about through the provinces with full power from the em- 
perors, for the purpose of destroying all traces of idolatry. Even 
misdeeds and murders were allowed to pass unheeded by the emperors; 
such as the horrible murder of the female philosopher Hypatia in Alex- 
andria (416). The new Platonic philosophers at Athens, and among 
them even the celebrated Proclus ( d. 485), were forced to conceal them- 
selves most carefully, because they rejected Christianity. As early as 
423, all visible traces of paganism had disappeared in the East. — "A 
Compendium of Ecclesiastical History" Dr. John C. L. Gieseler, Vol. I, 
pp. 322, 323. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1846. 

After Theodosius had secured the East against the Goths, he di- 
rected his greatest energies to the suppression of paganism. In the 
same year in which he summoned the second ecumenical synod at Con- 
stantinople (381), he forbade apostasy to paganism, but still allowed the 
other rites of heathen worship to be practised except sacrifice. The two 
emperors of the West followed his example. Gratian laid aside the 
dignity of Pontifex Maximus, commanded the altar of Victoria to be 
removed from the senate house, and took away all privileges from the 
pagan worship, although he was obliged to suffer in Rome the sacrifices 
elsewhere forbidden, as Theodosius had to do at Alexandria. In Rome, 
paganism continued to be predominant, particularly among families of 
distinction; but yet the attempts made by the prefect of the city, 
Q. Aurelius Symmachus, to have the former regulations restored, and 
in particular the altar of Victoria re-erected, had no influence upon Gra- 
tian (d. 383), Valentinian II, and Theodosius. In the East, the Christians 
proceeded far beyond the imperial ordinances. Enterprising bishops 
led mobs of hirelings or fanatics against the temples; and the monks 
especially often combined for the destruction of all heathen sanctuaries. 
The appeal v-n-kp tQv lep&v [uper ton ieron, in behalf of the temples] (388- 
390) of the eloquent Libanius, addressed to Theodosius, had no effect; 
the heathen were immediately afterward forbidden by imperial laws even 
to repair to the temples; and the destruction of the splendid temple of 
Serapis (391) by the violent Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, after a 
bloody contest, announced the total overthrow of paganism in the East. 

When Theodosius had become sole master of the entire Roman 
Empire after the death of Valentinian II (d. 392), he forbade all kinds of 
idolatry by the most severe punishments (392); and during his abode 
at Rome (394) he brought public sacrifices to an end by interdicting 
the defraying of them out of the imperial purse. — Id., pp. 316-319. 

In the East, the remains of paganism disappeared under Justinian 
I (527-565), who abolished the new Platonic school at Athens (529), 
and compelled the heathens to submit to baptism. Only the free Mae- 
notts in Peloponnesus clung obstinately to it. Even in the West it was 
not yet completely extirpated. Theodorich was obliged to prohibit sac- 
rifices to the gods on pain of death; and at the end of the fifth century 
many heathen practices were still continued at Rome, and could not be 
abolished without resistance. Still longer did various superstitions 
adhere to those heathen temples which were not destroyed. In many 
distant places paganism was maintained for a long time undisturbed. 
Sacrifices were offered in a temple of Apollo on Mt. Cassinum, until 
Benedict (529) transformed it into a chapel of St. Martin. In Sicily, 
but especially in Sardinia and Corsica, there were still many heathens 
about a. d. 600. Even Gregory the Great did not hesitate now to advise 
violent measures, with the view of effecting their conversion. — Id., 
Vol. II, pp. 83, 84, 



PAGANISM, OVERTHROW OF 357 

Paganism, Time of Oveethrow of, in the Roman Empire. — Li- 
cinius, having made war against Constantine, a. d. 314, and again in 
324, after the conversion of the latter to Christianity, was supported by 
the good wishes and the power of the pagan priests. Constantine 
believed that paganism was a danger to the throne, and began to 
discourage it. In 331 he ordered the destruction of the pagan temples 
throughout the Roman Empire. Julian, in 361, began to rebuild them, 
but the work ceased with his death. In 385 Theodosius I issued an 
edict against pagan sacrifices, and soon afterward closed the temples 
and the shrines. In 388 the Roman senate renounced paganism, and 
in 391 it was legally abolished through the whole Roman Empire, and 
afterward gradually died away. — The Encyclopedic Dictionary, art. 
"Paganism," p. 3441. Philadelphia: Syndicate Publishing Company. 

Thus, by character and education, deeply impressed with Chris- 
tianity, and that of a severe and uncompromising orthodoxy, Theodosiup 
undertook the sacred obligation of extirpating paganism, and of re- 
storing to Christianity its severe and inviolable unity, [p. 61] . . . 

The laws of Theodosius against the pagan sacrifices grew insensibly 
more and more severe. The inspection of the entrails of victims, and 
magic rites, were made capital offenses. In a. d. 391, issued an edict 
prohibiting sacrifices, and even the entering into the temples. In the 
same year, a rescript was addressed to the court and prefect of Egypt, 
fining the governors of provinces who should enter a temple fifteen 
pounds of gold, and giving a kind of authority to the subordinate of- 
ficers to prevent their superiors from committing such offenses. The 
same year, all unlawful sacrifices are prohibited by night or day, 
within or without the temples. In 392, all immolation is prohibited 
under the penalty of death, and all other acts of idolatry under for- 
feiture of the house or land in which the offense shall have been com- 
mitted, [pp. 61, 62]—" The History of Christianity," Henry Hart Milman, 
D. D., hook 3, chap. 8 (Vol. Ill, pp. 61, 62). London: John Murray, 1867. 

Paganism, Officially Repudiated at Rome. — The rapid destruction 
of the temples, which took place after the reign of Valens, must have 
been caused, in a great measure, by the conversion of those intrusted 
with their care to Christianity. When the hereditary priests seized the 
revenues of the heathen god as a private estate, they would rejoice in 
seeing the temple fall rapidly to ruin, if they did not dare to destroy it 
openly. Toward the end of his reign the emperor Gratian laid aside 
the title of Pontifex Maximus, and removed the altar of Victory from 
the senate house of Rome. These acts were equivalent to a declaration 
that paganism was no longer the acknowledged religion of the senate 
and the Roman people. It was Theodosius the Great, however, who 
finally established Christianity as the religion of the empire; and in 
the East he succeeded completely in uniting the orthodox church with 
the imperial administration; but in the West, the power and prejudices 
of the Roman aristocracy prevented his measures from attaining full 
success. — " Greece under the Romans," George Finlay, LL. D., p. 144. 
London: J. M. Bent & Co.; New York: E. P. Button d Co. 

Paganism, Ruin of Roman. — The ruin of paganism, in the age of 
Theodosius [a. d. 379-395], is perhaps the only example of the total 
extirpation of any ancient and popular superstition; and may therefore 
deserve to be considered as a singular event in the history of the 
human mind. The Christians, more especially the clergy, had im- 
patiently supported the prudent delays of Constantine, and the equal 
toleration of the elder Valentinian; nor could they deem their conquest 



358 PAGANISM IN THE CHURCH 

perfect or secure, as long as their adversaries were permitted to exist. 
— " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" 
Edward Giooon, chap. 28, par. 1 (Vol. Ill, p. 131). New York: Harper 
& Brothers. 

The generation that arose in the world after the promulgation of 
the imperial laws [forbidding the pagan worship], was attracted within 
the pale of the Catholic Church : and so rapid, yet so gentle, was the fall 
of paganism, that only twenty-eight years after the death of Theodosius, 
the faint and minute vestiges were no longer visible to the eye of the 
legislator. — Id., par. 10. 

Paganism, Transfer or, to the Church. — " It was a maxim with 
some of the early promoters of the Christian cause to do as little vio- 
lence as possible to existing prejudices. They would run the risk of 
Barnabas being confounded with Jupiter, and Paul with Mercury. In 
the transition from pagan to papal Rome much of the old material was 
worked up. The heathen temples became Christian churches; the altars 
of the gods, altars of the saints; the curtains, incense, tapers, votive 
tablets, remained the same; the aquaminarium was still the vessel for 
holy water; St. Peter stood at the gate, instead of Cardea; St. Roque 
or St. Sebastian in the bedroom, instead of the 'Phrygian Penates;' St. 
Nicholas was the sign of the vessel, instead of Castor and Pollux; the 
Matre Deum became the Madonna; 'alms pro Matre Deum ' became alms 
for the Madonna; the Festival of the Matre Deum, the Festival of the 
Madonna, or Lady Day; the hostia, or victim, was now the host; the 

- Lugentes Campi,' or dismal regions, purgatory; the offerings to the 
manes were masses for the dead." 

Such is the testimony of Blunt, who adds in a note that the very 
name purgatory is heathen; since the annual Feast of Purification in 
February was called " Sacrum Purgatorium." [pp. 25, 26] . . . 

The following quotation, also from Picart, illustrates the principle, 
alluded to above, of doing no violence to sinful prejudices and habits; 
in other words, of doing evil that good may come: 

" In order to win the pagans to Christ, instead of pagan watchings 
and commemorations of their gods, the Christians rejoiced in vigils 
and anniversaries of their martyrs; and, to show that they had regard 
to the public prosperity, in place of those feasts in which the heathen 
priests were wont to supplicate the gods for the welfare of their country 

— such as the Ambarvalia, Robigalia, etc. — they introduced rogations, 
litanies, and processions made with naked feet, invoking Christ instead 
of Jupiter." (Vol. I, p. 26.) And this, according to the writer, is the 
reason why " our fetes and ceremonies have generally a pagan origin." 

Thus we trace what has been faithfully called the introduction of a 
baptized heathenism. — " Rome, Pagan and Papal," Mourant Brock, 
M. A., pp. 25, 26. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1883. 

In further confirmation of the previous chapters on the early cor- 
ruption of Christianity, we quote the following passage from Merivale's 
" Lectures on Early Church History," in which the dean gives his view 
of the paganized condition of the church in the fifth century — a period 
which many are wont to consider comparatively pure: 

" But neither Leo — that is Leo the Great, pope from a. d. 440 to 
a. d. 461 — nor, I think, the contemporary doctors of the church, seem 
to have had an adequate sense of the process by which the whole essence 
of paganism was, throughout their age, constantly percolating the ritual 
of the church, and the hearts of the Christian multitude. It is not to 
these teachers that we can look for a warning — 



PAGANISM IN THE CHURCH 359 



" That the fasts prescribed by the church had their parallel in the 
abstinence imposed by certain pagan creeds; 

" That the monachism which they extolled so warmly, and which 
spread so rapidly, was, in its origin, a purely pagan institution, com- 
mon to the religions of India, Tibet, and Syria; 

" That the canonizing of saints and martyrs, the honors paid to 
them, and the trust reposed in them, were simply a revival of the old 
pagan mythologies; 

" That the multiplication of ceremonies, together with processions, 
lights, incense, vestments, and votive offerings, was a mere pagan ap- 
peal to the senses, such as can never fail to enervate man's moral fiber; 

" That, in short, the general aspect of Christian devotion was a 
faint, and rather frivolous, imitation of the old pagan ritual. 

" The working of true Christianity was never more faint among the 
masses; the approximation of church usage to the manners and cus- 
toms of paganism never really closer. 

" Surely we must complain that all this manifest evil was not, at 
this time, denounced by the teachers of the Christian church; nay, that 
it was rather fostered and favored by them." 

A little further on he remarks: 

" The spirit of the old (heathen) traditions had become to a great 
extent merged in the popular Christianity, and actually assimilated 
to it." 

" The multitudes, half Christian and half pagan, met together in 
those unhappy days to confuse the Feast of the Nativity with the Feast 
of the Saturnalia (in honor of Saturn) ; the Feast of the Purification 
with the Feast of the Lupercalia (in honor of Pan); and the Feast of 
Rogations with the Feast of the Ambarvalia (in honor of Ceres)." 

Such is the opinion of Dean Merivale. We will now cite the tes- 
timony of a layman to the same effect, an extract from a well-known 
book, "Matthew's Diary of an Invalid: " 

" Among the antiquities of Rome you are shown the temple of 
Romulus, built round the very house in which they say he lived. Need 
we go further to seek the prototype of the tale of the house of Loretto? 

" The modern worship of saints is a revival of the old adoration 
paid to heroes and demigods. 

" What are nuns with their vows of celibacy, but a new edition of 
the vestal virgins? 

" What the tales of images falling from heaven, but a repetition of 
the old fable of the Palladium of Troy? 

" Instead of tutelary gods, we find guardian angels. 

" The canonization of a saint is but another term for the apotheosis 
of a hero. 

"The processions are clearly copied from ancient patterns. 

" The lustral water, and the incense of the heathen temple, remain 
without alteration in the holy water and in the censer of the church. 

" The daily ' sacrifice of the mass ' seems to be copied from the 
victim — hostia — of the heathen ritual. 

" The ceremonial of Isis to have been revived in the indecent 
emblems presented by women; e. g., at Isernia, near Naples, up to the 
year 1790, as votive offerings at the shrine of St. Cosmo in that city. 

" Nay, some would trace the Pope himself, with the triple crown 
on his head and the keys of heaven and hell in his pocket, to our old 
acquaintance Cerberus with his three heads, who keeps guard as the 
custos of Tartarus and Elysium. 

" The very same piece of brass which the old Romans worshiped as 
Jupiter, with a new head on its shoulders — like an old friend with a 



360 PAGANISM REVIVED 

new face — is now, in St. Peter's, adored with equal devotion by the 
modern Italians. 

" And, as if they wished to make the resemblance as perfect as 
possible, they have, in imitation of his pagan prototype, surrounded the 
tomb of the apostle with a hundred ever-burning lights." 

" Centum aras posuit, vigilemque sacraverat ignem." i [He erected 
a hundred altars, and consecrated the ever-burning fire]. 

The writer further observes that " some traces of the old heathen 
superstitions are indeed constantly peeping out from under their Roman 
Catholic disguises. We cannot so inoculate our old stock but that we 
shall relish by it. If anything could have improved the tree, it must 
have borne better fruit by being grafted with Christianity. But in many 
particulars, so far as Italy is concerned, all the change produced has 
been a. mere change of name" (p. 90). 

Just in the same strain Forsyth [" Italy," p. 134], a man well ac- 
quainted with Italy, and possessed of a fine classic taste, writes as 
follows : 

" I have found the statue of a god pared down into a Christian 
saint; a heathen altar converted into a church box for the poor; a 
Bacchanalian vase officiating as a baptismal font; a Bacchanalian tripod 
supporting the holy water basin; the sarcophagus of an old Roman 
adored as a shrine full of relics; the brass columns of Jupiter Capito- 
linus now consecrated to the altar of the blessed sacrament; and the 
tomb of Agrippa turned into the tomb of a pope." 

And indeed all writers who are acquainted with antiquity — be they 
lay or clerical, Protestant or papal, Italian or foreign — agree as to the 
pagan origin of Rome's present usages and ceremonies. — " Rome, Pagan 
and Papal," Mourant Brock, M. A., pp. 28-31. London: Rodder and 
Stoughton, 1883. 

Paganism, Revived in Romanism. — Romanism is simply the old 
Roman paganism revived under Christian names. Romanism and 
paganism bear to each other the most exact and extraordinary resem- 
blance. 

Had paganism its temples and altars, its pictures and images? So 
has popery. Had paganism its use of holy water and its burning of 
incense? So has popery. Had paganism its tonsured priests, presided 
over by a pontifex maximus, or sovereign pontiff? So has popery; and 
it stamps this very name, which is purely heathen in origin, upon the 
coins, medals, and documents of the arrogant priest by whom it is 
governed. Had paganism its claim of sacerdotal infallibility? So has 
popery. Had paganism its adoration of a visible representative of Deity 
carried in state on men's shoulders? So has popery. Had paganism 
its ceremony of kissing the feet of the sovereign pontiff? So has po- 
pery. Had paganism its college of pontiffs? So has popery, in the College 
of Cardinals. Had paganism its religious orders? So has popery. Had 
paganism its stately robes, its crowns and crosiers of office? So has 
popery. Had paganism its adoration of idols, its worship of the queen 
of heaven, its votive offerings? So has popery. Had paganism its rural 
shrines and processions? So has popery. Had paganism its pretended 
miracles, its speaking images, and weeping images, and bleeding im- 
ages? So has popery. Had paganism its begging orders and fictitious 
saints? So has popery. Had paganism its canonization of saints, as in 
the deification of the dead Caesars? So has popery. Had paganism its 
idolatrous calendar and numerous festivals? So has popery. Had 



1 Virgil's ^Eneid, iv, 200. 



PAPACY, RISE OF 361 

paganism its enforced celibacy, its mystic signs, its worship of relics? 
So has popery. Had paganism its cruel persecution of those who op- 
posed idolatry? So has popery. Was paganism satanically inspired? 
So is popery. God overthrew paganism; Satan revived it under Chris- 
tian names: but God shall yet destroy it, and sweep its hateful presence 
from the earth. — "Romanism and the Reformation," H. Grattan Guin- 
ness, D. D., F. R. A. S., pp. 198, 199. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Paganism.— Pages 124, 366, 416, 437, 525, 526. 

Pagan Rites, In the Christian Church. — Pages 512, 513. 

Papacy, Wylee on. — The Papacy, next to Christianity, is the great 
fact of the modern world. . . . Fully to trace the rise and development 
of this stupendous system, were to write a history of Western Europe. 
The decay of empires; the extinction of religious systems; the disso- 
lution and renewal of society; the rise of new states; the change of 
manners, customs, and laws; the policy of courts; the wars of kings; 
the decay and revival of letters, of philosophy, and of arts, — all con- 
nect themselves with the history of the Papacy, to whose growth they 
ministered, and whose destiny they helped to unfold. — " The Papacy" 
Rev. J. A. Wylie, p. 1. Published under the auspices of the Evangelical 
Alliance, Edinburgh, 1851; Johnstone and Hunter, printers. 

Papacy. — It is impossible to deny that the polity of the Church of 
Rome is the very masterpiece of human wisdom. In truth, nothing but 
such a polity could, against such assaults, have borne up such doctrines. 
The experience of twelve hundred eventful years, the ingenuity and 
patient care of forty generations of statesmen, have improved that pol- 
ity to such perfection that, among the contrivances which have been 
devised for deceiving and oppressing mankind, it occupies the highest 
place. — Lord Macaulay, in his Essay on Ranke's " History of the Popes 
of Rome; " " Miscellaneous Essays and Poems," Thomas Babington 
Macaulay, Vol. II, p. 487. Chicago: Donohue, Henneberry & Co. 

Note. — In an edition of Macaulay's Essays published by D. Appleton & 
Co., this language is softened down to be more favorable to the Papacy. — Eds. 

The rise of the Papacy, from the persecuted head of an insignifi- 
cant local church to the supreme domination over both the spiritual 
and the temporal hierarchy of Europe, is one of the most curious prob- 
lems in history. — " Studies in Church History," Henry C. Lea, p. 112. 
Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea's Son & Co., 1883. 

Papacy, Growth of. — We undertake to trace the story of the Ro- 
man see from the earliest evidence that can be found, to show that in 
the primitive times there neither existed in fact, nor was claimed as of 
right, any such supremacy as that which the see of Rome now claims; 
we undertake to show how the Roman power advanced step by step, in 
age after age, until at length, not by any prerogative divinely conferred 
on it from the beginning, but by a slow, gradual, and distinctly traceable 
progress, by means which, without forgetting the overruling control of 
the divine Providence, we may call simply natural, it attained its great- 
est fulness under such popes as Gregory VII in the latter half of the 
eleventh century, and Innocent III in the beginning of the thirteenth. 
— "Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power," James Craigie 
Robertson, M. A., pp. 4, 5. London: Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge. 



362 PAPACY, CHARACTER OF 

The history of the growth of the papal power, i. e., popery, properly 
so called, exhibits clearly the rise and progress of a worldly principle 
within the church. 

Setting out from an acknowledged precedence among equals in rank, 
possessing from the first an actual influence well earned by distinguished 
merit, Rome proceeded by degrees to the fictions of St. Peter's suprem- 
acy, and the Pope's inheritance of a divine right to govern the whole 
church. When we observe how these doctrines, unheard of in primitive 
ages, were first obscurely intimated, then more broadly asserted, after 
this perpetually referred to, introduced into every opening, never 
omitted, but every incident taken advantage of, and all circumstances 
dexterously turned into an argument to support them; how succeeding 
popes never retracted, but adopted and uniformly improved upon the 
pretensions of their predecessors; how an Innocent went beyond a 
Julius, as Leo beyond Innocent, and a Gregory VII, in later times, 
overshot him; when we see the care and anxiety with which popes seem 
in all things, and sometimes above all things, to have provided for the 
security of their own authority; and how this end was carried out by 
interpolations and falsification of ecclesiastical documents, which, when 
detected, were never retracted or disavowed, and somewhat later grew 
into a notorious and scandalous system of forgery; when we weigh all 
these things, it seems impossible for unprejudiced readers to acquit 
the papal seat of the charge of worldly ambition and corrupt motives. 
— " The Rise of the Papal Power," Rooert Hussey, B. D., pp. 148, 149. 
Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Papacy, Essence of. — The supremacy is the essence of the whole 
Roman system. Take away the assertion of St. Peter's supremacy and 
the Pope's equal power as his successor, and the Roman Church is 
Roman and imperial no longer: it is then no more to the rest of 
Christendom than the church of Ethiopia or Armenia would be, except 
so far as one branch might be more pure, enlightened, or efficient than 
another. — Id., Preface, p. xxx. 

Papacy, Human Origin of. — No one can study the development of 
the Italian ecclesiastical power without discovering how completely it 
depended on human agency, too often on human passion and intrigues; 
how completely wanting it was of any mark of the divine construction 
and care — the offspring of man, not of God, and therefore bearing upon 
it the lineaments of human passions, human virtues, and human sins. — 
"History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William 
Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 382. New York: Harper & Brothers, 
copyright 1876. 

Papacy, Revealed by Inspiration. — The Roman Papacy is revealed 
by the far-reaching light of the divinely written Word. Its portrait is 
painted; its mystery is penetrated; its character, its deeds are drawn; 
its thousand veils and subterfuges are torn away. The unsparing hand 
of inspiration has stripped it, and left it standing upon the stage of 
history deformed and naked, a dark emanation from the pit, blood- 
stained and blasphemous, blindly struggling in the concentrated rays 
of celestial recognition, amid the premonitory thunders and lightnings 
of its fast-approaching doom. — "Romanism and the Reformation," H. 
Orattan Guinness, D. D^ F. R. A. 8., pp. 83, 84. London: J. Nisoet d 
Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Prophecies Concerning. — There are three distinct sets of 
prophecies of the rise, character, deeds, and doom of Romanism. The 



PAPACY, INSPIRED DESCRIPTION OF 3 63 

first is found in the hook of Daniel, the second in the epistles of Paul, 
and the third in the letters and Apocalypse of John; and no one of these 
three is complete in itself. It is only by combining their separate fea- 
tures that we obtain the perfect portrait. Just as we cannot derive 
from one Gospel a complete life of Christ, but in order to obtain this 
must take into account the records in the other three: so we cannot 
from one prophecy gather a correct account of Antichrist; we must add 
to the particulars given in one those supplied by the other two. Some 
features are given in all three prophecies, just as the death and resur- 
rection of Christ are given in all four Gospels. . . . 

As might be expected from the position and training of the prophet 
who was a statesman and a governor in Babylon, Daniel's foreview 
presents the political character and relations of Romanism. The apos- 
tle Paul's foreview, on the other hand, gives the ecclesiastical character 
and relations of this power; and John's prophecies, both in Revelation 
13 and 17, present the combination of both, the mutual relations of 
the Latin Church and Roman State. He uses composite figures, one 
part of which represents the political aspect of Romanism as a tem- 
poral government, and the other its religious aspect as an ecclesiastical 
system. — " Romanism and the Reformation" H. Grattan Guiness, D. D., 
F. R. A. 8., p. 7. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Daniel's View of. — The Papacy has existed for thirteen 
centuries, has had to do with forty or fifty generations of mankind in 
all the countries of Christendom. Its history is consequently ex- 
tremely complicated and various. It embraces both secular and ec- 
clesiastical matters, and has more or less to do with all that has 
happened in Europe since the fall of the old Roman Empire. The time 
is long, the sphere vast, the story exceedingly complex. I want you to 
tell it all, in outline at least, in a narrative that you could read in less 
than five minutes or write in ten. You must bring in every point of 
importance: the time and circumstances of the origin of the Papacy, 
its moral character, its political relations, its geographical seat, its 
self-exalting utterances and acts, its temporal sovereignty, and a com- 
parison of the extent of its dominions with those of the other king- 
doms of Europe; its blasphemous pretensions, its cruel and long- 
continued persecutions of God's people, the duration of its dominion, its 
present decay, and the judgments that have overtaken it; and you must, 
moreover, add what you think its end is likely to be, and explain the 
relation of the whole history to the revealed plan of divine providence. 
You must get all this in, not in the dry style of an annual Times sum- 
mary of the events of the year, but in an interesting, vivid, picturesque 
style, that will impress the facts on the memory, so that to forget them 
shall be impossible. 

Can you do it? I might safely offer a prize of any amount to the 
person who can solve this puzzle and write this story as I have 
described. But hard, even impossible, as it would be for you to do this, 
even if you perfectly knew the history of the last thirteen centuries, 
how infinitely impossible would it be if that history lay in the unknown 
and inscrutable future, instead of in the past and present! If no eye 
had seen, nor ear heard it; if it was an untraversed continent, an un- 
seen world, a matter for the evolution of ages yet to come, — who then 
could tell the story at all, much less in brief? 

Now this is precisely what the prophet Daniel, by inspiration of the 
omniscient and eternal God, has done. He told the whole story of the 
Papacy twenty-five centuries ago. He omitted none of the points I have 
enumerated, and yet the prophecy only occupies seventeen verses of a 
chapter which can be read slowly and impressively in less than five 



364 PAPACY, ANTIQUITY OF 

minutes. This is because it is written in the only language in which 
it is possible thus to compress multum in parvo [much in little], the 
ancient language of hieroglyphics. God revealed the future to Daniel 
by a vision in which he saw, not the events, but living, moving, speaking 
hieroglyphics of the events. These Daniel simply describes, and his 
description of them constitutes the prophecy written in the seventh 
chapter of his book. — " Romanism and the Reformation," H. Grattan 
Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., pp. 20, 21. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Justification of a Symbol of Scriptuee. — Considering the 
papal court has filled the whole church with simony, and the consequent 
corruption of religion, it is natural enough the heretics should call the 
church the whore. — Alvaro Pelayo (R. G.J, in " De Planctu Ecclesiw " 
(On the Church's Complaint); cited in " The Pope and the Council," 
Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C.J, p. 228, footnote. London: 
Rivingtons, 1869. 

Papacy, As Exemplified by Popes. — The essential principle of the 
Papacy, that the Roman Pontiff is the vicar of Christ upon earth, nec- 
essarily obtrudes his personal relations upon us. How shall we under- 
stand his faith unless we see it illustrated in his life? Indeed, the 
unhappy character of those relations was the inciting cause of the move- 
ments in Germany, France, and England, ending in the extinction of 
the Papacy as an actual political power, movements to be understood 
only through sufficient knowledge of the private lives and opinions of 
the popes. It is well, as far as possible, to abstain from burdening sys- 
tems with the imperfections of individuals. In this case they are 
inseparably interwoven. The signal peculiarity of the Papacy is that, 
though its history may be imposing, its biography is infamous. — "His- 
tory of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William Draper, 
M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 378. New York: Harper & Brothers, copyright 
1876. 

Papacy, Age and Vigor of. — There is not, and there never was on 
this earth, a work of human policy so well deserving of examination as 
the Roman Catholic Church. The history of that church joins together 
the two great ages of human civilization. No other institution is left 
standing which carries the mind back to the times when the smoke of 
sacrifice rose from the Pantheon, and when camelopards and tigers 
bounded in the Flavian amphitheater. The proudest royal houses are 
but of yesterday, when compared with the line of the Supreme Pontiffs. 
That line we trace back in an unbroken series from the Pope who 
crowned Napoleon in the nineteenth century to the Pope who crowned 
Pepin in the eighth; and far beyond the time of Pepin the august 
dynasty extends, till it is lost in the twilight of fable. 

The republic of Venice came next in antiquity. But the republic 
of Venice was modern when compared with the Papacy; and the repub- 
lic of Venice is gone, and the Papacy remains. The Papacy remains, 
not in decay, not a mere antique, but full of life and useful vigor. 
The Catholic Church is still sending forth to the farthest ends of the 
world missionaries as zealous as those who landed in Kent with Au- 
gustin, and still confronting hostile kings with the same spirit with 
which she confronted Attila. The number of her children is greater 
than in any former age. Her acquisitions in the New World have more 
than compensated for what she has lost in the Old. Her spiritual 
ascendancy extends over the vast countries which lie between the plains 
of the Missouri and Cape Horn, countries which, a century hence, may 
not improbably contain a population as large as that which now in- 



PAPACY, INCONSISTENCIES OF 365 

habits Europe. The members of her communion are certainly not 
fewer than a hundred and fifty millions; and it will be difficult to show 
that all other Christian sects united amount to a hundred and twenty 
millions. 

Nor do we see any sign which indicates that the term of her long 
dominion is approaching. She saw the commencement of all the gov- 
ernments and of all the ecclesiastical establishments that now exist in 
the world; and we feel no assurance that she is not destined to see the 
end of them all. She was great and respected before the Saxon had 
set foot on Britain, before the Prank had passed the Rhine, when Gre- 
cian eloquence still flourished in Antioch, when idols were still wor- 
shiped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in undiminished 
vigor when some traveler from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a 
vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to 
sketch the ruins of St. Paul's. — Lord Macaulay, in his Essay on Ranke's 
" History of the Popes of Rome; " " Miscellaneous Essays and Poems," 
Thomas Baoington Macaulay, Vol. II, pp. 465, 466. Chicago: Donohue, 
henneberry & Co. 

Papacy, A Mystery of Contradictions. — Who can measure it [the 
Papacy], or analyze it, or comprehend it? The weapons of reason 
appear to fall impotent before its haughty dogmatism. Genius cannot 
reconcile its inconsistencies. Serenely it sits, unmoved amid all the 
aggressions of human thought and all the triumphs of modern sci- 
ence. It is both lofty and degraded; simple, yet worldly wise; 
humble, yet scornful and proud; washing beggars' feet, yet im- 
posing commands on the potentates of earth; benignant, yet severe 
on all who rebel; here clothed in rags, and there reveling in pal- 
aces; supported by charities, yet feasting the princes of the earth; 
assuming the title of " servant of the servants of God," yet arrogating 
the highest seat among worldly dignitaries. Was there ever such a 
contradiction? — "glory in debasement and debasement in glory," — 
type of the misery and greatness of man? Was there ever such a mys- 
tery, so occult are its arts, so subtle its policy, so plausible its preten- 
sions, so certain its shafts? How imposing the words of paternal bene- 
diction! How grand the liturgy brought down from ages of faith! 
How absorbed with beatific devotion appears to be the worshiper at its 
consecrated altars! How ravishing the music and the chants of grand 
ceremonials! How typical the churches and consecrated monuments of 
the passion of Christ! Everywhere you see the great emblem of our 
redemption, — on the loftiest pinnacle of the medieval cathedral, on the 
dresses of the priests, over the gorgeous altars, in the ceremony of the 
mass, in the baptismal rite, in the paintings of the side chapels; every- 
where are rites and emblems betokening maceration, grief, sacrifice, 
penitence, the humiliation of humanity before the awful power of divine 
Omnipotence, whose personality and moral government no Catholic 
dares openly to deny. 

And yet, of what crimes and abominations has not this govern- 
ment been accused? If we go back to darker ages, and accept what 
history records, what wars has not this church encouraged, what dis- 
cords has she not incited, what superstitions has she not indorsed, what 
pride has she not arrogated, what cruelties has she not inflicted, what 
countries has she not robbed, what hardships has she not imposed, 
what deceptions has she not used, what avenues of thought has she 
not guarded with a flaming sword, what truth has she not perverted, 
what goodness has she not mocked and persecuted? Ah, interrogate 
the Albigenses, the Waldenses, the shades of Jerome of Prague, of Huss, 
of Savonarola, of Cranmer, of Coligny, of Galileo; interrogate the 



366 PAPACY, THE GREAT APOSTASY 

martyrs of the Thirty Years' War, and those who were slain by the 
dragonnades of Louis XIV, those who fell by the hand of Alva and 
Charles IX; go to Smithfield, and Paris on St. Bartholomew; think of 
Gunpowder Plots and Inquisitions, and Jesuit intrigues and Dominican 
tortures, of which history accuses the papal church, — barbarities worse 
than those of savages, inflicted at the command of the ministers of a 
gospel of love! [pp. 99-101] . . . 

As for the supreme rulers of this contradictory church, so benevo- 
lent and yet so cruel, so enlightened and yet so fanatical, so humble and 
yet so proud, — this institution of blended piety and fraud, equally 
renowned for saints, theologians, statesmen, drivelers, and fanatics; the 
joy and the reproach, the glory and the shame of earth, — there never 
were greater geniuses or greater fools: saints of almost preternatural 
sanctity, like the first Leo and Gregory, or hounds like Boniface VIII 
or Alexander VI; an array of scholars and dunces, ascetics and gluttons, 
men who adorned and men who scandalized their lofty position, [pp. 101, 
102] — " Beacon Lights of History" John Lord, LL. B., Vol. V, pp. 
99-102. New York: James Clark & Co., 1883. 

Papacy, Pretensions of, Based upon Fabrications. — If we look at 
the whole papal system of universal monarchy, as it has been gradually 
built up during seven centuries, and is now being energetically pushed 
on to its final completion, we can clearly distinguish the separate stones 
the building is composed of. For a long time all that was done was to 
interpret the canon of Sardica so as to extend the appellant jurisdiction 
of the Pope to whatever could be brought under the general and elastic 
term of " greater causes." But from the end of the fifth century the 
papal pretensions had advanced to a point beyond this, in consequence 
of the attitude assumed by Leo and Gelasius, and from that time began 
a course of systematic fabrications, sometimes manufactured in Rome, 
sometimes originating elsewhere, but adopted and utilized there. — " The 
Pope and the Council," Janus (Br. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C), p. 
122. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Papacy, Culmination of Apostasy. — The history of the Christian 
church does not record a steady progress in the pathway of truth and 
holiness, an uninterrupted spread of the kingdom of God on earth. 
On the contrary, it tells the story of a tremendous apostasy. Even in 
the first century, as we learn from the New Testament, there set in a 
departure from the gospel, and a return to certain forms of ritualism, 
as among the Galatians. In the second and third centuries, anti-Chris- 
tian doctrine and anti-Christian practices, sacramentarianism and sacer- 
dotalism, invaded the church, and gradually climbed to a commanding 
position, which they never afterward abandoned. In the fourth cen- 
tury, with the fall of paganism, began a worldly, imperial Christianity, 
wholly unlike primitive apostolic Christianity, a sort of Christianized 
heathenism; and in the fifth and sixth centuries sprang up the Papacy, 
in whose career the apostasy culminated later on. — " Romanism and the 
Reformation" H. Grattan Guinness, B. B., F. R. A. S., pp. 60, 61. Lon- 
don: J. Nisoet & Co., 1891. 

Papacy, Five Steps in the Development of. — The papal power was 
gradually developed, and it is not difficult to trace the principal steps 
of its development. 

First Step. — The influence of the pseudo-Clementine Letters and 
Homilies, a forgery probably of the middle of the second century. These 
writings profess to be from the hand of Clemens Romanus, who writes 
to James after the death of Peter, and states that the latter shortly 



PAPACY, DEVELOPMENT OF 367 

before his death appointed the writer his successor. Here we have the 
origin of the story, repeated by Tertullian, that Clement was ordained 
Bishop of Rome by St. Peter. The bishop of Manchester is of opinion 
that " the whole early persuasion of St. Peter's Roman Episcopate 
- was due ' to the acceptance in the third and following centuries of the 
Clementine fiction as genuine history. ... No one had any suspicion 
that the Clementine romance was a lie invented by a heretic. The story 
was accepted on all sides." 

With this view coincides the encyclical letter of the Holy Orthodox 
Church of the East already referred to: "Those absolutistic preten- 
sions of popedom were first manifested in the pseudo-Clementines." 

Second Step. — The action of the Council of Sardica (a. d. 343) in 
giving a right of appeal to the Bishop of Rome on the part of any bishop 
who considered himself unjustly condemned. This led to the con- 
solidation of power in the hands of the Bishop of Rome, although the 
decree of the council was not accepted by the churches of Africa or 
the East. 

Third Step. — The decree of the emperor Valentinian I, that all 
ecclesiastical cases arising in churches in the empire should be hence- 
forth referred for adjudication to the Bishop of Rome. 

Fourth Step. — The appeals provided for by the Council of Sardica 
and by the decree of Valentinian were voluntary appeals; but Pope 
Nicolas I, in the ninth century, set up the claim that, with or without 
appeal, the Bishop of Rome had an inherent right to review and decide 
all cases affecting bishops. 

Fifth Step. — The forged Isidorian Decretals, which pretended to be 
a series of royal orders, and letters of ancient bishops of Rome, rep- 
resented that primitive Christianity recognized in the bishops of Rome 
supreme authority over the church at large. They became a strong 
buttress and bulwark of the vast powers now claimed by the popes in 
the person of Nicolas I. — " Romanism in the Light of History,'" Randolph 
H. McKim, D. D., pp. 97, 98. Neiv York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1914. 

Papacy, Piest Anticipation of Rome's Aggressive Spirit. — It is 
toward the end of the second century, when the line of Roman bishops 
comes into clearer historical light, that we begin to discern dimly the 
first beginnings of their claim to be successors of St. Peter; and it is 
in a. d. 196, in the person of Victor, that we have our first anticipation 
of the aggressive spirit which is to be a distinguishing characteristic 
of the see of Rome in later ages. Victor ventured in a domineering 
spirit to excommunicate the Asiatic churches who held to their Johan- 
nine tradition and insisted on keeping Easter on the day of the Jewish 
Passover, whatever day of the week that might be. This arbitrary act 
on Victor's part brought down upon him the " sharp rebukes " of a num- 
ber of bishops, and among them of the great St. Irenseus, who con- 
tended that variety in ecclesiastical custom had never hitherto been a 
bar to fellowship, because such " difference only serves to commend the 
unity of the faith." Victor stood reproved. His excommunication 
failed. It was a mere " attempt " — not in the sense that he did not 
actually issue the sentence, for Eusebius tells us that he did; but simply 
because it was ignored, and the question of Easter observance remained 
an open one till the Council of Nicsea closed it. — " Roman Catholic 
Claims" Charles Gore, D. D., D. C. L., LL. D., pp. 95, 96. London: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1909. 

Papacy, " The First Essay of Papal Usurpation." — But what 
most of all distinguished the pontificate of Victor was the famous con- 
troversy about the celebration of Easter, between the Eastern and 



368 PAPACY, DEVELOPMENT OF 

Western bishops; the former keeping that solemnity on the 14th day 
of the first moon, on what day soever of the week it happened to fall; 
and the latter putting it off till the Sunday following. . . . 

Victor, not satisfied with what his two immediate predecessors had 
done, took upon him to impose the Roman custom on all the churches 
that followed the contrary practice. But, in this bold attempt, which we 
may call the first essay of papal usurpation, he met with a vigorous and 
truly Christian opposition. — " The History of the Popes," Archibald 
Bower, Vol. I, p. 18. Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

Papacy, Formal Claim to Supremacy by. — The supremacy of the 
see of Rome began in the fourth century. Then for the first time the 
precedence among equals willingly conceded to Rome in early ages was 
turned into a claim of authority; which was demanded on a new 
ground, and from that time never ceased to advance in pretensions, 
until it assumed the form of The Supremacy, that is, absolute dominion 
throughout Christendom. — " The Rise of the Papal Power," Robert Hus- 
sey, B. D., p. 1. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Papacy, Effect of Removal of Capital from Rome to Constan- 
tinople. — The removal of the capital of the empire from Rome to 
Constantinople in 330, left the Western Church practically free from 
imperial power, to develop its own form of organization. The Bishop 
of Rome, in the seat of the Csesars, was now the greatest man in the 
West, and was soon forced to become the political as well as the spir- 
itual head. To the Western world Rome was still the political capital 
— hence the whole habit of mind, all ambition, pride, and sense of 
glory, and every social prejudice favored the evolution of the great city 
into the ecclesiastical capital. Civil as well as religious disputes were 
referred to the successor of Peter for settlement. Again and again, 
when barbarians attacked Rome, he was compelled to actually assume 
military leadership. Eastern emperors frequently recognized the high 
claims of the popes in order to gain their assistance. It is not difficult 
to understand how, under these responsibilities, the primacy of the 
Bishop of Rome, established in the pre-Constantine period, was em- 
phasized and magnified after 313 [Edict of Milan]. The importance of 
this fact must not be overlooked. The organization of the church was 
thus put on the same divine basis as the revelation of Christianity. 
This idea once accepted led inevitably to the medieval Papacy. — " The 
Rise of the Mediwval Church," Alexander Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., 
pp. 168, 169. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. 

Papacy, Effect of Fall of Western Empire upon. — The fall of 
the shadowy empire of the West, and the union of the imperial power 
in the person of the ruler of Constantinople, brought a fresh accession 
of dignity and importance to the Bishop of Rome. The distant emperor 
could exercise no real power over the West. The Ostrogothic kingdom 
in Italy scarcely lasted beyond the lifetime of its great founder, 
Theodoric. The wars of Justinian only served to show how scanty were 
the benefits of the imperial rule. The invasion of the Lombards united 
all dwellers in Italy in an endeavor to escape the lot of servitude and 
save their land from barbarism. In this crisis it was found that the 
imperial system had crumbled away, and that the church alone possessed 
a strong organization. In the decay of the old municipal aristocracy 
the people of the towns gathered round their bishops, whose sacred 
character inspired some respect in the barbarians, and whose active 
charity lightened the calamities of their flocks. 

In such a state of things Pope Gregory the Great raised the 



PAPACY, EXALTATION OF 369 

Papacy to a position of decisive eminence, and marked out the course 
of its future policy. — "A History of the Papacy," M. Creighton, D. D., 
Vol. I, pp. 7, 8. London: Longmans, Green & Co^ 1899. 

Papacy, Successor of Imperial Rome. — Now the abandonment of 
Rome was the liberation of the pontiffs. "Whatsoever claims to obedience 
the emperors may have made, and whatsoever compliance the Pontiff 
may have yielded, the whole previous relation, anomalous, and annulled 
again and again by the vices and outrages of the emperors, was finally 
dissolved by a higher power. The providence of God permitted a 
succession of irruptions, Gothic, Lombard, and Hungarian, to desolate 
Italy, and to efface from it every remnant of the empire. The pontiffs 
found themselves alone, the sole fountains of order, peace, law, and 
safety. And from the hour of this providential liberation, when, by 
a divine intervention, the chains fell off from the hands of the successor 
of St. Peter, as once before from his own, no sovereign has ever reigned 
in Rome except the vicar of Jesus Christ. — " The Temporal Power of 
the Vicar of Jesus Christ," Henry Edward Manning, D. D. (R. C), 
Preface, pp. xxviii, xxix. London: Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

Out of the chaos of the great Northern migrations, and the ruins 
of the Roman Empire, there gradually arose a new order of states, 
whose central point was the papal see. Therefrom inevitably resulted 
a position not only new, but very different from the former. The new 
Christian Empire of the West was created and upheld by the Pope. The 
Pope became constantly more and more (by the state of affairs, with 
the will of the princes and of the people, and through the power of 
public opinion) the chief moderator at the head of the European com- 
monwealth, and, as such, he had to proclaim and defend the Christian 
law of nations, to settle international disputes, to mediate between 
princes and people, and to make peace between belligerent states. 
The Curia became a great spiritual and temporal tribunal. In short, 
the whole of Western Christendom formed, in a certain sense, a kingdom, 
at whose head stood the Pope and the emperor — the former, however, 
with continually increasing and far preponderating authority. — " The 
Church and the Churches," Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger (R. C), pp. 42, 
43. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1862. 

Papacy, Exaltation of, After the Pall of Rome. — With Rome 
would have fallen her bishop, had he not, as if by anticipation of the 
crisis, reserved till this hour the masterstroke of his policy. He now 
boldly cast himself upon an element of much greater strength than 
that of which the political convulsions of the times had deprived him; 
namely, that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of Peter, the prince 
of the apostles, and, in virtue of being so, is Christ's vicar on earth. 
In making this claim, the Roman pontiffs vaulted at once over the 
throne of kings to the seat of gods: Rome became once more the 
mistress of the world, and her popes the rulers of the earth. . . . 

In the violent contention which raged between Symmachus and 
Laurentius, both of whom had been elected to the pontificate on the 
same day, we are furnished with another proof that at the beginning 
of the sixth century not only was this lofty prerogative claimed by the 
popes, but that it was generally acquiesced in by the clergy. We find 
the council convoked by Theodoric demurring to investigate the charges 
alleged against Pope Symmachus, on the grounds set forth by his 
apologist Ennodius, which were " that the Pope, as God's vicar, was 
the judge of all, and could himself be judged by no one." " In this 
apology," remarks Mosheim, " the reader will perceive that the foun- 
24 



370 PAPACY, DEGRADATION OF 

dations of that enormous power which the popes of Rome afterward 
acquired were now laid." Thus did the pontiffs, providing timeously 
against the changes and revolutions of the future, place the fabric 
of the primacy upon foundations that should be immovable for all 
time. — " The Papacy," Rev. J. A. Wylie, pp. 34-36. Published under 
the auspices of the Evangelical Alliance, Edinburgh, 1851; Johnstone 
and Hunter, printers. 

Papacy, Experiences of, in the Sixth Century. — The power of 
Rome seems to have made no further advance for some years after the 
middle of the sixth century. The Lombard wars and the plague 
depressed the energies of the Romans: and the see began to feel more 
sensibly the weight of Constantinopolitan influence when the conquests 
of Belisarius and Narses had brought Italy into subjection to the 
emperor of the East again. The patriarchs had never submitted to the 
popes; from Vigilius's time they were in open feud with Rome; and 
now they had often the authority of the emperor on their side against 
Rome. Vigilius was banished by Justinian. Pelagius I, who succeeded 
him, was opposed by the Romans, but supported by Narses, Justinian's 
general, [pp. 151, 152] . . . 

The great and good Pope Gregory I, a. d. 590, in remonstrating 
against the patriarch's claim of the title, " Universal Bishop," has left 
on record his own judgment against the popes of later ages, who in 
their pretensions and their language went far beyond all that John of 
Constantinople claimed. " John, bishop of Constantinople," he wrote, 
" in opposition to God and the peace of the church, in contempt and 
to the injury of all the priesthood (bishops), exceeded the bounds of 
modesty and of his own measure, and unlawfully took to himself in 
synod the proud and pestilent title of Ecumenic, that is, Universal 
(bishop)." [p. 152] — "The Rise of the Papal Power," Robert Hussey, 
B. D., pp. 151, 152. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1863. 

Agapetus died at Constantinople, April 22, 536. His successor 
Silverius was elected at Rome, under the influence of the Gothic king 
Theodatus, and his lot fell in troubled times. While Belisarius was 
besieged by the Goths under Vitiges, he was accused of favoring the 
Goths, and thereupon banished by Belisarius. He died soon afterward, 
starved to death, it is reported, in his exile, a. d. 538. 

Vigilius, who was elected next, came in upon the interest of the 
court of Constantinople: he having, as it is said, given a promise to 
the empress that he would favor the Monophysite party. His career 
was not a glorious one in the annals of the popedom. — Id., pp. 145, 146. 

Papacy, Degradation of. — The immediate effect of the conquest of 
Italy [535-554] was the reduction of the popes to the degraded condition 
of the patriarchs of Constantinople. Such were the bitter fruits of 
their treason to the Gothic king. The success of Justinian's invasion 
was due to the clergy; in the ruin they brought upon their country, and 
the relentless tyranny they drew upon themselves, they had their re- 
ward. — ^'History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John 
William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 355, New York: Harper & 
Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Papacy, Enslaved and Degraded. — For above sixty years (883-955) 
the Roman Church was enslaved and degraded, while the apostolic see 
became the prey and the plaything of rival factions of the nobles, and 
for a long time of ambitious and profligate women. It was only reno- 
vated for a brief interval (997-1003) in the persons of Gregory V and 



PAPACY, DEGRADATION OP 371 

Silvester II, by the influence of the Saxon emperor. Then the Papacy 
sank back into utter confusion and moral impotence; the Tuscan counts 
made it hereditary in their family; again and again dissolute boys, like 
John XII and Benedict IX, occupied and disgraced the apostolic throne, 
which was now bought and sold like a piece of merchandise, and at last 
three popes fought for the tiara, until the emperor Henry III put an 
end to the scandal by elevating a German bishop to the see of Rome. — 
" The Pope and the Council" Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. C), 
p. 100. London: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Papacy, Degeneracy or, in the Tenth Century. — It is usual to 
denominate it the iron age, on account of its barbarism and barrenness 
of all good; also the leaden age, on account of the abounding wicked- 
ness by which it was deformed; and the dark age, on account of the 
scarcity of writers. . . . One can scarcely believe, nay, absolutely can- 
not credit, without ocular demonstration, what unworthy conduct, what 
base and enormous deeds, what execrable and abominable transactions, 
disgraced the Holy Catholic See, which is the pivot on which the whole 
Catholic Church revolves; when temporal princes, who, though called 
Christian, were most cruel tyrants, arrogated to themselves the elec- 
tion of the Roman pontiffs. Alas, the shame! Alas, the mischief! 
What monsters, horrible to behold, were then raised to the Holy See, 
which angels revere! What evils did they perpetrate; what horrible 
tragedies ensued! With what pollutions was this see, though itself 
without spot or wrinkle, then stained; what corruptions infected it; 
what filthiness defiled it; and hence what marks of perpetual infamy 
are visible upon it! — "Annales Ecclesiastici," Ccesare Baronio, Ann. 900 
(The Ecclesiastical Annals of Ccesar Baronius, for the year 900), 
sees. 1, 3. Translation in Mosheim's History. 

That the history of the Roman pontiffs of this century, is a history 
of monsters, a history of the most atrocious villainies and crimes, is 
acknowledged by all writers of distinction, and even by the advocates 
of popery. — " Institutes of Ecclesiastical History," Mosheim, book 3, 
cent. 10, part 2, chap. 2, sec. 2 (Vol. II, p. 278). London: Longman & Co., 
1841. 

Papacy, Degradation of, in Eleventh Century. — Throughout the 
greater part of the tenth and almost all the first half of the eleventh 
century, the Papacy had been sunk in the deepest moral degradation. 
This deplorable state of things had been created largely by the inter- 
ference in the papal elections — which were nominally in the hands 
of the Roman clergy and people — by rival feudal factions at Rome 
which set up and pulled down popes at will. Through such influences 
it often happened that persons of scandalous life were, through violence 
and bribery, elevated to the papal chair. — " Mediaeval and Modern 
History" Philip Tan Ness Myers, p. 113. Boston: Ginn & Co. 

Papacy, In Thirteenth Century. — So low, indeed, was sunk the 
moral dignity of Christianity under the papal rule, so oppressive was 
that power, that of the three great potentates of Christendom at this 
period [thirteenth century], Frederick II was suspected of preferring 
the Koran to the Bible, and both Philip Augustus and John are be- 
lieved to have entertained the desire of adopting the tenets of the 
Arabian impostor; and all three were no doubt objects of polished scorn 
to the cultivated Arabs of Bagdad and Cordova. — " Historical Studies," 
Eugene Lawrence, p. 46. Neiv York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 



372 PAPACY, SCHISM IN 

During this period [the thirteenth century] the organization of the 
papal hierarchy was perfected. At the head stood the all-powerful and 
absolute Pope as God's agent on earth; hence, at least in theory and 
claim, he was the ruler of the whole world in temporal and spiritual 
affairs. He was the defender of Christianity, the church, and the clergy 
in all respects. He was the supreme censor of morals in Christendom 
and the head of a great spiritual despotism. He was the source of all 
earthly justice and the final court of appeal in all cases. Any person, 
whether priest or layman, could appeal to him at any stage in the 
trial of a great many important cases. He was the supreme lawgiver 
on earth, hence he called all councils and confirmed or rejected their 
decrees. He might, if he so wished, set aside any law of the church, 
no matter how ancient, so long as it was not directly ordained by the 
Bible or by nature. He could also make exceptions to purely human 
laws, and these exceptions were known as dispensations. He had the 
sole authority to transfer or depose bishops and other church officers. 
He was the creator of cardinals and ecclesiastical honors of all kinds 
He was the exclusive possessor of the universal right of absolution, 
dispensation, and canonization. He was the grantor of all church bene- 
fices. He was the superintendent of the whole financial system of the 
church and of all taxes. He had control over the whole force of the 
clergy in Christendom, because he conferred the pallium, the arch- 
bishop's badge of office. In his hands were kept the terrible thunders 
of the church to enforce obedience to papal law, namely, excommuni- 
cation and the interdict. — "The Rise of the Mediaeval Church,'" Alexander 
Clarence Flick, Ph. D., Litt. D., pp. 575, 576. New York: G. P. 
Putnam's Sons, 1909. 

Papacy, Schism in. — The schism arose from the struggle between 
two nations for the possession of the Papacy: the Italians wanted to 
regain and the French to keep it. And thus it came to pass that from 
1378 to 1409 Western Christendom was divided into two, from 1409 to 
1415, into three, Obediences. A Neapolitan, Urban VI, had been elected, 
and his first slight attempt at a reform gave immediate occasion to the 
outbreak of the schism. Soon after entering on his pontificate, he 
excommunicated the cardinals who were guilty of simony. But simony 
had long been the daily bread of the Roman Curia and the breath of its 
life; without simony the machine must come to a standstill and in- 
stantly fall to pieces. The cardinals had, from their own point of view, 
ample ground for insisting on the impossibility of subsisting without 
it. They accordingly revolted from Urban and elected Clement VII, a 
man after their own heart. Nobody knew at the time whose election 
was the most regular, Urban's or Clement's, [p. 293] . . . 

The situation was a painful one for all adherents of papal infal- 
libility, who found themselves in an inextricable labyrinth. Their be- 
lief necessarily implied that the particular individual who is in sole 
possession of all truth, and bestows on the whole church the certainty 
of its faith, must be always and undoubtingly acknowledged as such. 
There can as little be any uncertainty allowed about the person of the 
right Pope as about the books of Scripture. Yet every one at that 
period must at bottom have been aware that the mere accident of what 
country he lived in determined which Pope he adhered to, and that all 
he knew of his Pope's legitimacy was that half Christendom rejected 
it. Spaniards and Frenchmen believed in Clement VII or Benedict 
XIII, Englishmen and Italians in Urban VI or Boniface IX. What was 
still worse, the old notion, which for centuries had been fostered by the 
popes, and often confirmed by them, of the invalidity of ordinations 
and sacraments administered outside the papal communion, still widely 



PAPACY, NOON OF 373 

prevailed, especially in Italy. The papal secretary Coluccio Salutato 
paints in strong colors the universal uncertainty and anguish of con- 
science produced by the schism, and his own conclusion as a papalist 
is, that as all ecclesiastical jurisdiction is derived from the Pope, and 
as a Pope invalidly elected cannot give what he does not himself pos- 
sess, no bishops or priests ordained since the death of Gregory XI could 
guarantee the validity of the sacraments they administered. It fol- 
lowed, according to him, that any one who adored the eucharist conse- 
crated by a priest ordained in schism worshiped an idol. Such was the 
condition of Western Christendom, [pp. 294-296] — " The Pope and the 
Council," Janus (Dr. J. J. Ign. von Bollinger) (R. G.), pp. 293-296., Lon- 
don: Rivingtons, 1869. 

Papacy, Noon of. — " In each of the three leading objects which 
Rome has pursued," says Hallam — " independent sovereignty, suprem- 
acy over the Christian church, control over the princes of the earth 
— it was the fortune of this Pontiff [Innocent III] to conquer." 
" Rome," he says again, " inspired during this age all the terror of 
her ancient name; she was once more mistress of the world, and kings 
were her vassals." She had fought a great fight, and now she celebrated 
an unequaled triumph. Innocent appointed all bishops; he summoned 
to his tribunal all causes, from the gravest affairs of mighty kingdoms 
to the private concerns of the humble citizen. He claimed all king- 
doms as his fiefs, all monarchs as his vassals, and launched with un- 
sparing hand the bolts of excommunication against all who withstood 
his pontifical will. Hildebrand's idea was now fully realized. The 
pontifical supremacy was beheld in its plenitude — the plenitude of 
spiritual power, and that of temporal power. It was the noon of the 
Papacy; but the noon of the Papacy was the midnight of the world. — 
" The History of Protestantism" Rev. J. A. Wylie, Vol. I, pp. 15, 16. 
London: Gassell & Go. 

Papacy, Medieval, Pall of. — With Boniface VIII fell the medieval 
Papacy. He had striven to develop the idea of the papal monarchy into 
a definite system. He had claimed for it the noble position of arbiter 
among the nations of Europe. Had he succeeded, the power which, 
according to the medieval theory of Christendom, was vested in the 
empire, would have passed over to the Papacy no longer as a theoretical 
right, but as an actual possession; and the Papacy would have asserted 
its supremacy over the rising state-system of Europe. His failure 
showed that with the destruction of the empire the Papacy had fallen 
likewise. Both continued to exist in name, and set forth their old 
pretensions; but the empire, in its old aspect of head of Christendom, 
had become a name of the past or a dream of the future since the 
failure of Frederick II. The failure of Boniface VIII showed that a 
like fate had overtaken the Papacy likewise. The suddenness and 
abruptness of the calamity which befell Boniface impressed this in- 
delibly on the minds of men. The Papacy had first shown its power 
by a great dramatic act; its decline was manifested in the same way. 
The drama of Anagni is to be set against the drama of Canossa. — 
"A History of the Papacy," M. Creighton, D. D., Vol. I, p. 82. London: 
Longmans, Green & Go. 1899. 

Papacy, Decline of. — Thus we have seen that the personal im- 
moralities and heresy of the popes brought on the interference of the 
king of France, who not only shook the papal system to its basis, but 
destroyed its prestige by inflicting the most conspicuous indignity upon 
it. For seventy years [from 1305] Rome was disfranchised, and the 



3 74 PAPACY, CAPTIVITY OF, 



rivalries of France and Italy produced the great schism, than which 
nothing could be more prejudicial to the papal power. We have seen 
that, aided by the pecuniary difficulties of the Papacy, the rising in- 
tellect of Europe made good its influence and absolutely deposed the 
Pope. It was in vain to deny the authenticity of such a council; there 
stood the accomplished fact. At this moment there seemed no other 
prospect for the Italian system than utter ruin; yet, wonderful to be 
said, a momentary deliverance came from a quarter whence no man 
would have expected. The Turks were the saviors of the Papacy, 
[pp. 103, 104] . l . 

No more with the vigor it once possessed was the Papacy again to 
domineer over human thought and be the controlling agent of European 
affairs. Convulsive struggles it might make, but they were only death 
throes. The sovereign Pontiff must now descend from the autocracy 
he had for so many ages possessed, and become a small potentate, 
tolerated by kings in that subordinate position only because of the 
remnant of his influence on the uneducated multitude and those of 
feeble minds. — " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe" 
John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, pp. 108, 104. New York: 
Harper & Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Papacy, Babylonish Captivity of. — Under Innocent III and his 
immediate successors the Papacy had attained its greatest power. The 
gigantic oak of the Holy Empire had spread forth its branches and 
overshadowed all lands. Glorious in its own luxuriance, it could hence- 
forth only await the slow decline of time, and the storms which would 
break it to pieces in ages to come. Already under Boniface VIII the 
signs of a coming tempest were gathering in the horizon. The sharp 
breeze which in his time set from France against Rome portended evil. 
Now Boniface was dead: the breeze had increased to a gale; and the 
first storm which, sweeping over the medieval Papacy, left it despoiled 
of a portion of its power, was the successful assertion of their political 
authority by the kings of France during the seventy years' residence 
of the popes at Avignon. That change of residence, marking as it does 
the time when the glories of the Papacy were over, and when it lost 
the political supremacy which it had previously enjoyed, has not inaptly 
been called the Babylonish captivity. It was the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the Papacy and the history of the empire — a 
period of decline for both. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," 
Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. G. L., M. A., pp. 409, 410. London: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1870. 

Papacy, The Boegias. — The next phase in which the Papacy ex- 
hibits itself is the natural result of the possession of absolute temporal 
and spiritual power; the next representative Pope is a Borgia. In no 
other place than Rome could a Borgia have arisen; in no other position 
than that of Pope could so frightful a monster have maintained his 
power. Alexander VI, or Roderic Borgia, a Spaniard of noble family 
and nephew to Pope Calixtus III, was early brought to Rome by his 
uncle, and made a cardinal in spite of his vices and his love of ease. 
He became Pope in 1492 by the grossest simony. Alexander's only 
object was the gratification of his own desires and the exaltation of his 
natural children. Of these, whom he called his nephews, there were 
five, one son being Caesar Borgia, and one daughter the infamous 
Lucrezia. Alexander is represented to have been a poisoner, a robber, 
a hypocrite, a treacherous friend. His children in all these traits of 
wickedness surpassed their father. Caesar Borgia, beautiful in person, 
and so strong that in a bullfight he struck off the head of the animal 



PAPACY, THE BORGIAS 3 75 

at a single blow — a majestic monster ruled by unbridled passions and 
stained with blood — now governed Rome and his father by the terror 
of his crimes. Every night, in the streets of the city, were found the 
corpses of persons whom he had murdered either for their money or 
for revenge; yet no one dared to name the assassin. Those whom he 
could not reach by violence he took off by poison. His first victim was 
his own elder brother, Francis, Duke of Gandia, whom Alexander loved 
most of all his children, and whose rapid rise in wealth and station 
excited the hatred of the fearful Caesar. Francis had just been ap- 
pointed duke of Benevento; and before he set out for Naples there was 
a family party of the Borgias one evening at the papal palace, where 
no doubt a strange kind of mirth and hilarity prevailed. The two 
brothers left together, and parted with a pleasant farewell, Caesar 
having meantime provided four assassins to waylay his victim that 
very night. The next morning the duke was missing; several days 
passed, but he did not return. It was believed that he was murdered; 
and Alexander, full of grief, ordered the Tiber to be dragged for the 
body of his favorite child. An enemy, he thought, had made away 
with him. He little suspected who that enemy was. 

At length a Sclavonian waterman came to the palace with a 
startling story. He said that on the night when the prince disappeared, 
while he was watching some timber on the river, he saw two men 
approach the bank, and look cautiously around to see if they were 
observed. Seeing no one, they made a signal to two others, one of 
whom was on horseback, and who carried a dead body swung carelessly 
across his horse. He advanced to the river, flung the corpse far into 
the water, and then rode away. Upon being asked why he had not 
mentioned this before, the waterman replied that it was a common 
occurrence, and that he had seen more than a hundred bodies thrown 
into the Tiber in a similar manner. 

The search was now renewed, and the body of the ill-fated Francis 
was found pierced by nine mortal wounds. Alexander buried his son 
with great pomp, and offered large rewards for the discovery of his 
murderers. At last the terrible secret was revealed to him; he hid 
himself in his palace, refused food, and abandoned himself to grief. 
Here he was visited by the mother of his children, who still lived at 
Rome. What passed at their interview was never known; but all in- 
quiry into the murder ceased, and Alexander was soon again immersed 
in his pleasures and his ambitious designs. 

Caesar Borgia now ruled unrestrained, and preyed upon the Romans 
like some fabulous monster of Greek mythology. He would suffer no 
rival to live, and he made no secret of his murderous designs. His 
brother-in-law was stabbed by his orders on the steps of the palace. 
The wounded man was nursed by his wife and his sister, the latter 
preparing his food lest he might be carried off by poison, while the Pope 
set a guard around the house to protect his son-in-law from his son. 
Caesar laughed at these precautions. " What cannot be done in the 
noonday," he said, " may be brought about in the evening." He broke 
into the chamber of his brother-in-law, drove out the wife and sister, 
and had him strangled by the common executioner. He stabbed his 
father's favorite, Perotto, while he clung to his patron for protection, 
and the blood of the victim flowed over the face and robes of the Pope. 
Lucrezia Borgia rivaled, or surpassed, the crimes of her brother; 
while Alexander himself performed the holy rites of the church with 
singular exactness, and in his leisure moments poisoned wealthy cardi- 
nals and seized upon their estates. He is said to have been singularly 
engaging in his manners, and most agreeable in the society of those 
whom he had resolved to destroy. At length, Alexander perished by 



376 PAPACY AND THE REFORMATION 

his own arts. He gave a grand entertainment, at which one or more 
wealthy cardinals were invited for the purpose of being poisoned, and 
Caesar Borgia was to provide the means. He sent several flasks of poi- 
soned wine to the table, with strict orders not to use them except by 
his directions. Alexander came early to the banquet, heated with exer- 
cise, and called for some refreshment; the servants brought him the 
poisoned wine, supposing it to be of rare excellence; he drank of it 
freely, and was soon in the pangs of death. His blackened body was 
buried with all the pomp of the Roman ritual. 

Scarcely is the story of the Borgias to be believed: such a father, 
such children, have never been known before or since. Yet the accu- 
rate historians of Italy, and the careful Ranke, unite in the general 
outline of their crimes. On no other throne than the temporal empire 
of Rome has sat such a criminal as Alexander; in no other city than 
Rome could a Caesar Borgia have pursued his horrible career; in none 
other was a Lucrezia Borgia ever known. The Pope was the absolute 
master of the lives and fortunes of his subjects; he was also the abso- 
lute master of their souls; and the union of these two despotisms pro- 
duced at Rome a form of human wickedness which romance has never 
imagined, and which history shudders to describe. — " Historical Stud- 
ies," Eugene Lawrence, pp. 51-54. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Papacy, Condition of, at Beginning of the Reformation. — The 
downward course of the Papacy, from the time of Boniface VIII to the 
age of the Reformation, we have already contemplated. The removal 
of the papal see to Avignon, the Great Schism, the ever bolder demand 
for general councils which should be superior to the Pope, the history 
of these councils themselves and of what followed them, the internal 
moral corruption which in Innocent VIII and Alexander VI recalled 
the times of the pornocracy in the tenth century, from the pollution of 
which Hildebrand had saved the church, may be cited in illustration of 
the decline of which we speak. And yet at the beginning of the Refor- 
mation, the nimbus which surrounded the papal dignity had not dis- 
appeared, nor was that dignity the object of the first attack either of 
Luther or of Zwingle; only when Rome betrayed the trust reposed in 
her by the Reformers, and shut her ear to their cry for help, was this 
opposition regarded by them as a proof that instead of the Holy Father 
of Christendom they had to do with Antichrist. — V History of the Refor- 
mation in Germany and Switzerland Chiefly" Dr. K. R. Hagendach, 
Vol. I, p. 10. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878. 

Papacy, General View of Growth and Decline. — This hierarchical 
centralization, which is so conspicuous in the Middle Ages, was a new 
thing in the seventh century, and in fact a result growing out of the 
church's altered relations. Such claims as were put forth by the popes 
in the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, would have been impossible 
in the first four centuries of Christendom. They were the claims of a 
city no longer mistress of the world, to be mistress of the world; the 
claims of a spiritual person to occupy the place once held by a political 
sovereign; the claims of one who felt the strength of his position, who, 
having been left to himself, had learned what it was to be free, and who, 
having learned what it was to be free, coveted to rule over others. They 
were the claims of a civilized ecclesiastic feeling his moral ascendancy 
over nations rude and uncultivated, and adroitly using his moral 
ascendancy for political purposes. Moreover, these claims were first 
advanced in the cause of civilization and Christianity. The error was 
that they were persevered in by those who had tasted the sweets of 
power, long after the rudeness and want which had first called them 



PAPACY, GROWTH AND DECLINE OF 377 

forth had passed away. Nay, are they not even now persevered in, 
although those upon whom they are made are far in advance of those 
who make them in intellectual enlightenment? 

It is interesting to watch the progress of these claims, not forgetting 
that they form the basis on which the Holy Empire was built, and to 
see the oscillations of power from the temporal to the spiritual head, 
and back to the temporal head again. For, in the Holy Empire, religion 
and politics were ever combined. At one time the religious power is 
the strongest; at another, the two are equal; again the civil power has 
secured the upper hand, and seeks to dethrone the ecclesiastical alto- 
gether. When the connection between the two is finally severed, the 
Holy Empire is really at an end. 

Three definite stages may therefore be distinguished in the history 
of the see of Rome in the Middle Ages — an age of growth, an age of 
greatness, and an age of decline. 

In the first of these stages, the age of growth, the Latin system 
may be watched rapidly spreading over Europe with hardly a single 
obstacle. Civilization is confounded with Christianity, and Christianity 
with the Papacy. The spiritual power is continually rising in impor- 
tance, and founds the empire. 

In the next of these stages — the age of greatness — the Pope has 
become a spiritual autocrat, ruling the church absolutely, and through 
the church ruling the empire. That rule brings him into collision with 
the emperor. A struggle goes on ostensibly between popes and em- 
perors, really between the old world and the new world, between the 
old despotic Latin spirit and the new freedom-loving Teutonic spirit. 
And such is the power of the Papacy, that the emperors succumb in 
the struggle. In the moment of the greatest triumphs of the Papacy, 
however, the handwriting is seen on the wall. 

With the fourteenth century, marked nationalities begin to show 
themselves in language, literature, and distinct kingdoms. Europe has 
reached man's estate and will no longer be held in thraldom. Soon the 
system of the Papacy, as a living power, is seen to crumble away, 
declining far more rapidly than it had grown, and dragging down with 
it into ruin at once the popes and the emperors. During the papal 
residence at Avignon, the political supremacy of the popes was lost. 
By the Great Schism of the West, their ecclesiastical supremacy was 
undermined. And when vice had deprived them of what moral weight 
they still possessed, Western Christendom broke off its fetters, and the 
result was the Reformation. — " The See of Rome in the Middle Ages," 
Rev. Oswald J. Reichel, B. G. L., M. A., pp. 4-6. London: Longmans, 
Green & Go., 1870. 

Papacy, Future Extension or. — It may be that the vicars of 
Jesus Christ have only begun their toil and their tutelage of the mon- 
archies and dynasties of princes and their royal houses; that a wider, 
larger, and weightier mission is before them to the nations and con- 
federation of commonwealths, and to the wayward turbulence of the 
popular will. The gospel of the kingdom has not yet been preached to 
all nations. The Christian family has not yet assimilated to itself more 
than one third of the human race. The leaven is in the meal, but it 
has, as yet, penetrated only a portion. We know that " the whole must 
be leavened." The Christendom of today may be no more than the 
blade, or at most the stalk, to the full corn in the ear, which shall be 
hereafter. — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Ghrist," Henry 
Edward Manning, D. D. (R. G.J, Preface, p. liii. London: Burns and 
Lamoert, 1862. 



3 78 PAPACY, REVIVAL OF 

Papacy, Revival of Power of. — The Vatican is again a great power 
in world politics. It has been my own business to examine many of the 
manifestations of this immense revival, and not in one, but in prac- 
tically every country of Europe, and to a considerable extent in Amer- 
ica, does the Roman Catholic Church openly take its part in the recon- 
struction of the continents torn and shattered by the long war. 

In making a comprehensive survey of the situation, it must be 
clearly understood in advance that I do not intend to criticize or to 
approve the claim and the exercise of temporal power by the church, 
nor do I intend to criticize nor to approve the particular direction which 
these papal politics are taking. Not always is it easy to take a de- 
tached viewpoint and to present facts impartially, especially, indeed, 
when those facts are not always tangibly demonstrable, but are occult, 
only to be sensed by those who live in the atmosphere of international 
politics. But the writer believes he is impartial and has always dealt 
impartially with this subject. There are certain phenomena which are 
occurring all over the globe, in which the church is playing indubitably 
a prominent part after some years of comparative political extinction; 
and it is impossible not to put together the various movements and 
events, and come to the conclusion that at one bound Catholicism has 
become a huge force to be reckoned with. 

It always has been necessary to take Catholicism seriously into 
the reckoning; but never anything like so much as now, and the Vatican 
is out to capture more and more control of world affairs. Whether that 
is good or bad I leave it to others to decide, remaining in my role of 
recorder — a recorder who has long been a close student of politics, liv- 
ing and moving about chancelleries, listening to statesmen, and trying 
to catch the thought of diplomatists. Diplomatists, statesmen, officials 
of chancelleries, if they do not always speak the language of the Vati- 
can, are quite conscious of its new energy, and are, even when they are 
personally hostile to Catholicism as a religion, anxious to employ it 
as a political instrument in their own favor. It is precisely this 
anxiety of the statesmen to use the Vatican that increases its force, so 
that today it is hardly an exaggeration to say that it controls the world 
in a much more real and widespread way than any other individual gov- 
ernment. Governments are striving, each from its own center, to con- 
trol the world, and are keenly realizing how powerless they are in the 
confusion of things — ihow their writ does not run far or effectively 
beyond their own realm; whereas the Vatican, which has no territo- 
rial realm, which has only a center, has its spiritual kingdom every- 
where. . . . 

During the war the Vatican in the political sense sank lower than 
ever. The dilemma was obvious. How could the church take either the 
French or the German side? Catholics in either country would have 
been deeply offended. The Vatican could only be neutral, but it thereby 
lost a great deal of its authority, already so badly shattered by this 
long struggle with Prance, just as America would have lost all moral 
authority if she had persisted in her attitude of neutrality. 

But after the war the wheel turned suddenly. Everywhere Cath- 
olic parties are in the ascendant. The canonization of Joan of Arc at 
Rome struck the public imagination. There was a great spectacular 
demonstration. Those of us who saw that mighty procession and as- 
sisted at that solemn ceremony, at once realized that we were at the 
beginning of a new epoch for the church. Prance in particular was 
flattered by this canonization of her national heroine. There was a 
complete change of attitude. When to this popular impulse toward 
friendship there is added the diplomatic necessity of papal good will, in 



PAPACY, REVIVAL, OF 3 79 

Catholic Alsace-Lorraine, in the buffer state of Poland, in the Catholic 
countries of Middle Europe, in Syria, indeed, everywhere, there is no 
wonder that France follows the example of England, and arranges to 
send a representative to the Vatican. There will be a papal nuncio at 
Paris before long, and, with the new alliance between France and Rome, 
the Vatican must be regarded as having conquered a foremost place in 
world politics, a place which she will undoubtedly strengthen in the 
near future. — Sisley Huddleston, " The Vatican's New^ Place in World 
Politics," in Current History, November, 1920. 

Papacy, Vatican, Powek of, in 1920. — The London foreign office 
has been forced to cultivate pleasant relations with the Vatican because 
the Vatican is more powerful on the Continent of Europe than it has 
been since the era immediately preceding the great French Revolution. 
— ■ Current Opinion, August, 1920, p. 162. 

Papacy, Revival of Power of. — The statement by keen observers 
that the Papacy is about to enter upon the most brilliant era since the 
height of its power in the thirteenth century, calls attention to a strik- 
ing development of the post-war period. 

In England A. J. Balfour, mouthpiece of the agnostics and speaking 
for a power which has for centuries battled against Rome, has called on 
the Vatican to strengthen the League of Nations. In France, which for 
three centuries has been outwardly the archenemy of clericalism, the 
Papacy is being used as an ally in Alsace-Lorraine, Central Europe, and 
the Near East. In Italy, the Catholic People's party, which is really the 
church in politics, holds the balance of power in Parliament, and pre- 
vents the country from going frankly and completely over to radical- 
ism. Throughout Europe, the Vatican is today regarded as a mainstay 
against Bolshevism. . . . 

Despite the growth of the Roman Catholic Church in this country 
from 12,000,000 members in 1912 to 16,000,000 in 1919, and despite many 
evidences of its hold upon the people, we have been slow to realize the 
unique position which it occupies internationally as a result of recent 
developments. 

Benedict XV, with Cardinal Gasparri as his astute adviser, has 
adopted a policy which not only recognizes America more adequately 
than ever before in the church, but also frankly aims at regaining that 
temporal power which a series of disasters culminating with the " im- 
prisonment " of the Pope in 1871, swept away. 

By a strange irony, Germany and Italy, whose governments in the 
seventies did most to drag the Papacy in the dust, are now literally in 
the Pope's hands. The pressure which can be exerted for or against 
the present German government from the Vatican is tremendous, and 
well understood in Berlin. As for Italy, the Pope not only has the 
situation well in hand by his members in Parliament, but actually has 
the power to call upon the Italian government at any time to pay a 
staggering sum which has been piling up and has been untouched 
since 1871, when the government voted an annual indemnity to the 
Vatican for the temporalities of which it stripped it. By simply de- 
manding the payments already due, the Pope could force the Italian 
government to either invite revolution by repudiating its own obliga- 
tion, or to throw itself into bankruptcy by trying in this crisis to meet 
the payments. 

As far east as Beirut, France recognizes and is dealing with the 
Papacy as a decisive factor in Asia Minor. Within the boundaries of 
France, the anticlerical government and the Papacy have found common 
ground in their stand against Bolshevism, and the government has not 



380 PAPACY, REVIVAL, OF 

been slow to go more than halfway in a reconciliation with its old 
opponent. The Irish situation, as well as the general British eagerness 
to foster all stabilizing world influences, have brought the British gov- 
ernment to a desire for a working understanding with Rome on a scale 
hitherto undreamed of. 

Putting entirely aside all questions of doctrine or of worship, the 
Papacy, regarded solely as a political factor, has had a sudden and 
unexpected birth of power. As has happened so many times before 
in the history of Europe, this ancient and powerful organization, which 
seems forever being crushed utterly and forever rising stronger than 
before, has started on a new path to influence. — • Article on " The New 
Papacy," in Los Angeles Daily Times, Nov. 24, 1920. 

Papacy, Vatican, Prance Resumes Diplomatic Relations with. — 
The long-expected debate on the resumption of formal diplomatic inter- 
course between France and the Holy See was begun in the Chamber of 
Deputies on November 18. Some opposition to this favorite project of 
President Millerand had been shown by Premier Leygues, who inclined 
to lend an ear to the arguments of the anticlerical party, but the pre- 
mier's resistance had been overcome. In the Chamber the les-al status of 
the French church, in case relations were resumed, was debated with 
some heat. The bill for a resumption in diplomatic relations was passed, 
however, on November 30, after the Chamber had given the government 
a vote of confidence. An amendment proposing that a French envoy be 
sent, but that the government decline to receive a papal nuncio in Paris, 
on the ground that it might interfere with French internal affairs, was 
decisively lost. The bill, declared M. Leygues, was simply a matter of 
foreign policy. He added: "The Vatican is a moral force which France 
cannot afford to neglect." The premier reminded the deputies that 
Great Britain was maintaining her envoy at the Vatican, and that the 
Swiss government was resuming diplomatic relations, broken in 1873. 
— Current History, January, 1921, p. 96. 

Papacy.— Pages 28-33, 68-74, 307-311, 444, 515-518. 

Papal Supremacy, Rivalry of Rome and Constantinople. — The 
Patriarch of Constantinople, however, remained virtually only primus 
inter pares [first among equals], and has never exercised a papal su- 
premacy over his colleagues in the East, like that of the Pope over 
the metropolitans of the West; still less has he arrogated, like his 
rival in ancient Rome, the sole dominion of the entire church. Toward 
the Bishop of Rome he claimed only equality of rights and co-ordinate 
dignity. 

In this long contest between the two leading patriarchs of Chris- 
tendom, the Patriarch of Rome at last carried the day. The monar- 
chical tendency of the hierarchy was much stronger in the West than in 
the East, and was urging a universal monarchy in the church. — "His- 
tory of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, D. D., (7 vol. edition) Vol. 
Ill, pp. 285, 286. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 

Papal Supremacy, Rome the Historic Seat of World Empire. — 
Then, too, considered even in a political point of view, old Rome had 
a far longer and grander imperial tradition to show, and was identified 
in memory with the bloom of the empire; while New Rome marked the 
beginning of its decline. When the Western Empire fell into the hands 
of the barbarians, the Roman bishop was the only surviving heir of 
this imperial past, or, in the well-known dictum of Hobbes, " the ghost 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, JUSTINIAN 381 

of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave thereof." 

— " History of the Christian Church" Philip S chaff, D. D., (7 vol. edition) 
Vol. Ill, p. 287. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 

Papal Supremacy, Advancing Claims. — Let me only add, with refer- 
ence to Pope Symmachus, who held the Pontificate at the opening of the 
sixth century, that a council having been convened at Rome, a. d. 501, 
by King Theodoric's command, to judge of certain charges against him, 
the council demurred to entering on the matter, on the ground of in- 
competency; considering that the person accused was supreme above 
all ecclesiastical jurisdiction. And, a little after (to crown all) another 
Roman synod [a. d. 503], with Symmachus himself presiding and con- 
senting, in the most solemn manner adopted a book written by En- 
nodius, in defense of the resolutions of the former synod: in which 
book it was asserted, " that the Pope was Judge as God's Vicar, and 
could himself be judged by no one." It was just in accordance with 
the previous Roman council, that had shouted in acclamation to Ge- 
lasius, " We behold in thee Christ's Vicar," — a term this sometimes 
incautiously applied before to bishops generally, in their own par- 
ticular restricted spheres of action, and in the character of Christ's 
ambassadors; but now attached to, and assumed by, this one bishop 
distinctively and alone, with the world itself as his sphere, and in 
the character of God's own appointed and supreme administrator and 
judge. It was a step per saltum, mightier than the imagination can 
well follow, by which he vaulted at once from the mere ecclesiastical 
rank of Patriarch, to that of supremacy over all the kings of the earth. 
The haughty assumption was repeated by Pope Boniface. So evi- 
dently, says Mosheim, was the foundation laid even thus early of the 
subsequent papal supremacy; so evidently, I must add, was it laid, 
both before kings and people, in papal pretensions that realized the 
precise predicted character and even appellation of Antichrist. — " Horw 
Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 132-134, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Bumside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — Antichrist means vice-Christ or vicar of Christ, the title formally as- 
sumed. See "Antichrist, Vicar of Christ " and " Antichrist, Meaning of." — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, The Pivotal Age of Justinian. — The sixth cen- 
tury may be called the age of Justinian. ... He may be likened to a 
colossal Janus bestriding the way of passage between the ancient and 
medieval worlds. ... On the one side his face was turned toward the 
past. His ideal, we are told, was to restore the proud aspect of the 
old Roman Empire. . . . Moreover, he represents the last stage in the 
evolution of the Roman Imperium; in him was fulfilled its ultimate 
absolutism. ... On the other hand, he was a great innovator and a 
destroyer of old things. . . . 

His military achievements decided the course of the history of 
Italy, and affected the development of Western Europe; . . . and his 
ecclesiastical authority influenced the distant future of Christendom. 
— "History of the Later Roman Empire," J. B. Bury, Trinity College. 
Dublin, Vol. I, pp. 351-353. Cambridge: Macmillan & Co., 1889. 

Papal Supremacy, Changes of a Generation. — The reign of Jus- 
tinian is more remarkable as a portion of the history of mankind, 
than as a chapter in the annals of the Roman Empire, or of the Greek 
nation. The changes of centuries passed in rapid succession before the 
eyes of one generation. — " Greece under the Romans" George Finlay. 
p. 231. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1844, 



382 PAPAL. SUPREMACY, JUSTINIAN 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian's Relation to. — After ecclesiastical 
peace had been restored between Rome and Constantinople, the kings 
of the Ostrogoths became suspicious of their Catholic subjects generally, 
and, in particular, of the Romish bishops, because the latter had broken 
off communion with Constantinople. John I, indeed, in his capacity 
of regal ambassador, procured the restoration of their churches to the 
Arians in the Greek Church; yet he was obliged to end his life in 
prison. The kings maintained a strict oversight of the choice of the 
Catholic bishops, reserving to themselves the confirmation, or absolute 
nomination of them. Yet even now the Gothic rule was not so dan- 
gerous to the Papacy as the Byzantine, which latter began after the 
conquest of Italy (553-554). It is true that Justinian honored the Ro- 
man see, but he distinguished the Constantinopolitan with no less favor, 
and endeavored in the end to convert both merely into instruments to 
enable him to rule both in church and state. Two of his creatures, 
Vigilius and Pelagius I, successively filled the Roman see; and in the 
controversy concerning the three chapters it soon became apparent how 
hazardous to Rome this dependence on Byzantium was. — "A Compen- 
dium of Ecclesiastical History," Dr. John C. L. Gieseler, Vol. II, pp. 
128, 129. Edinburgh: T. d T. Clark, 1848. 

Papal Supremacy, Character of Justinian, by a Contemporary. — 
In his zeal to bring all men to agree in one form of Christian doctrine, 
he recklessly murdered all who dissented therefrom, under the pre- 
text of piety, for he did not think that it was murder, if those whom he 
slew were not of the same belief as himself. — " Secret History of the 
Court of Justinian " (attributed to Procopius, but authorship uncertain), 
chap. 13, p. 110. Athens: Athenian Society's Publications, 1896. 

Papal Supremacy, Description of Justinian. — A fair, fierce-look- 
ing, red-cheeked man, with long nose and shaven chin, and curly 
grizzled hair, rather thin about the crown, carrying his shapely figure 
with a fine air of distinction, and although now somewhat past the 
prime of life, still consciously vigorous with the strength of an iron 
constitution inherited from a hardy stock of Dacian peasants. . . . 
" Of all the princes who reigned at Constantinople," writes Agathias, 
" he was the first to show himself absolute sovereign of the Romans in 
fact as well as in name" (Hist. V. 14). ... He gathered all the wires 
into his hands, and his puppets had to dance as he directed. Nor 
would he ever tolerate the least infraction of obedience, for he himself 
was perfectly persuaded that " nothing was greater, nothing more 
sacred, than the imperial majesty" (Cod. Just. I. xiv. 12). — "Life of 
Gregory the Great," Frederick Homes Dudden, Vol. I, pp. 17-19* 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian's Imperial Recognition of, in 533. — 
Justinian, victor, pious, fortunate, famous, triumphant, ever Augustus, 
to John, the most holy Archbishop and Patriarch of the noble city of 
Rome. Paying honor to the Apostolic See and to Your Holiness, as 
always has been and is our desire, and honoring your blessedness as 
a father, we hasten to bring to the knowledge of Your Holiness all that 
pertains to the condition of the churches, since it has always been our 
great aim to safeguard the unity of your Apostolic See and the posi- 
tion of the holy churches of God which now prevails and abides se- 
curely without any disturbing trouble. Therefore we have been sedu- 
lous to subject and unite all the priests of the Orient throughout its 
whole extent to the see of Your Holiness. i Whatever questions happen 



1 This incidentally proves that the Bast had not been hitherto subject to the 
Roman see. — Littledale, 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, JUSTINIAN 383 

to be mooted at present, we have thought necessary to be brought to 
Your Holiness's knowledge, however clear and unquestionable they may 
be, and though firmly held and taught by all the clergy in accordance 
with the doctrine of your Apostolic See; for we do not suffer that any- 
thing which is mooted, however clear and unquestionable, pertaining 
to the state of the churches, should fail to be made known to Your 
Holiness, as being the head of all the churches. For, as we have said 
before, we are zealous for the increase of the honor and authority of 
your see in all respects. — Cod. Justin., lib. 1, title 1; "Annales Eccle- 
siastici" Gcesare Baronio, Ann. 533, sec. 12; translation as given in " The 
Petrine Claims," R. F. Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 293. London: 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1889. 

Note. — The Latin of this letter follows : " Epistola Justiniani ad Joannem 
Romanum Pontificem, a. d. 533. — Reddentes honorem Apostolicae Sedi et vestrae 
sanctitati (quod semper nobis in voto et fuit et est) ut decet patrem honorantes 
vestram beatitudinem, omnia quae ad Bcclesise statum pertinent, festinavimus 
ad notitiam deferre vestrse sanctitatis : quoniam semper nobis fuit magnum 
studium, unitatem vestrse Apostolicae Sedis, et statum sanctarum Dei Ecclesi- 
arum custodire, qui hactenus obtinet et incommote permanet, nulla intercedente 
contrarietate : Ideoque omnes sacerdotes universi Orientalis tractus et subjicere 
at unire vestree sanctitati properavimus. In praesenti ergo quae commota sunt, 
quamvis manifesta et indubitata sint, et secundum Apostolicae vestrae Sedis doc- 
trinam ab omnibus semper sacerdotibus flrme custodita et praedicata : necessarium 
duximus, ut ad notitiam vestrae sanctitatis perveniant. Nee enim patimur quic- 
quam quod ad Bcclesiarum statum pertinet, quamvis manifestum et indubitatum 
sit quod movetur, ut non etiam vestrae innotescat, sanctitati, quae caput est 
omnium sanctarum Ecclesiarum. Per omnia enim (ut dictum est) properamus 
honorem et auctoritatem crescere vestrse Sedis." — " Annales Ecclesiastici,'' Cwsare 
Baronio, Ann. 5SS, sec. 12, p. 230. Colonics Agrippinoe: Joannis Ghymnici, and 
Antonij Hierati, sub Monocerote, 1609. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, Date of Justinian's Letter. — The emperor's 
letter must have been sent before the 25th of March, 533. For in his 
letter of that date to Epiphanius he speaks of its having been already 
dispatched, and repeats his decision, that all affairs touching the 
church shall be referred to the Pope, " Head of all bishops, and the 
true and effective corrector of heretics." [■" Tel eo maxime, quod quoties 
in his locis hceretici pullularunt, et sententia et recto judicio illius vene- 
rabilis sedis correcti sunt."] — "The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George 
Croly, A. M., p. 170, 2d edition. London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Papal Supremacy, Formally to Be Recognized by Civil Authority. 
— The Papacy being a spiritual power within the limits of the Roman 
Empire, Mr. Faber argues, I think rightly, when he says, that the 
giving the saints into the hand of the Papacy must be by some formal 
act of the secular power of that empire constituting the Pope to be 
the head of the church. It is not, in fact, easy to conceive in what 
other mode the saints could be delivered into the hand of a spiritual 
authority, which, in its infancy at least, must have been in a great 
measure dependent upon the secular power for its very existence, and 
much more for every degree of active power which it was permitted to 
assume or exercise. 

Accordingly we are informed, by the unerring testimony of history, 
that an act of the secular government of the empire was issued in 
the reign of Justinian, whereby the Roman Pontiff was solemnly ac- 
knowledged to be the head of the church, [pp. 185, 186] . . . 

The epistle which was addressed to the Pope, and another to the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, were inserted in the volume of the civil 
law; thus the sentiments contained in them obtained the sanction of 
the supreme legislative authority of the empire; and in both epistles, 
the above titles were given to the Pope. 



384 PAPAL SUPREMACY, JUSTINIAN 

The answer of the Pope to the imperial epistle was also published 
with the other documents; and it is equally important, inasmuch as 
it shows that he understood the reference that had been made to him, 
as being a formal recognition of the supremacy of the see of Rome. 

From the date of the imperial epistle of Justinian to Pope John, 
in March, 533, the saints, and times, and laws of the church, may 
therefore be considered to have been formally delivered into the hand 
of the Papacy, and this is consequently the true era of the 1260 years. 
— "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse" 
William Guninghame, pp. 185, 186, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 
1843. 

Papal Supremacy, Old Writers on Epoch of Justinian. — This 
epoch has not been fixed on, as a fit commencing epoch to the period of 
Papal supremacy, for the first time by modern commentators; or with 
a view only to the support of ex-post facto prophetic theories, that re- 
gard the French Revolution as the correspondent terminating epoch. 
It is an epoch noted by Protestant commentators, such as Brightman, 
Cressener, Mann, etc., anterior to the time of the French Revolution. 
Nay, Romanists too have remarked as early on it; for example the 
Jesuit Gordon,i and Gothofred, the learned editor of Justinian's Corpus 
Juris. The latter especially, speaking of Justinian's decretal epistle to 
the. Pope, notes it as the first imperial recognition of the primacy of 
Rome over Constantinople; i. e., of the absolute primacy. "It is hence 
evident," he says, " that they who suppose Phocas to have been the 
first that gave imperial recognition to the primacy of the Roman see 
over that of Constantinople are in error; Justinian having acknowl- 
edged it before." 2 — " Horce Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. 
Ill, p. 253, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian, Not Phocas, the Source. — Toward 
the close of the sixth century, John of Constantinople, surnamed for 
his pious austerities the Faster, summoned a council and resumed the 
ancient title of the see, " Universal Bishop." The Roman Bishop, 
Gregory the Great, indignant at the usurpation, and either hurried 
away by the violence of controversy, or, in that day of monstrous igno- 
rance, unacquainted with his own distinctions, furiously denounced 
John, calling him a " usurper aiming at supremacy over the whole 
church," and declaring, with unconscious truth, that whoever claimed 
such supremacy was Antichrist. The accession of Phocas at length 
decided the question. . . . That Phocas repressed the claim of the 
Bishop of Constantinople is beyond a doubt. But the highest au- 
thorities among the civilians and annalists of Rome spurn the idea 
that Phocas was the founder of the supremacy of Rome; they ascend 
to Justinian as the only legitimate source, and rightly date the title 
from the memorable year 533. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. 
George Groly, A. M., pp. 171-173, 2d edition. London: C. & J. Riving- 
ton, 1828. 

Papal Supremacy, Not Conferred by Phocas. — Paulus Diaconus 
and Anastasius, the only original historians who mention the grant of 
Phocas, do it in such terms as to show that no new title was given by 



1 Ad Ann. 533 : " Justinianus ad summum Pontificem legatos mittit, et epis- 
tolam de dubiis circa res fldei : in qua egregie Romani Pontificis testatur prima- 
tum, et omnium vocat ecclesiarum caput." 

2 " Hinc collige errare eos qui volunt Imperatorem Phocam primum pro Gre- 
gorio Magno Pontifice sententiam tulisse contra Joannem Patriarcham Constan- 
tinopolitanum ; cum ex his verbis constat tempore Justiniani primatum summo 
Pontine! donatum fuisse." So Gothofred. 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, SIEGE OF ROME 385 

this emperor, but that he merely renewed and confirmed the title of 
head of all the churches, which had been granted by Justinian, but 
was afterward disputed by the see of Constantinople, which wished 
to appropriate the title to itself. Besides, it may be observed, that the 
grant of Phocas has not been preserved, and it wants the requisite for- 
mality of having been recorded in the volume of the laws of the empire. 
— "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," Wil- 
liam Cuninghame, pp. 187, 188, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadelh 
1843. 

Papal Supremacy, Justinian's Design to Clear the Arian Power 
from Italy. — When Justinian first meditated the conquest of Italy, 
he sent ambassadors to the kings of the Franks, and adjured them, by 
the common ties of alliance and religion, to join in the holy enter- 
prise against the Arians. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 41, par. 32 (Vol. IV, p. 175). 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Papal Supremacy, Belisarius' Army Let into Rome (a. d. 536) 
by the Clergy. — The Goths consented to retreat in the presence of a 
victorious enemy; to delay till the next spring the operations of of- 
fensive war; to summon their scattered forces; to relinquish their 
distant possessions, and to trust even Rome itself to the faith of its 
inhabitants. Leuderis, an ancient warrior, was left in the capital with 
four thousand soldiers; a feeble garrison, which might have seconded 
the zeal, though it was incapable of opposing the wishes, of the Romans. 
But a momentary enthusiasm of religion and patriotism was kindled 
in their minds. They furiously exclaimed that the apostolic throne 
should no longer be profaned by the triumph or toleration of Arianism; 
that the tombs of the Caesars should no longer be trampled by the 
savages of the North; and, without reflecting that Italy must sink into 
a province of Constantinople, they fondly hailed the restoration of a 
Roman emperor as a new era of freedom and prosperity. The deputies 
of the Pope and clergy, of the senate and people, invited the lieutenant 
of Justinian to accept their voluntary allegiance, and to enter the city, 
whose gates would be thrown open for his reception. — Id., chap. 41, 
par. 22 (Vol. IV, p. 158). [See p. 370, Draper.— Eds.] 

Papal Supremacy, Unsuccessful Siege of Rome by Goths (537- 
538). — The whole nation of the Ostrogoths had been assembled for the 
attack, and was almost entirely consumed in the siege of Rome. If 
any credit be due to an intelligent spectator, one third at least of their 
enormous host was destroyed in frequent and bloody combats under 
the walls of the city. . . . But every attempt was defeated by the in- 
trepid vigilance of Belisarius and his band of veterans, who, in the 
most perilous moments, did not regret the absence of their compan- 
ions; and the Goths, alike destitute of hope and subsistence, clamor- 
ously urged their departure before the truce should expire, and the 
Roman cavalry should again be united. One year and nine days after 
the commencement of the siege, an army, so lately strong and trium- 
phant, burned their tents, and tumultuously repassed the Milvian bridge 
[538]. — Id., chap 41, par. 30 (Vol. IV, pp. 172, 173). 

Papal Supremacy, Decisive Character of Gothic Defeat of 538. 
— Some of them [the retreating Goths] must have suspected the melan- 
choly truth that they had dug one grave deeper and wider than all, 
the grave of the Gothic monarchy in Italy. — "Italy and Her Invaders," 
Thomas Hodgkin, Vol. IV, p. 285. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1885. 
25 



3 86 PAPAL SUPREMACY, SIEGE OF ROME 

Papal Supremacy, Gothic War Continued. — The utter failure of 
the Gothic enterprise against Rome did not, as might have been ex- 
pected, immediately bring about the fall of Ravenna [the Gothic cap- 
ital]. Unskilful as was the strategy of the Ostrogoths, there was yet 
far more power of resistance shown by them than by the Vandals. In 
three months the invasion of Africa had been brought to a triumphant 
conclusion. The war in Italy had now lasted for three years, two more 
were still to elapse before the fall of the Gothic capital announced even 
its apparent conclusion. — " Italy and Her Invaders''' Thomas Hodgkin, 
Vol. IV, p. 286. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 

When Witigis had gathered an army estimated at 150,000 Goths, he 
advanced against Rome, whose fortifications Belisarius had by this time 
repaired, and which he had provisioned from Sicily. His own force 
was small, nor were the inhabitants of Rome of much use for war; 
but his personal bravery, as well as his military skill, enabled him to 
resist successfully all the attacks which the Goths made from the seven 
camps they had formed round the city. The walls of Rome were 
strong, the Goths were unpractised in siege operations, and seem to 
have had little artillery; the imperial army, although small, was expert, 
and contained one arm, the mounted bowmen, to which Witigis had 
nothing similar to oppose. After he had lost many men from disease 
and hunger, as well as in fighting, he sent envoys to Constantinople to 
ask for peace, urging that Theodoric had occupied Italy at the request 
of the emperor Zeno, so that the legal title of the Goths was good, and 
even offering to cede Sicily, Naples, and Campania, and to pay an annual 
tribute. Justinian however refused all overtures. The siege, which had 
been suspended by an armistice, was resumed, but with no better suc- 
cess. Meanwhile an imperial general, John the Sanguinary, obtained 
important advantages in eastern Italy, took Ariminum, threatened 
Ravenna. To save his capital, Witigis broke up his camp before Rome 
a year and nine days from the time he; formed it, and retired with a 
greatly reduced army. — "A Dictionary of Christian Biography" Smith 
and Wace, Vol. Ill, art. " Justinianus I" p. 541. London: John Mur- 
ray, 1882. 

Papal Supremacy, Siege of 537-538 a Turning Point of History. 
— With the conquest of Rome by Belisarius, the history of the ancient 
city may be considered as terminating; and with his defense against 
Witiges [a. d. 538], commences the history of the Middle Ages. — " Greece 
under the Romans,'" George Finlay, p. 295. Edinburgh and London: 
William Blackwood & Sons, 1844. 

Note. — The period known as the Middle Ages, roughly speaking, is the age 
of the Papacy. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, The Struggle with the Goths for Rome. — 
The Gothic war forms an important epoch in the history of the city 
of Rome; for within the space of sixteen years it changed masters five 
times, and suffered three severe sieges. Its population was almost de- 
stroyed. — Id., p. 294. 

Papal Supremacy, The Ancient Seat Preserved for the Papacy. — 

When, in 546, Totila, king of the Goths [who was in possession of the 
city], had resolved to make of Rome " pasture land for cattle," Beli- 
sarius wrote to dissuade him from putting such a barbaric idea into 
execution. " Beyond all doubt Rome surpasses all other cities in size 
and in worth. It was not built by the resources of one man, nor did it 
obtain its magnificence in a short time. But emperors and countless 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, VIGILIUS 387 

distinguished men, with time and wealth, brought together to this 
city architects, workmen, and all things needful from the ends of the 
earth; and left as a memorial to posterity of their greatness the glori- 
ous city, built by little and little, which you now behold. If it be in- 
jured, all ages will suffer, for thus would the monuments of the worth 
of the ancients be removed, and posterity would lose the pleasure of 
beholding them " (Be Bello Gothico, Hi, c. 22). — " Lives of the Popes 
in the Early Middle Ages," Rev. H. K. Mann, Vol. I, p. 17. 

Papal Supremacy, Imperial Arms Place Vigilius on Papal Seat, 
a. d. 538. — Vigilius, a pliant creature of Theodora, ascended the papal 
chair under the military protection of Belisarius (538-554). — "History 
of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, B. D., (7 vol. ed.) Vol. Ill, p. 327. 
New ~Xork: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 

Papal Supremacy, A New Order of Popes Began a. d. 538. — Down 
to the sixth century all popes are declared saints in the martyrologies. 
Vigilius (537i-555) is the first of a series of popes who no longer bear 
this title, which is henceforth sparingly conferred. From this time on 
the popes, more and more involved in worldly events, no longer belong 
solely to the church; they are men of the state, and then rulers of 
the state. — "Medieval Europe," Bemont and Monod (revised by George 
Burton Adams), p. 120. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1902. 

Papal Supremacy, Conferred by State, Used by State. — Under 
Vigilius the prestige of the Roman Church suffered most severely. The 
emperor had usurped the place of the Pope, and compelled him to ab- 
ject submission. ... As Rome's ascendancy had been vastly enhanced 
through the fourth ecumenical council (Chalcedon), so it sank to its 
lowest point through the fifth [the second of Constantinople]. And yet 
Vigilius's pontificate contained the germ of its revival. He it was, who, 
by a letter dated April, 550, and by his appeal to the Frankish embassy 
at Byzantium, first pointed out the future alliance with the Frankish 
king, so pregnant of consequences in the future. — " History of All Na- 
tions," Vol. VII, " The Early Middle Ages," Julius von Pflugk-Harttung, 
pp. 221, 222. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co., 1902. 

Note. — While it is the verdict of history that the prestige of the Papacy 
sank to the lowest point under Vigilius, because of the dominating spirit of 
Justinian, it is to be observed that this very use of the papacy by Justinian 
established but the more securely the idea that the Pope was to command and 
direct in all ecclesiastical affairs. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, New Order of Popes Demands Sword. — Pela- 
gius [successor of Vigilius] endeavored to enlist the civil power in 
his aid. He wrote several letters to Narses, who seems to have shrunk 
from using violence, urging him to have no scruples in the matter. 
These letters are an unqualified defense of the principle of persecution. 
— "A Dictionary of Christian Biography," Smith and Wace, Vol. IV, 
art. " Pelagius (Pope)" p. 297. London: John Murray, 1887. 

Be not alarmed at the idle talk of some, crying out against perse- 
cution, and reproaching the church, as if she delighted in cruelty, 
when she punishes evil with wholesome severities, or procures the 
salvation of souls. He alone persecutes who forces to evil: but to 



1 The exact date should be 538, as given in the quotation from Schaff's his- 
tory above. "From the death of Silverius [June, 538] the Roman Catholic 
writers 'date the episcopacy of Vigilius." — " The History of the Popes/' Archibald 
Bower, under year 588, Vol. II, p. 369, — Bps. 



388 PAPAL. SUPREMACY, DURATION OF 



restrain men from doing evil, or to punish them because they have 
done it, is not persecution or cruelty, but love of mankind. Now 
that schism, or a separation from the apostolic sees, is an evil, no man 
can deny; and that schismatics may and ought to be punished, even 
by the secular power, is manifest both from the canons of the church 
and the Scripture. — Pope Pelagius to Narses, general of Justinian in 
Italy; cited in " The History of the Popes" Archibald Bower, Vol. I, p. 
372. Philadelphia: Griffith and Simon, 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, Recognized in Age of Persecution. — The reign 
of Justinian was a uniform yet various scene of persecution; and he 
appears to have surpassed his indolent predecessors, both in the con- 
trivance of his laws and the rigor of their execution. The insufficient 
term of three months was assigned for the conversion or exile of all 
heretics; and if he still connived at their precarious stay, they were 
deprived, under his iron yoke, not only of the benefits of society, 
but of the common birthright of men and Christians. — " The History of 
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" Edward Gibbon, chap. 47, 
par. 24 (Vol. IV, pp. 528, 529). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Papal Supremacy, The Pope Ruling as a King. — Long ages ago, 
when Rome through the neglect of the Western emperors was left to 
the mercy of the barbarous hordes, the Romans turned to one figure for 
aid and protection, and asked him to rule them; and thus, in this simple 
manner, the best title of all to kingly right, commenced the temporal sov- 
ereignty of the popes. And meekly stepping to the throne of Caesar, the 
vicar of Christ took up the scepter to which the emperors and kings of 
Europe were to bow in reverence through so many ages. — Rev. James 
P. Conroy (R. C), in American Catholic Quarterly Review, April, 1911. 

Papal Supremacy, Followed by Dark Ages. — It is impossible to 
read the history of the early Middle Ages without feeling that, for the 
first six centuries after the fall of the Western Empire, there is little or 
no progress. The night grows darker and darker, and we seem to get 
ever deeper into the mire. — ''Italy and Her Invaders" Thomas Hodg- 
kin, Vol. II, p. 536. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1885. 

Papal Supremacy, Maintained in General till the French Rev- 
olution. — Till the French Revolution, the Papal power, notwithstanding 
the partial resistance which it experienced from some of the sovereigns 
of Europe, continued throughout all the central territories of the Roman 
Empire of the West to hold the saints in subjection. Neither in Italy, 
France, Spain, Portugal, nor Savoy, were the Protestants tolerated; and 
the only part of what may be considered a central part of the Western 
Empire, where toleration existed, was in some of the cantons of Swit- 
zerland. — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse." 
William Cuninghame, p. 194, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 1843. 

Papal Supremacy, The Papal Power in France Before the Revo- 
lution. — The church still enjoyed political power. No one in France 
had a legal right to live outside its pale. It controlled the schools; it 
kept the parish registers, on which a man's title to his property and 
his name depended; for the sake of Catholic truth it burned its adver- 
saries; and, through its censorship of the press, it silenced all assail- 
ing tongues. — " The French Revolution," Charles Edward Mallet, p. 15. 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. 

Papal Supremacy, Another Pivotal age, 1260 Years After Jus- 
tinian. — There is no period in the history of the world which can be 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF 389 

compared, in point of interest and importance, to that which embraces 
the progress and termination of the French Revolution. In no former 
age were events of such magnitude crowded together, or interests so 
momentous at issue between contending nations. From the flame which 
was kindled in Europe, the whole world has been involved in conflagra- 
tion; and a new era has dawned upon both hemispheres from the effects 
of its extension. — " History of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., 
F. R. S. E., Introduction, Vol. I, p. 1, 9th edition. Edinburgh: William 
Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

The Revolution had lasted five years. These five years are five 
centuries for France. Never perhaps on this earth, at any period since 
the Christian era, did any country produce, in so short a space of time, 
such an eruption of ideas, men, natures, characters, geniuses, talents, 
catastrophes, crimes, and virtues. — "History of the Girondists" Al- 
ph'onse de Lamartine, book 61, sec. 16 (Vol. Ill, p. 544). 

Papal Supremacy, End of Political Absolutism, Era of Consti- 
tutionalism. — Absolute monarchy breathed its last without a struggle. 

— Edmund Burke, "On the French Revolution" (of 1789); cited in 
" HorcB Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 299, 300, 3d 
edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — The Papacy had stood for absolutism, not only in the church, but 
in the state. The terrible excesses of the Revolution constituted the protest of 
despair against an age-long system of which the Papacy had been a supporter. 

— Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, The Old Interdict Returned upon the Church. 

— On the 23d November [1793] atheism in France reached its extreme 
point, by a decree of the municipality ordering the immediate closing of 
all the churches, and placing the whole priests under surveillance. . . . 

48. The services of religion were now universally abandoned. The 
pulpits were deserted throughout all the revolutionized districts; bap- 
tism ceased; the burial service was no longer heard; the sick received 
no communion, the dying no consolation. A heavier anathema than that 
of papal power pressed upon the peopled realm of France — the anath- 
ema of Heaven, inflicted by the madness of her own inhabitants. — 
"History of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 14, 
pars. 47, 48 (Vol. Ill, p. 23), 9th edition. Edinburgh: William Black- 
wood & Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Period Terminating in French Revolution. — 
And as the recognition of the supremacy of the Pope seemed thus to be 
complete in the year 533, on the part of the emperor [Justinian] who 
put the power in his hands, so, in like rapid and yet graduated progress, 
with the same appointed space intervening, the dominion of the Papacy 
was destroyed and disannulled in that kingdom which had been its chief 
stay for ages, in the year 1793, the power was wholly taken out of the 
hands of the Pope, and infidelity, or rather atheism, was proclaimed, 
and popery abolished. 

"The churches were in most districts of France closed against 
priests and worshipers, the bells were broken and cast into cannon, 
and the whole ecclesiastical establishment destroyed." — "Life of Napo- 
leon," Sir Walter Scott, Vol. II, p. 306; quoted in " The Signs of the 
Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. II, pp. 93, 94, 3d edition. Edinburgh: 
William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

Papal Supremacy, Retribution: He That Took the Sword Slain 
by tece Sword.; — It is mentioned by Burke that the ancient chronicles 



390 PAPAL. SUPREMACY, END OF 

were searched and cited by the revolutionary leaders, in exemplification 
of the cruelty of papists in other days against those whom they called 
heretics: and that, more especially, the horrid Huguenot massacre of 
St. Bartholomew's Day was represented in the theater, the Cardinal de 
Lorraine, in his robes of function, being depicted as the chief actor and 
instigator. Nor was it in vain. At Paris (witness especially the Sep- 
tembrist massacres in the prisons), at Lyons, in La Vendee, and else- 
where, the examples thus set before them were copied too faithfully: 
copied by a populace again "drunk with fanaticism; " only not, as 
once, that of popery, but of atheism, — not as once against Protestant 
fellow citizens, but against papists. The shootings, the drownings, the 
roastings of the Roman Catholic loyalists, both priests and nobles (not 
to speak of other injuries great, yet less atrocious), had all their proto- 
types in the barbarities of another age, practised under the direction 
of the Pope and French papists, both priests and nobles, against their 
innocent Huguenot fellow countrymen. — " Horcv Apocalypticce," Rev. 
E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 321, 322, 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, Religion Itself Abolished by Papacy's Former 
Supporter. — On Nov. 26, 1793, the Convention, of which seventeen bish- 
ops and some clergy were members, decreed the abolition of all religion. 
—"Age of Revolution," W. H. Hutton, p. 156. 

Papal Supremacy, Reaping What Had Been Sown. — Of the hor- 
rors of the French Revolution it were needless to write. It is enough 
to say, that the blood of the saints began to be avenged. France had 
for ages yielded the neck to the papal yoke, and lent its aid to bind it 
on other nations; but never, even under the dictation of the Abbot of 
Citeaux, did the counts, or knights, and soldiers of France exercise more 
atrocious cruelties against the saints of the Most High, than those of 
which churchmen and loyalists were then the victims. Tithes were abol- 
ished; monasteries suppressed; church lands confiscated; the priests 
despoiled and beggared; and, at a time when every other form of faith 
was tolerated, and atheism itself esteemed rather a virtue than a vice, 
and religious liberty proclaimed, the clergy of France were required to 
abjure all allegiance to the see of Rome, and that church was " deprived 
of its earthly power," or the dominion forcibly taken from its hands. — 
" The Signs of the Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. II, pp. 114, 115, 
3d edition. Edinburgh: William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

Papal Supremacy, A Stroke of the Sword at Rome. — Begun in 
France, the spoliation of the harlot church, and of its papal patron and 
head, spread quickly into the other countries of Christendom. A propa- 
gandist spirit, in respect of this as in respect of its other principles, was 
one of the essential characteristics of the Revolution; and the tempests 
of war gave it wings. Its first translation was into Belgium and the 
Rhenish provinces of Germany; the latter the chief seat, as Ranke ob- 
serves, of the ecclesiastical form of government. Thither it brought 
with it ecclesiastical changes analogous to those in France. 

In the years 1796, 1797, French dominion being established by Bona- 
parte's victories in northern Italy, it bore with it thither the similar 
accompaniment, as of French democratism and infidelity, so too of 
French anti-papalism. And then, Rome itself being laid open to Bona- 
parte, and the French armies urging their march onward to the papal 
capital, the Pope only saved himself and it by the formal cession in the 
Treaty of Tolentino of the legations of Ferrara, Bologna, and Romagna 
(Peter's Patrimony), together with the city of Ancona; the payment .of 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF 391 

above £1,500,000 sterling, — a sum multiplied threefold by exactions an<? 
oppression, — and the surrender of military stores, and of a hundred of 
the finest paintings and statues in the Vatican. The French ambassador 
wrote from Rome to Bonaparte: " The payment stipulated by the treaty 
of Tolentino has totally exhausted this old carcass: we are making it 
consume by a slow fire." It was the very language of an Apocalyptic 
metaphor. The aged Pope himself, now left mere nominal master of 
some few remaining shreds of the Patrimony of Peter, experienced in 
person soon after the bitterness of the prevailing antipapal spirit. In 
the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the ante-hall to which is covered with 
frescoes representing the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, (was the 
scene ordered as a memento of God's retributive justice?) while seated 
on his throne, and receiving the congratulations of his cardinals on the 
anniversary of his election to the popedom, he was arrested [February, 
1798] by the French military, the ring of his marriage with the Church 
Catholic torn from his finger, his palace rifled, and himself carried pris- 
oner into France, only to die there in exile shortly after. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticcs," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 351-353, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Papal Supremacy, French Plans to End the Papacy.— One of the 

first measures of the new government was to dispatch an order to 
Joseph Buonaparte at Rome, to promote, by all the means in his power, 
the approaching revolution in the papal states; and above all things to 
take care that, at the Pope's death [he was ill, 1797], no successor 
should be elected to the chair of St. Peter.i — "History of Europe," Sir 
Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 25, par. 72 (Vol. IV, p. 129), 9th 
edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Experience of 1798, Another View. — One day 
[February, 1798] the Pope was sitting on his throne in a chapel of the 
Vatican, surrounded by his cardinals who had assembled for the pur- 
pose of offering him their congratulations on his elevation to his high 
dignity. On a sudden, the shouts of an angry multitude penetrated to 
the conclave, intermingled with the strokes of axes and hammers on the 
doors. Very soon a band of soldiers burst into the hall, who tore away 
from his finger his pontifical ring, and hurried him off, a prisoner, 
through a hall, the walls of which were adorned with a fresco, repre- 
senting the armed satellites of the Papacy, on St. Bartholomew's Day, 
as bathing their swords in the blood of unoffending women and helpless 
children. Thus it might seem as if he were to be reminded that the 
same God who visits the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto 
the third and fourth generation, had made him the victim of his re- 
tributive justice for a deed of atrocity which had long been crying aloud 
to him for vengeance. The Pope, after having been hurried away from 
his territory, and treated with every indignity, at length died at Va- 
lence in Dauphiny [France] in 1799. 2 — " Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. 
Arthur Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc, pp. 449, 450. London: 
George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, The Pope Removed by Force of Arms. — The 
Pope, who had been guarded by five hundred soldiers ever since the 
entry of the Republicans, was directed to retire into Tuscany; his Swiss 

1 La Revelliere-Lepaux, the president of the Directory, wrote to Napoleon, 
"In regard to Rome, the Directory cordially approve of the instructions you 
have given to your brother, to prevent a successor being appointed to Pius VI. 
We must lay hold of the present favorable circumstances to deliver Europe from 
the pretended papal supremacy." — Gorresp. Gonfld., iv 2U (Oct. 21, 1797). 

2 Botta, lib. xiii. p. 79: lib. xvl. p. 412. 



392 PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF 

guard relieved by a French one, and he himself ordered to dispossess 
himself of all his temporal authority. He replied, with the firmness of 
a martyr, " I am prepared for every species of disgrace. As supreme 
Pontiff, I am resolved to die in the exercise of all my powers. You may 
employ force — you have the power to do so ; but know that though you 
may be masters of my body, you are not so of my soul. Free in the 
region where it is placed, it fears neither the events nor the sufferings 
of this life. I stand on the threshold of another world; there I shall be 
sheltered alike from the violence and impiety of this." Force was soon 
employed to dispossess him of his authority; he was dragged from the 
altar in his palace, his repositories were all ransacked and plundered, 
the rings even torn from his fingers, the whole effects in the Vatican and 
Quirinal inventoried and seized, and the aged Pontiff conducted, with 
only a few domestics, amidst the brutal jests and sacrilegious songs of 
the French dragoons, into Tuscany. — "History of Europe" Sir Archi- 
bald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 25, par. 76 (Vol. IV, p. 131), 9th 
edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854. 

Papal Supremacy, Europe Thought Papacy Dead. — When, in 1797, 
Pope Pius VI fell grievously ill, Napoleon gave orders that in the event 
of his death no successor should be elected to his office, and that the 
Papacy should be discontinued. 

But the Pope recovered. The peace was soon broken; Berthier 
entered Rome on the tenth of February, 1798, and proclaimed a republic. 
The aged Pontiff refused to violate his oath by recognizing it, and was 
hurried from prison to prison in France. Broken with fatigue and sor- 
rows, he died on the nineteenth of August, 1799, in the French fortress 
of Valence, aged eighty-two years. No wonder that half Europe thought 
Napoleon's veto would be obeyed, and that with the Pope the Papacy 
was dead. — " The Modern Papacy," Rev. Joseph Rickaby, S. J., p. 1. 
London: Catholic Truth Society. 

Papal Supremacy, The Papacy Appaeently Extinct. — The Papacy 
was extinct: not a vestige of its existence remained; and among all the 
Roman Catholic powers not a finger was stirred in its defense. The 
Eternal City had no longer prince or pontiff; its bishop was a dying 
captive in foreign lands; and the decree was already announced that no 
successor would be allowed in his place. — " Rome and Its Papal Rulers" 
Rev. George Trevor, Canon of York, p. 440. 

Note. — Thus, in a. d. 533 came the notable decree of the Papacy's powerful 
supporter, recognizing its supremacy ; and then the decisive stroke by the sword 
at Rome in a. d. 538, cleaving the way for the new order of popes — the rulers 
of state. 

Exactly 1260 years later, in 1793, came the notable decree of the Papacy's 
once powerful supporter, Prance, — " the eldest son of the church," — aiming to 
abolish church and religion, followed by a decisive stroke with the sword at Rome 
against the Papacy, in 1798. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, End of, Seen as a Fulfilment of Prophecy. — 
The downfall of the papal government, by whatever means effected, excited 
perhaps less sympathy than that of any other in Europe : the errors, the 
oppressions, the tyranny of Rome over the whole Christian world, were 
remembered with bitterness; many rejoiced, through religious antip- 
athy, in the overthrow of a church which they considered as idolatrous, 
though attended with the immediate triumph of infidelity; and many 
saw in these events the accomplishment of prophecies, and the exhibi- 
tion of signs promised in the most mystical parts of the Holy Scriptures. 
— " History of France from 1790," John Leycester Adolphus, Vol. II, p. 
379. London, 1803. 



PAPAL SUPREMACY, END OF 393 

Papal Supremacy, Clarke on Closing Events of Peeiod. — " Until 
a time and times and the dividing of time." In prophetic language a 
time signifies a year; and a prophetic year has a year for each day. 
Three years and a half (a day standing for a year, as in Dan. 9: 24) 
will amount to one thousand two hundred and sixty years. . . . 

If we knew precisely when the papal power began to exert itself in 
the anti-Christian way, then we could at once fix the time of its destruc- 
tion. The end is probably not very distant; it has already been griev- 
ously shaken by the French. In 1798 the French republican army under 
General Berthier took possession of the city of Rome, and entirely 
superseded the whole papal power. This was a deadly wound, though 
at present it appears to be healed. — " A Commentary and Critical Notes" 
Adam Clarke, D. D., on Dan. 7:25. New York: Lane and Scott, 1850. 

Papal Supremacy, Supremacy Ended, but Papacy Recovered. — 
Many of the men in those days [of 1798] imagined that the dominion 
of the Pope had come to an end, and that the knell of the temporal 
power was then sounding among the nations. This supposition, how- 
ever, proved to be erroneous. The French republicans were very anx- 
ious that Rome should not have another Pope. But as the reverses of 
the revolutionary armies had left southern Italy to its ancient masters 
the cardinals were able to proceed to an election at Venice. They elected 
on March 14, 1800, Barnabas Chiaromonti, who assumed the name of 
Pius VII. 

The first transaction of this Pope was a negotiation with the gov- 
ernment of France, of which Napoleon Buonaparte was the First Con- 
sul, [p. 450] ... He [Napoleon] felt that, as the large majority of the 
inhabitants of France knew no other form of faith than Romanism, it 
must become the established religion of the country. Accordingly we 
find that he now began negotiations with the Pope, which issued in a 
Concordat in July, 1801, whereby the Roman Catholic religion was once 
more established in France. He also left Pius in possession of his 
Italian principality, [p. 452] — " Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. Arthur 
Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc., pp. 450, 4=52. London: 
George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, Pope Again Exiled by the Revolution. — He 
[Pius VII] was assailed with one demand after another, his compliance 
with which would have involved the loss of his temporal power. He was 
firm in his determination not to surrender those which he considered 
to be the inalienable rights of the Papacy. Napoleon hereupon took 
possession of Rome with a large body of troops, and assumed the gov- 
ernment of the papal territory. A decree was passed on May 17, 1809, 
formally annexing the remaining papal territories to the empire. Then 
followed in rapid succession the bull of excommunication against the 
emperor, the seizure of the Pope's person by the French commander on 
account of the strong impression which it made on the public mind in 
Rome, and his imprisonment, first at Grenoble, afterward at Savona, 
and finally at Fontainbleau [France], where he remained in close con- 
finement till the overthrow of Napoleon in 1814. [p. 454] . . . Then fol- 
lowed his [Napoleon's] abdication, after which Pius was at liberty to 
return to his territories. He entered Rome on May 24, 1814, after an 
absence of five years. 

Many even of the devoted adherents of Papal Rome, when they 
witnessed, during the period just described, one judgment after another 
descending upon her, imagined that the time of her long domination 
had come to an end, and that her glory was extinguished forever. 
That supposition proved to be erroneous. The princes restored after 



394 PAPAL SUPREMACY, TEMPORAL POWER 

the fall of Napoleon, convinced that, in their warfare with the Church 
of Rome, they had struck down a power which could aid them in curbing 
the evil spirits of democracy and anarchy, endowed it with a greater 
than its original strength, that it might assist them in subduing the 
domestic enemies who were banded together against them. [pp. 455, 
456] — " Epochs of the Papacy," Rev. Arthur Robert Pennington, M. A., 
F. R. Hist. Soc, pp. 454-456. London: George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Note. — The student of history can hardly fail to note the parallel between 
conditions here described and those after the war of 1914-1918, when even some 
leading Protestant powers acknowledged the benefit to be derived from main- 
taining an official representative at the Vatican. — Eds. 

Papal Supremacy, Revolution Still Pukstjed the Pope. — From 

that time [late in 1848. — Eds.] law and order disappeared from the holy 
city. The chamber of deputies was without power, and became so weak- 
ened by the withdrawal of many members that it was scarcely compe- 
tent to form legal resolutions; the democratic popular club, together 
with the rude mob of Trastevere, controlled matters. Many cardinals 
withdrew; Pius IX was guarded like a prisoner. 

Enraged at these acts and threatened as to his safety, the Pope 
finally [November 24] fled to Gaeta, in disguise, aided by the Bavarian 
ambassador Count Spaur. Here he formed a new ministry and entered 
a protest against all proceedings in Rome. This move procured at first 
the most complete victory for the republican party in the Tiberian city. 
A new constitutional assembly was summoned, which in its first sitting 
deprived the Papacy of its worldly authority, established the Roman 
republic, and resolved to work for the union of Italy under a democratic- 
republican form of rule. A threat of excommunication from the Pope 
was met with scorn by the popular union. — " The Historians' History of 
the World" edited by Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. IX, pp. 596, 
597. New York: The Outlook Company, 1904. 

The Pope did not return to Rome till the beginning of April, 1850. 
As all the world knows, Louis Napoleon insured his safety from his 
enemies by surrounding him with a guard of his own soldiers. He 
brought back with him the worst abuses of his predecessors. — " Epochs 
of the Papacy," Rev. Arthur Robert Pennington, M. A., F. R. Hist. Soc, 
p. 463. London: George Bell & Sons, 1881. 

Papal Supremacy, The Decree of Infallibility Followed by Loss 
of Temporal Power. — It is a remarkable coincidence that the promul- 
gation of the dogma of papal infallibility [July 18, 1870] was followed 
on the very next day, July 19, by the breaking out of the war between 
France and Germany, and very soon by the defeat of Louis Napoleon, 
the Pope's protector, the recall of the French troops to their native 
country, the entrance of the troops of the king of Italy within the 
walls of Rome on Sept. 20, 1870, and the transfer of the Italian capital 
to Rome by the suffrages of the Romans themselves on July 3, 1871, 
when, amid the acclamations of assembled thousands, Victor Emmanuel 
rode through the streets of the Eternal City. After these events the 
Pope [Pius IX] was left in possession of the Vatican, to which he con- 
fined himself during the last years of his life. — Id., p. 472. 

Papal Supremacy, Rome's History Connecting Past and Present. 
— Rome is the meeting place of all history; the papal succession, oldest 
and newest in Europe, filling the space from Caesar and Constantine 
to this democratic world of the twentieth century, binds all ages into 
one and looks out toward a distant future in many continents. — " The 
Papal Monarchy," William Barry, D. D., p. 428, London: T. Fisher 
Unwin; New York: G, P. Putnam's Sons, 1902. 



PARABLE 395 

Papal Supremacy, Speaking " Great Words " (Dan. 7: 25). — Pages 
308, 309, 311, 409, 410. 

Papal Supremacy, Wearing Out Saints (Dan. 7: 25). — Pages 308, 
310, 311, 320-323, 403-408. 

Papal Supremacy, Thinking to Change Times and Laws. — Pages 
308, 310, 311, 515, 516. 

Papal Supremacy, Prophetic Period of 1260 Years. — Pages 310, 
384, 392, 393, 614. 

Papal Supremacy. — Pages 196, 527. 

Parable, Difference Between Fable, Allegory, and. — As used in 
the New Testament it had a very wide application, being applied some- 
times to the shortest proverbs (1 Sam. 10: 12; 24: 13; 2 Chron. 7: 20), 
sometimes to dark prophetic utterances (Num. 23: 7, 18; 24: 3; Eze. 
20: 49), sometimes to enigmatic maxims (Ps. 78: 2; Prov. 1: 6), or 
metaphors expanded into a narrative (Eze. 12: 22). In the New Tes- 
tament itself the word was used with a like latitude in Matthew 24: 32; 
Luke 4: 23; Hebrews 9:9. It was often used in a more restricted sense 
to denote a short narrative under which some important truth is veiled. 
Of this sort were the parables of Christ. The parable differs from the 
fable (1) in excluding brute and inanimate creatures passing out of 
the laws of their nature, and speaking or acting like men; (2) in its 
higher ethical significance. It differs from the allegory in that the lat- 
ter, with its direct personification of ideas or attributes, and the names 
which designate them, involves really no comparison. The virtues and 
vices of mankind appear as in a drama, in their own character and 
costume. The allegory is self -interpreting; the parable demands atten- 
tion, insight, sometimes an actual explanation. It differs from the 
proverb in that it must include a similitude of some kind, while the 
proverb may assert, without a similitude, some wide generalization of 
experience. — "A Dictionary of the Bible," William, Smith, LL.' D., art. 
"Parable," pp. 481, 482, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter and 
Coates, copyright 1884. 

Pardon, for Sin. — Pages 256, 298. 

Passover, Importance of. — The cycle of temple festivals appropri- 
ately opens with " the Passover " and " Feast of Unleavened Bread." 
For, properly speaking, these two are quite distinct, the Passover tak- 
ing place on the 14th of Nisan, and the Feast of Unleavened Bread com- 
mencing on the 15th and lasting for seven days, to the 21st of the 
month. But from their close connection they are generally treated as 
one, both in the Old and in the New Testament; and Josephus, on one 
occasion, even describes it as " a feast for eight days." 

There are peculiarities about the Passover which mark it as the 
most important, and, indeed, take it out of the rank of the other festivals. 
It was the first of the three feasts on which all males in Israel were 
bound to appear before the Lord in the place which he would choose 
(the two others being the Feast of Weeks and that of Tabernacles). 
All the three great festivals bore a threefold reference. They pointed, 
first, to the season of the year, or rather to the enjoyment of the fruits 
of the good land which the Lord had given to his people in possession, 
but of which he claimed for himself the real ownership. This refer- 



396 PASSOVER 

ence to nature is expressly stated in regard to the Feast of Weeks and 
that of Tabernacles, but, though not less distinct, it is omitted in con- 
nection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread. On the other hand, great 
prominence is given to the historical bearing of the Passover, while it 
is not mentioned in the other two festivals, although it could not have 
been wholly wanting. But the Feast of Unleavened Bread celebrated 
the one grand event which underlay the whole history of Israel, and 
marked alike their miraculous deliverance from destruction and from 
bondage, and the commencement of their existence as a nation. For 
in the night of the Passover the children of Israel, miraculously pre- 
served and set free, for the first time' became a people, and that by the 
direct interposition of God. The third bearing of all the festivals, but 
especially of the Passover, is typical. Every reader of the New Testa- 
ment knows how frequent are such allusions to the exodus, the paschal 
lamb, the paschal supper, and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. And that 
this meaning was intended from the first, not only in reference to the 
Passover, but to all the feasts, appears from the whole design of the Old 
Testament, and from the exact correspondence between the types and 
the antitypes. Indeed it is, so to speak, impressed upon the Old Testa- 
ment by a law of internal necessity. For when God bound up the future 
of all nations in the history of Abraham and his seed, he made that 
history prophetic; and each event and every rite became, as it were, a 
bud, destined to open in blossom and ripen into fruit on that tree 
under the shadow of which all nations were to be gathered. 

Thus nature, history, and grace combined to give a special meaning 
to the festivals, but chiefly to the Passover. — " The Temple, Its Minis- 
try and Services, as They Were at the Time of Jesus Christy Rev. Dr. 
Edersheim, pp. 177-179. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

Passover, Manner of Observance of. — The festival occurred in 
Abib (Ex. 13: 4; Deut. 16: 1, et seq., where the new moon is given as 
the memorial day of the exodus), later named Nisan, and lasted seven 
days, from sunset on the fourteenth day to sunset on the twenty-first 
day; the first and the seventh days were set aside for holy convocation, 
no work being permitted on those days except such as was necessary in 
preparing food. Num. 28: 16-25. During the seven days of the festival 
leaven was not to be found in the habitations of the Hebrews. Ex. 
12: 19; 13: 7. Leaven was not to be eaten under penalty of "excision" 
("karet," Ex. 12:15, 19, 20; 13:3; Deut. 16:3), and the eating of 
unleavened bread was commanded (Ex. 12: 15, 18; 13: 6, 7; 23: 15; 
34: 18; Lev. 23: 6; Num. 28: 17). On the second day the omer of new 
barley was brought to the temple. Lev. 23: 10-16. 

The setting aside, slaughtering, and eating of the paschal lamb was 
introductory to the celebration of the festival. According to Exodus 12, 
this rite was instituted by Moses in Egypt, in anticipation of the judg- 
ment about to be visited on Pharaoh and his people. On the tenth of 
the month — ever thereafter to be the first month of the year — the 
Hebrews were to take a lamb for each household, " without blemish, a 
male of the first year," " from the sheep or from the goats." Kept until 
the fourteenth day, this lamb was killed " at eve " (" at the going down 
of the sun;" Deut. 16: 6), the blood being sprinkled by means of a 
" bunch of hyssop " (Ex. 12: 22) on the two doorposts and on the lintels 
of the houses wherein the Hebrews assembled to eat the lamb during 
this night, denominated the CTlttE? b*b ("night of the vigils unto 
YHWH." Ex. 12: 42, Hebr.; see, however, R. V. and margin). Pre- 
pared for the impending journey, with loins girded, shoes on their feet, 
and staves in their hands, they were to eat " in haste." The lamb was 



PASSOVER 397 



to be roasted at the fire, not boiled in water, or left raw; its head, legs, 
and inwards were not to be removed, and it was to be eaten with bitter 
herbs and unleavened bread. Nothing was to be left until the morning; 
anything that remained was to be burned. Exodus 12. 

The details of this rite as observed in Egypt are summarized in 
"the ordinance of the Passover." Ex. 12: 43 et seq. No bone was to 
be broken; the meal was to be eaten in one house; no alien could par- 
ticipate; circumcision was a prerequisite in the case of servants bought 
for money and of the stranger desiring to participate. Ex. 12: 44-48. 
According to Numbers 9: 6, Levitical purity was another prerequisite. 
To enable such as happened to be in an, unclean state through contact 
with the dead, or were away from home at the appointed season, to 
" offer the oblation of YHWH," a second Passover was instituted on 
the fourteenth day of the second month. Num. 9: 9 et seq. In Deu- 
teronomy 16: 2, 5, the slaughtering and eating of the lamb appear to be 
restricted to the central sanctuary. 

Glosses concerning the observance of Passover are not infrequent 
in the historical narratives. The keeping of the rite is first mentioned 
as having occurred at Sinai (Num. 9: 1 et seq.) ; under Joshua, at Gilgal 
(Joshua 5: 10), another celebration of it is noticed. Hezekiah figures 
prominently in an account of the revival of the festival after a long 
period in which it was not observed (2 Chronicles 30). The reforms of 
Josiah brought a new zeal in behalf of this institution, the Passover 
celebrated at his bidding in the eighteenth year of his reign being de- 
scribed as singular and memorable (2 Kings 23: 21 et seq.). After the 
return from the captivity (Ezra 6: 19 et seq.) another Passover observ- 
ance is reported to have taken place in due conformity with the required 
laws of purity and in a most joyful spirit. 

The sacrifices ordained for Passover are as follows: "An offering 
made by fire, a burnt offering; two young bullocks, and one ram, and 
seven he-lambs of the first year, without blemish, and their meal offer- 
ing, fine flour mingled with oil; ... and one he-goat for a sin offer- 
ing, besides the burnt offering of the morning." These were to be 
offered daily for seven days. Num. 28: 16-25, Hebr. . . . 

The Passover lamb was killed, in the time of the second temple, in 
the court where all other kodashim were slaughtered, in keeping with 
the Deuteronomic prescription, and it was incumbent upon every man 
and woman to fulfil this obligation. The time " between the two eve- 
nings " ("ben ha-'arbayim ") was construed to mean "after noon and 
until nightfall," the killing of the lamb following immediately upon that 
of the tamid, the burning of the incense, and the setting in order of the 
lamps, according to daily routine. — The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, 
art. "Passover," pp. 548, 550, 553. 

Passover, Origin and Observance of. — One of the three principal 
festivals of ancient Israel. The name (Hebr. pesah; Aram, pisha' : G-k. 
pascha) is given to the lamb which was offered as an immunity-sacrifice 
at the opening of the feast; for the verb pasah signifies a passing over 
(as in Isa. 31: 5). Everywhere in the Bible this festival is referred to 
the exodus. At that time, by divine command, the lamb was slaugh- 
tered in a certain manner and then eaten; and by this means the people 
were spared from the destroying angel who slew the first-born of the 
Egyptians. Exodus 12. The annual repetition of the festival was en- 
joined. The eating of unleavened bread (mazzoth) for seven days was 
an integral part of this memorial feast, which was therefore frequently 
called the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Definite rules for the festival 
appear in all the collections of laws in the Pentateuch. In the ancient 
Covenant Code it appears as one of the three great festivals of the pil- 
grimage (Ex. 23: 15), and likewise in Ex. 34: 18, 25. . . . 



398 PASSOVER 

In Egypt, the blood of the lamb was smeared on the posts and 
lintel of the door of the house as a sign for the destroying angel to pass 
by. The lamb itself was roasted, not boiled; and eaten with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs. No bone was to be broken and no part could be 
carried from the house or kept for the next day, wherefore several small 
families united for the repast. This was required to be % eaten quickly, 
with girded loins, staff in hand, and shoes on the feet. Ex. 12: 11. 
Later, this regulation was considered to refer only to the first Pass- 
over; but the Samaritans observe the usage at the present day. Only 
those who were circumcised could partake of the repast. Ex. 12: 43 sqq. 
Whoever was prevented from so doing, either by a journey or by un- 
cleanness (cf. Num. 9: 9-11), must observe the sacrifice on the four- 
teenth day of the second month. This sacrificial meal was the begin- 
ning of the seven-day festival of unleavened bread. From the fifteenth 
to the twenty-first day, to eat anything leavened was forbidden under 
penalty of being cut off from the community. The first and seventh 
days were special holidays on which a solemn assembly took place and 
no work was done. Ex. 12: 14 sqq.; Lev. 23: 1 sqq. [p. 369] . . . 

According to the Talmudic and Rabbinical sources of the New Tes- 
tament period, the paschal sacrifice could be offered only in the court 
of the temple, like all other sacrifices. A great multitude of people was 
always attracted by this festival, and the Romans were frequently 
apprehensive of a revolt on these occasions (Josephus, Ant., XVII, ix, 
3; XX, v, 3; cf. Wars, I, iv, 3). On such days many executions took 
place to terrorize the people; on the other hand, a prisoner was some- 
times liberated to gain their good graces. The arrival of great crowds 
of people before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus proved very disastrous, 
since they were shut up in the city and perished with its destruction. 
Josephus relates (Wars, VI, ix, 3) that at the request of Cestius, who 
wished to give Nero some idea of the size of the Jewish population, the 
high priests counted the paschal lambs, which numbered 256,500. Since 
at least ten men were reckoned to each lamb, the result would be 2,700,- 
000 men, excluding those who were unclean. 

The date of the celebration was fixed by the harvest. If in the 
middle of the twelfth month this was not far enough advanced to hold 
the festival four weeks later, that month was treated as an intercalary 
one and a thirteenth month was added. Whoever ate leavened bread 
during the festival was punished by scourging. The lambs were slaugh- 
tered in the outer court of the temple at half past eight (2: 30 p. m. of 
our reckoning). If the day was the preparation for the Sabbath, this 
occurred two hours earlier. The priests stood in rows, holding golden 
or silver vessels, in which they received the blood, passing the full 
vessels from hand to hand, until they reached the priest nearest the 
altar, who poured the blood over it. The parts of the lamb dedicated 
to the sacrifice were also brought to the altar by a priest. Meanwhile, 
the Levites chanted the Hallel. The priests determined how many 
should partake of the lamb: not less than ten and seldom more than 
twenty. Josephus and the Mishna assume that women participated in 
the repast; but according to the Gemara they were not bound to do so 
(cf. Deut. 16: 16). 

After the first cup, the first-born son asked his father the meaning 
of the feast, whereupon the latter (later, a reader) related the story 
of the exodus. Then the company chanted the first part of the Hallel 
(particularly Psalms 113, 114) upon which followed the second cup and 
finally the repast proper. Then a third cup was drunk, which is that 
mentioned in Luke 22: 20 as the one used by our Lord for the institu- 
tion of the eucharist. Still a fourth cup was taken, and after it was 
filled, the second part of the Hallel was sung. Psalms 115 to 118. The 



PENTATEUCH 399 

passages, Matthew 26: 30 and Mark 14: 26, "when they had sung a 
hymn," seem to refer to this. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of 
Religious Knowledge, Vol. VIII, art. " Passover" pp. 369, 370. 

Passover, Still Obseeved by the Samaritans. — So long as the 
temple at Jerusalem remained, the Jews went thither to celebrate the 
Passover feast. But when the temple was destroyed, it was no longer 
lawful for them to sacrifice the paschal lamb; for the command was 
explicit: "Thou mayest not sacrifice the Passover within any of thy 
gates; . . . but at the place which the Lord thy God shall choose to 
cause his name to dwell in." And now the Jewish observance of that 
feast is but a partial one, in the household, with a bit of roasted lamb 
to represent the commanded sacrifice. In only one place in all the 
world is there any continuation of that sacrifice; and that is near the 
ruins of the ancient Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim, by the scanty 
remnant of the Samaritan people. 

Although that temple was unauthorized by Jehovah, and the Sa- 
maritans were a mongrel people, with a mongrel religion, so many 
sacred associations cluster around Mount Gerizim, and the connection 
of the Samaritan rites and ceremonies is so direct with the original 
Hebrew ritual, that an exceptional interest attaches to this one vestige 
of the ancient Passover sacrifice, with its standing witness to God's 
foreshadowed plan of salvation by the blood of the Lamb. — " Studies in 
Oriental Social Life" H. Clay Trumbull, pp. 371, 372. ■ Philadelphia: 
John D. Wattles & Co., 1894. 

Passover.— Pages 152, 153, 186, 187, 367, 503, 611. 

Pellagra. — Page 234. 

Pentateuch, References to, in the Prophets. — It is alleged by 
modern critics that while Deuteronomy was the work of some anony- 
mous writer in the reigns of Josiah and Manasseh, the ritual portions of 
Exodus, I eviticus, and Numbers were the work of Ezra and the priests 
in Babylon. Thus, practically, the greater part of the Pentateuch is 
assumed to be post-exilic, and therefore not written by Moses; and this 
in spite of the fact that the claims of the whole Bible necessitate the 
Mosaic authorship. 

On the other hand, it is admitted by the same modern critics that 
the prophets lived and wrote in the reigns of those kings with whose 
reigns they are respectively associated. 

But the Pentateuch is full of technical terms and legal phraseology, 
and has its own peculiar vocabulary. The constant reference to these 
by all the prophets proves conclusively that the Pentateuch as a whole 
must have had a prior existence; and must have been well known by 
the prophets, and understood by those who heard the prophetic utter- 
ances and read the prophetic writings. . . . 

An examination of these references will show that altogether 1,531 
have been noted, and are distributed as follows: Genesis is referred 
to 149 times; Exodus, 312; Leviticus, 285; Numbers, 168; while Deuter- 
onomy is referred to 617 times. 

Thus Deuteronomy, of which the modern critics have made the 
greatest havoc, is referred to more often than any of the other four 
books: 468 times more often than Genesis; 305 times more often than 
Exodus; 332 times more often than Leviticus; and 449 times more often 
than Numbers. That is to say, more often than any two of the other 
bocks put together. 



400 PENTECOST 

It is also remarkable that the references to technical, legal, and 
ritual terms are more numerous than to those relating to historical 
events. The latter would necessarily be better known and remembered; 
but the former could not have been thus referred to unless the ritual 
itself (less easily remembered) had existed in writing, and thus been 
generally known and understood. — " The Companion Bible,'" Part IV, 
Appendix, p. 132. London: Oxford University Press. 

Pentecost, Typical Meaning of. — The Greek word " Pentecost " 
UevTrjKoaT^ \_Pentecoste\ (Acts 2:1; 20: 16) is derived from the cir- 
cumstance of its being kept on the fiftieth day after the first day of 
unleavened bread. The number of Jews assembled at Jerusalem on this 
joyous occasion was very great. This festival had a typical reference 
to the miraculous effusion of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles and first 
fruits of the Christian church on the day of Pentecost (corresponding 
with our Whitsunday), on the fiftieth day after the resurrection of 
Jesus Christ. — "An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of 
the Holy Scriptures," Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D., Vol. Ill, p. 315. 
London: T. Cadell, 1889. 

Pentecost. — Page 187. 

Pepin (Pipin, Pippin).— Pages 364, 486, 487. 

Pergamos, Transfer of Babylonian Priesthood to. — Page 72. 

Persecution, Tacitus on Roman, — Those who were called Chris- 
tians by the mob and hated for their moral enormities, were substituted 
in his place as culprits by Nero and afflicted with the most exquisite 
punishments. Christ, from whom the name was given, was put to death 
during the reign of Tiberius, by the procurator Pontius Pilate. Al- 
though checked for the time, this pernicious superstition broke out 
again not only in Judea, where the evil originated, but throughout the 
city, in which the atrocities and shame from all parts of the world 
center and flourish. Therefore those who confessed were first seized, 
then on their information a great multitude were convicted, not so 
much of the crime of incendiarism, as of hatred of the human race. 
The victims who perished also suffered insults, for some were covered 
with the skins of wild beasts and torn to pieces by dogs, while others 
were fixed to crosses and burnt to light the night when daylight had 
failed. Nero had offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was giving 
a circus show, mingling with the people in the dress of a driver, or 
speeding about in a chariot. Although they were criminals who de- 
served the most severe punishment, yet a feeling of pity arose, since 
they were put to death, not for the public good, but to satisfy the rage 
of an individual. (Tacitus, Annales XV, 44.) — " The Library of Origi- 
nal Sources," edited by Oliver J. Thatcher, Vol. IV, pp. 6, 7. Milwaukee, 
Wis.: University Research Extension Company, copyright 1907. 

Persecution, The Ten Periods of Roman. — There were ten special 
periods of persecution between the days of Nero and Constantine (a. d. 
64 to a. d. 312). Augustine gives the following list of persecuting emper- 
ors: Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, 
Maximin, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian. — i " The Bible and 
the British Museum," Ada R. Habershon, p. 7. London: Morgan and 
Scott, 1909. 



PERSECUTION DEFENDED 401 

Persecutions, Ten, An Ancient but Unauthorized Notion. — The 
notion of the Christians suffering exactly ten persecutions under the 
different heathen emperors, is without doubt extremely ancient, and 
may be traced back as far as to the fifth century. But notwithstanding 
this, I will venture to incur the responsibility of assuring all lovers of 
truth that it is wholly built on popular error, without the least shadow 
of foundation. The authors of it are indeed unknown; but thus far is 
certain, that they did not derive this opinion from what was to be met 
with on record, but first of all imbibed it from a mistaken interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, and then obtruded it on the world as a point of^ his- 
tory. We have good authority for stating that, in the fourth century, 
the number of Christian persecutions had not been exactly ascertained. 
— " Historical Commentaries on the State of Christianity" John Lau~ 
rence von Mosheim, D. D., Vol. I, p. 126. New York: The Trow and 
Smith Book Manufacturing Company, 1868. 

Persecution Justified by St. Thomas Aquinas. — If counterfeiters 
of money or other criminals are justly delivered over to death forth- 
with by the secular authorities, much more can heretics, after they are 
convicted of heresy, be not only forthwith excommunicated, but as surely 
put to death. — " Summa Theological St. Thomas Aquinas (R. C), 2a 
2ae, qu. xi, art. Hi ("Moral Theology" Second of the Second, question 
11, article 3). 

Persecution Defined. — There is not complete religious liberty 
where any one sect is favored by the state and given an advantage by 
law over other sects. Whatever establishes a distinction against one 
class or sect is, to the extent to which the distinction operates unfavor- 
ably, a persecution; and if based on religious grounds, a religious per- 
secution. The extent of the discrimination is not material to the prin- 
ciple; it is enough that it creates an inequality of right or privilege. 
— "A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations," Thomas M. Cooley, 
LL. D., pp. 575, 576 (6th ed.J. Boston: Little, Brovm & Co., 1890. 

Persecution Defended. — Every part is referred to the whole as 
the imperfect to the perfect; and therefore every part naturally exists 
for the whole. And therefore we see that if it be expedient for the 
welfare of the whole human body that some member should be ampu- 
tated, as being rotten and corrupting the other members, the amputa- 
tion is praiseworthy and wholesome. But every individual stands to 
the whole community as the part to the whole. Therefore, if any man 
be dangerous to the community, and be corrupting it by any sin, the 
killing of him for the common good is praiseworthy and wholesome. 
For " a little leaven corrupteth the whole lump." [p. 40] . . . 

Man by sinning withdraws from the order of reason, and thereby 
falls from human dignity, so far as that consists in man being nat- 
urally free and existent for his own sake; and falls in a manner into 
the state of servitude proper to beasts, according to that of the psalm: 
"Man when he was in honor did not understand: he hath matched 
himself with senseless beasts and become like unto them; " and, "The 
fool shall serve the wise." And therefore, though to kill a man, while 
he abides in his native dignity, be a thing of itself evil, yet to kill a 
man who is a sinner may be good, as to kill a beast. For worse is an 
evil man than a beast, and more noxious, as the philosopher says. [p. 
41] — "Aquinas Ethicus; or, The Moral Teaching of St. Thomas" Joseph 
Rickaby, S. J. (R. C), Vol. II, pp. 40, 41. London: Burns and Oates, 1892. 

The church has persecuted. Only a tyro in church history will 
deny that. . . . One hundred and fifty years after Constantine the 
26 



402 PERSECUTION, RESPONSIBILITY FOR 

Donatists were persecuted, and sometimes put to death. . . . Protes- 
tants were persecuted in France and Spain with the full approval of 
the church authorities. We have always defended the- persecution of 
the Huguenots, and the Spanish Inquisition. Wherever and whenever 
there is honest Catholicity, there will be a clear distinction drawn be- 
tween truth and error, and Catholicity and all forms of heresy. When 
she thinks it good to use physical force, she will use it. . . . But will 
the Catholic Church give bond that she will not persecute at all? 
Will she guarantee absolute freedom and equality of all churches and 
all faiths? The Catholic Church gives no bonds for her good behavior. 
— The Western Watchman (R. C.J, Dec. 24, 1908. 

The principal teachers of the church held back for centuries from 
accepting in these matters the practice of the civil rulers; they shrank 
particularly from such stern measures against heresy as torture and 
capital punishment, both of which they deemed inconsistent with the 
spirit of Christianity. But, in the Middle Ages, the Catholic faith be- 
came alone dominant, and the welfare of the commonwealth came to be 
closely bound up with the cause of religious unity. King Peter of Ara- 
gon, therefore, but voiced the universal conviction when he said: "The 
enemies of the cross of Christ and violators of the Christian law are 
likewise our enemies and the enemies of our kingdom, and ought there- 
fore to be dealt with as such." — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, 
art. " Inquisition" p. 35. 

Persecution, Responsibility for. — In the bull Ad Exstirpanda 
(1252) Innocent IV says: "When those adjudged guilty of heresy have 
been given up to the civil power by the bishop or his representative, 
or the Inquisition, the podesta, or chief magistrate, of the city shall 
take them at once, and shall, within five days at the most, execute the 
laws made against them." . . . Nor could any doubt remain as to what 
civil regulations were meant, for the passages which ordered the burn- 
ing of impenitent heretics were inserted in the papal decretals from 
the imperial constitutions Commissis nobis and Inconsutibilem tuni- 
cam. The aforesaid bull Ad Exstirpanda remained thenceforth a fun- 
damental document of the Inquisition, renewed or re-enforced by several 
popes, Alexander IV (1254-61), Clement IV (1265-68), Nicholas IV 
(1288-92), Boniface VIII (1294-1303), and others. The civil authori- 
ties, therefore, were enjoined by the popes, under pain of excommuni- 
cation, to execute the legal sentences that condemned impenitent here- 
tics to the stake. — Id., p. 34. 

Early in the year the most sublime sentence of death was promul- 
gated which has ever been pronounced since the creation of the world. 
The Roman tyrant [Nero] wished that his enemies' heads were all 
upon a single neck, that he might strike them off at a blow; the In- 
quisition assisted Philip [II of Spain] to place the heads of all his 
Netherland subjects upon a single neck for the same fell purpose. 
Upon Feb. 16, 1568, a sentence of the Holy Office condemned all the 
inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as heretics. From this uni- 
versal doom only a few persons, especially named, were excepted. A 
proclamation of the king, dated ten days later, confirmed this decree 
of the Inquisition, and ordered it to be carried into instant execution, 
without regard to age, sex, or condition. This is probably the most 
concise death warrant that was ever framed. Three millions of people, 
men, women, and children, were sentenced to the scaffold in three 
lines. — " The Rise of the Dutch Republic," John Lothrop Motley, D. C. L., 
LL. D„ part 3, chap, 2, par. 12 (Vol. I, p. 626 J. New York: A. L. Burt. 



PERSECUTION, RESPONSIBILITY FOR 403 

Therefore by this present apostolical writing we give you a strict 
command that, by whatever means you can, you destroy all these here- 
sies and expel from your diocese all who are polluted with them. You 
shall exercise the rigor of the ecclesiastical power against them and 
all those who have made themselves suspected by associating with 
them. They may not appeal from your judgments, and if necessary, 
you may cause the princes and people to suppress them with the sword. 
— Orders of Pope Innocent III concerning Heretics; quoted from Migne, 

214, col. 71, in "A Source Book for Mediwval History," Oliver J. 
Thatcher, Ph. D., and Edgar H. McNeal, Ph. D., p. 210. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

That the Church of Rome has shed more innocent blood than any 
other institution that has ever existed among mankind, will be ques- 
tioned by no Protestant who has a competent knowledge of history. 
The memorials, indeed, of many of her persecutions are now so scanty 
that it is impossible to form a complete conception of the multitude of 
her victims, and it is quite certain that no powers of imagination can 
adequately realize their sufferings. — " History of the Rise and Influence 
of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," William Edward Hartpole 
Lecky, Vol. II, p. 32. London: Longmans, Green d Co., 1904. 

Persecution, Responsibility of Roman Church foe. — If the church 
thus still shrank from shedding blood, it had by this time reached the 
point of using all other means without scruple to enforce conformity. 
Early in the fifth century we find Chrysostom teaching that heresy must 
be suppressed, heretics silenced and prevented from ensnaring others, 
and their conventicles broken up, but that the death penalty is unlaw- 
ful. About the same time St. Augustin entreats the prefect of Africa 
not to put any Donatists to death because, if he does so, no ecclesiastic 
can make complaint of them, for they will prefer to suffer death them- 
selves rather than be the cause of it to others. Yet Augustin approved 
of the imperial laws which banished and fined them and deprived them 
of their churches and of testamentary power, and he consoled them by 
telling them that God did not wish them to perish in antagonism to 
Catholic unity. To constrain any one from evil to good, he argued, was 
not oppression, but charity; and when the unlucky schismatics urged 
that no one ought to be coerced in his faith, he freely admitted it as a 
general principle, but added that sin and infidelity must be punished. 

Step by step the inevitable progress was made, and men easily 
found specious arguments to justify the indulgence of their passions. 
The fiery Jerome, when his wrath was excited by Vigilantius forbid- 
ding the adoration of relics, expressed his wonder that the bishop of 
the hardy heretic had not destroyed him in the flesh for the benefit 
of his soul, and argued that piety and zeal for God could not be 
cruelty; rigor, in fact, he argues in another place, is the most genuine 
mercy, since temporal punishment may avert eternal perdition. It was 
only sixty-two years after the slaughter of Priscillian and his followers 
had excited so much horror, that Leo I, when the heresy seemed to be 
reviving, in 447, not only justified the act, but declared that if the fol- 
lowers of heresy so damnable were allowed to live, there would be an 
end of human and divine law. The final step had been, taken, and the 
church was definitely pledged to the suppression of heresy at what- 
ever cost. It is impossible not to attribute to ecclesiastical influence 
the successive edicts by which, from the time of Theodosius the Great, 
persistence in heresy was punished with death. — "A History of the 
Inquisition of the Middle Ages" Henry Charles Lea, Vol. I, pp. 214, 

215. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1888. 



404 PERSECUTION, IN FRANCE 

We have already seen that the church was responsible for the 
enactment of the ferocious laws punishing heresy with death, and that 
she intervened authoritatively to annul any secular statutes which 
should interfere with the prompt and effective application of the penal- 
ties. In the same way, as we have also seen, she provided against any 
negligence or laxity on the part of the magistrates in executing the 
sentences pronounced by the inquisitors. According to the universal 
belief of the period, this was her plainest and highest duty, and she 
did not shrink from it. Boniface VIII only recorded the current 
practice when he embodied in the canon law the provision whereby 
the secular authorities were commanded to punish duly and promptly 
all who were handed over to them by the inquisitors, under pain of 
excommunication, which became heresy if endured for a twelve month, 
and the inquisitors were rigidly instructed to proceed against all magis- 
trates who proved recalcitrant, while they were at the same time cau- 
tioned only to speak of executing the laws without specifically men- 
tioning the penalty, in order to avoid falling into " irregularity," though 
the only punishment recognized by the church as sufficient for heresy 
was burning alive. Even if the ruler was excommunicated and incapa- 
ble of legally performing any other function, he was not relieved from 
the obligation of this supreme duty, with which nothing was allowed 
to interfere. Indeed, authorities were found to argue that if an inquisi- 
tor were obliged to execute the sentence himself, he would not thereby 
incur irregularity. — "A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages," 
Henry Charles Lea, Vol. I, pp. 536, 537. New York: Harper '& Broth- 
ers, 1888. 

Persecution in Southern France. — Then followed such scenes of 
horror as the sun had never looked on before. The army was officered 
by Roman and French prelates; bishops were its generals, an arch- 
deacon its engineer. It was the Abbot Arnold, the legate of the Pope, 
who, at the capture of Beziers, was inquired of by a soldier, more mer- 
ciful or more weary of murder than himself, how he should distinguish 
and save the Catholic from the heretic. "Kill them all," he exclaimed; 
" God will know his own." At the church of St. Mary Magdalene 
seven thousand persons were massacred, the infuriated crusaders being 
excited to madness by the wicked assertion that these wretches had been 
guilty of the blasphemy of saying, in their merriment, " 8. Mariam 
Magdalenam fuisse concubinam Christi" [Saint Mary Magdalene was 
the concubine of Christ]. It was of no use for them to protest their 
innocence. In the town twenty thousand were slaughtered, and the 
place then fired, to be left a monument of papal vengeance. At the 
massacre of Lavaur four hundred people were burned in one pile; it is 
remarked that "they made a wonderful blaze, and went to burn ever- 
lastingly in hell." 

Language has no powers to express the atrocities that took place at 
the capture of the different towns. Ecclesiastical vengeance rioted in 
luxury. The soil was steeped in the blood of men, the air polluted by 
their burning. From the reek of murdered women, mutilated children, 
and ruined cities, the Inquisition, that infernal institution, arose. Its 
projectors intended it not only to put an end to public teaching, but 
even to private thought. In the midst of these awful events, Innocent 
was called to another tribunal to render his account. He died a. d. 
1216. — "History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John 
William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. II, p. 62. New York: Harper & 
Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Persecution, Summary of Roman. — Under these maxims Rome has 
always acted. What a long roll of bloody persecutions is her record! 



PECSECUTION, EDICT OP NANTES 405 

The extirpation of the Albigenses, the massacre of the Waldenses, the 
martyrdoms of the Lollards, the slaughter of the Bohemians, the burn- 
ing of Huss, Jerome, Savonarola, Frith, Tyndale, Ridley, Hooper, Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and thousands of others as godly and faithful as they, 
have been her acts; the demoniacal cruelties of the Inquisition were 
invented by her mind and inflicted by her hand — that Inquisition 
which was for centuries the mighty instrument of her warfare against 
devoted men and women whose crime was only this, that they " kept 
the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." 

The ferocious cruelties of the Duke of Alva in the Netherlands; 
the bloody martyrdoms of Queen Mary's reign; the extinction by fire 
and sword of the Reformation in Spain and Italy, in Portugal and 
Poland; the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; the long and cruel perse- 
cutions of the Huguenots, and all the infamies and barbarities of the 
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which flung its refugees on every 
shore of Europe, were perpetrated by papal Rome. Her victims have 
been innumerable. In Spain alone Llorente reckons as the sufferers of 
the Inquisition 31,912 burnt alive, and 291,450 so-called penitents forced 
into submission " by water, weights, fire, pulleys, and screws," and " all 
the apparatus by which the sinews could be strained without cracking, 
and the bones bruised without breaking, and the body racked exquis- 
itely without giving up the ghost." A million perished in the massacre 
of the Albigenses. 

In the thirty years which followed the first institution of the Jes- 
uits nine hundred thousand faithful Christians were slain. Thirty-six 
thousand were dispatched by the common executioner in the Nether- 
lands, by the direction of the Duke of Alva, who boasted of the deed. 
Fifty thousand Flemings and Germans were hanged, burnt, or buried 
alive under Charles V. And when we have added to this the bloodshed 
of the Thirty Years' War in Germany, and the long agony of other 
and repeated massacres of Protestants in England, Ireland, Scotland, 
France, Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands, we have to remember that 
for all this "no word of censure ever issued from the Vatican, except 
in the brief interval when statesmen and soldiers grew weary of blood- 
shed and looked for means to admit the heretics to grace." 

In the light of these facts we maintain that the fulfilment of the 
prophecy uttered of old in Patmos is plainly evident. The prediction 
of the apostle as to its leading features was this: that "a domineering 
power was to be established in the city of Rome, to corrupt the faith, 
to spread that corruption, to be distinguished by the display of gaudy 
splendors, to persecute the professors of the Christian faith, to intoxi- 
cate itself in the blood of persecution, to be supported by subservient 
kings, and to requite them for their homage with larger drafts of her 
cup of abominations." We are justified in maintaining that the history 
of the Church of Rome has fulfilled every detail of the prophecy. — 
" Key to the Apocalypse" H. Orattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 91-94. Lon- 
don: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Persecution, Effect of Edict of Nantes Upon. — They [the meas- 
ures of the Edict of Nantes, promulgated in 1598] secured to the Hugue- 
nots the free practice of the reformed religion throughout the greater 
part of the kingdom, excepting certain towns belonging to the league, 
where the Calvinists had realized that it was better not to settle. They 
provided that Protestants should enjoy the same civil rights as Catho- 
lics, and the very law for depriving people of hereditary rights on ac- 
count of religious opinions, which was to be formally promulgated in 
England against the Catholics, was as formally suspended in France 
with regard to the Protestants. Lastly, not to mention the less im- 



406 PERSECUTION, CLOSE OF 

portant clauses, a chamber was created in Parliament called the Cham- 
ber of the Edict, an allowance was granted to the Protestants for their 
ministers and their schools, and they were admitted to the dignities and 
offices of state. — " The Historians' History of the World," edited by 
Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. XI, p. 406. New York: The Outlook 
Company, 1904. 

Persecution, Edict of 1685 Revoking Edict of Nantes. — On the 
22d of October, 1685, an edict appeared ordaining: (1) The suppres- 
sion of all the privileges which had been accorded to the Protestants 
by Henry IV and Louis XIII; (2) the proscription of Protestant wor- 
ship throughout the kingdom (except Alsace and Strassburg) ; (3) the 
expulsion of Protestant ministers, the closing of Protestant schools, 
and the demolition of the churches, etc. Numerous - rewards were given 
to those who agreed to change their religion; Calvinists were forbidden 
on pain of being sent to the galleys and the confiscation of their prop- 
erty, to go out of France; permission was given them to remain on 
their own property and engage in business without their worship being 
interfered with so long as they did not hold public services. — Id., p. 546. 

Persecution, Cessation of, in England. — The English Revolution 
marked the end of papal supremacy in England, and papal persecution 
on any widely extended scale in the world. It was the first stage in the 
inauguration of a new era. 

In 1688, James II, the last popish king of England, abandoned his 
throne, and fled. The victories of William of Orange in Ireland and on 
the Continent followed; including those of Marlborough over the armies 
of Louis XIV, in the nine years' war with France from May, 1689, to 
January, 1697. 

The almost unexampled series of English victories of this war was 
succeeded by the Treaty of Ryswick in September, 1697, and the full 
establishment of civil and religious liberty. — " History Unveiling 
Prophecy," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 153, 154. New York: Flem- 
ing H. Revell Company, copyright 1905. 
,. . 

Persecution, Close of, in France. — The last executions of Hugue- 
nots in France because of their Protestantism occurred in 1762. Fran- 
cis Rochette, a young pastor, twenty-six years old, was laid up by 
sickness at Montauban. He recovered sufficiently to proceed to the 
waters of St. Antonin for the recovery of his health, when he was 
seized, together with his two guides or bearers, by the burgess guard 
of the town of Caussade. The three brothers Grenier endeavored to 
intercede for them; but the mayor of Caussade, proud of his capture, 
sent the whole of the prisoners to gaol. 

They were tried by the judges of Toulouse on the 18th of Feb- 
ruary. Rochette was condemned to be hung in his shirt, his head and 
feet uncovered, with a paper pinned on his shirt before and behind, 
with the words written thereon, " Ministre de la religion pretendue 
reformee [A minister of the sham reformed religion]." The three 
brothers Grenier, who interfered on behalf of Rochette, were ordered to 
have their heads taken off for resisting the secular power; and the two 
guides, who were bearing the sick Rochette to St. Antonin for the 
benefit of the waters, were sent to the galleys for life. 

Barbarous punishments such as these were so common when 
Protestants were the offenders, that the decision of the judges did not 
excite any particular sensation. It was only when Jean Calas was 
shortly after executed at Toulouse that an extraordinary sensation 



PERSECUTION, MARK OF ROME 407 

was produced — and that not because Calas was a Protestant, but 
because his punishment came under the notice of Voltaire, who exposed 
the inhuman cruelty to France, Europe, and the world at large, [pp. 
256, 257] . . . 

One of the ordinary practices of the Catholics was to seize the chil- 
dren of Protestants and carry them off to some nunnery to be edu- 
cated at the expense of their parents. The priests of Toulouse had ob- 
tained a lettre de cachet [letter of authority] to take away the daughter 
of a Protestant named Sirven, to compel her to change her religion. 
She was accordingly seized and carried off to a nunnery. She manifested 
such reluctance to embrace Catholicism, and she was treated with such 
cruelty, that she fled from the convent in the night and fell into a well, 
where she was found drowned. 

The prejudices of the Catholic bigots being very much excited about 
this time by the case of Calas, blamed the family of Sirven (in the same 
manner as they had done that of Calas) with murdering their daughter. 
Foreseeing that they would be apprehended if they remained, the whole 
family left the city, and set out for Geneva. After they left, Sirven was 
in fact sentenced to death par contumace [in contempt of court]. It 
was about the middle of winter when they set out, and Sirven's wife 
died of cold on the way, amid the snows of the Jura. 

On his arrival at Geneva, Sirven stated his case to Voltaire, who 
took it up as he had done that of Calas. He exerted himself as before. 
Advocates of the highest rank offered to conduct Sirven's case; for 
public opinion had already made considerable progress. Sirven was 
advised to return to Toulouse, and offer himself as a prisoner. He did 
so. The case was tried with the same results as before; the advocates, 
acting under Voltaire's instructions and with his help, succeeded in 
obtaining the judges' unanimous decision that Sirven was innocent of 
the crime for which he had already been sentenced to death. 

After this, there were no further executions of Protestants in 
France, [pp. 263, 264] — " The Huguenots in France," Samuel Smiles, 
pp. 256, 257, £63, 264. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1874. 

Persecution, Edict of Toleration by Joseph II of Austria in 1781. 
— He [Joseph II] was a zealous reformer; and as soon as he found 
himself in full possession of the government of Austria, he proceeded 
to declare himself independent of the Pope, and to prohibit the publi- 
cation of any new papal bulls in his dominions without his placet [au- 
thorization]. The continued publication of the bulls " Unigenitus" and 
" In Gcena Domini " was prohibited. Besides this, he suppressed no 
fewer than 700 convents, reduced the number of regular clergy from 
63,000 to 27,000, prohibited papal dispensations as to marriage, and in 
1781 published the celebrated Edict of Toleration, by which he allowed 
the free exercise of their religion to the Protestants and Non-united 
Greeks in his dominions. Pius VI thought to check this course by 
visiting Vienna in 1782, but was unsuccessful in his object. — Standard 
Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. XV, art. " Jos'eph II," 
p. 178. 

Note. — The idea has prevailed that Maria Theresa issued an edict of tolera- 
tion, but this is not warranted by the history of those times. — Eds. 

Persecution, A Mark of Papal Rome, — But more than this, more 
than by any other mark, we recognize papal Rome by the last, the most 
marvelous characteristic which is given us in the sacred prediction — 
her strange and terrible inebriation with the blood of saints and mar- 
tyrs! Old heathen Rome persecuted for a brief period the early church, 
but papal Rome through long centuries has held the pre-eminence as 
the persecutor of those faithful to the teachings of the gospel of Christ. 



408 PERSECUTION, INDICTMENT FOR 

She has been all along in her essential and unalterable character a 
persecuting church. Persecution has occupied a prominent place in her 
doctrines, decrees, canons, excommunications, tribunals, trials, condem- 
nations, imprisonments, executions, and exterminating wars. Centuries 
of persecuting action witness against her. Her laws for the persecution 
and extermination of heretics have increased in malignity from their 
first rise down to modern times. Plainly and openly she has declared 
herself to be a persecuting church. She has gloried in her intolerance. 
Her avowed doctrine is " that heretics ought to be visited by the secular 
powers with temporal punishments, and even with death itself." — 
" Key to> the Apocalypse" H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 89, 90. Lon- 
don: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Persecution, Indictment of Rome for. — Hear me, though in truth I 
scarcely know how to speak upon this subject. I am almost dumb with 
horror when I think of it. I have visited the places in Spain, in France, 
in Italy, most deeply stained and dyed with martyr-blood. I have 
visited the valleys of Piedmont. I have stood in the shadow of the 
great cathedral of Seville, on the spot where they burned the martyrs, 
or tore them limb from limb. [p. 107] ... I have waded through many 
volumes of history and of martyrology. I have visited, either in travel 
or in thought, scenes too numerous for me to name, where the saints of 
God have been slaughtered by papal Rome, that great butcher of bodies 
and of souls. I cannot tell you what I have seen, what I have read, what 
I have thought. I cannot tell you what I feel. Oh, it is a bloody tale! 

I have stood in that valley of Lucerna where dwelt the faithful 
Waldenses, those ancient Protestants who held to the pure gospel all 
through the Dark Ages, that lovely valley with its pine-clad slopes 
which Rome converted into a slaughter-house. Oh, horrible massacres 
of gentle, unoffending, noble-minded men! Oh, horrible massacres of 
tender women and helpless children! Yes; ye hated them, ye hunted 
them, ye trapped them, ye tortured them, ye stabbed them, ye stuck 
them on spits, ye impaled them, ye hanged them, ye roasted them, ye 
flayed them, ye cut them in pieces, ye violated them, ye violated the 
women, ye violated the children, ye forced flints into them, and stakes, 
and stuffed them with gunpowder, and blew them up, and tore them 
asunder limb from limb, and tossed them over precipices, and dashed 
them against the rocks; ye cut them up alive, ye dismembered them; 
ye racked, mutilated, burned, tortured, mangled, massacred holy men, 
sainted women, mothers, daughters, tender children, harmless babes, 
hundreds, thousands, thousands upon thousands; ye sacrificed them in 
heaps, in hecatombs, turning all Spain, Italy, France, Europe, Christian 
Europe, into a slaughter-house, a charnel house, an Akeldama. Oh, 
horrible; too horrible to think of! The sight dims, the heart sickens, 
the soul is stunned in the presence of the awful spectacle. 

O harlot, gilded harlot, with brazen brow and brazen heart! red are 
thy garments, red thine hands. Thy name is written in this book. 
God has written it. The world has read it. Thou art a murderess, 
O Rome. Thou art the murderess Babylon — " Babylon the Great," 
drunken, foully drunken; yea, drunken with the sacred blood which 
thou hast shed in streams and torrents, the blood of saints, the blood of 
the martyrs of Jesus, [pp. 107, 108] — "Romanism and the Reforma- 
tion," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., pp. 107, 108. London: 
J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Persecution, A Catholic Professor on. — The Catholic Church is a 
respecter of conscience and of liberty, [p. 182] . . . She has, and she 
loudly proclaims that she has, a " horror of blood." Nevertheless, when 



POPE, POSITION OF 409 

confronted by heresy, she does not content herself with persuasion; 
arguments of an intellectual and moral order appear to her insufficient, 
and she has recourse to force, to corporal punishment, to torture. She 
creates tribunals like those of the Inquisition, she calls the laws of the 
state to her aid, if necessary she encourages a crusade, or a religious 
war, and all her " horror of blood " practically culminates into urging 
the secular power to shed it, which proceeding is almost more odious — 
for it is less frank — 'than shedding it herself. Especially did she act 
thus in the sixteenth century with regard to Protestants. Not content to 
reform morally, to preach by example, to convert people by eloquent and 
holy missionaries, she lit in Italy, in the Low Countries, and above all in 
Spain, the funeral piles of the Inquisition. In France under Francis I 
and Henry II, in England under Mary Tudor, she tortured the heretics, 
while both in France and Germany, during the second half of the six- 
teenth and the first half of the seventeenth century, if she did not ac- 
tually begin, at any rate she encouraged and actively aided, the religious 
wars. [pp. 182, 183] — " The Catholic Church, the Renaissance, and, 
Protestantism'' Alfred Baudrillart (R. CJ, pp. 182, 183. London: Kegan 
Paul, Trench, Triioner & Co., 1908. 

Persecution.— Pages 264-266, 319-323, 448. 

Pope, Position of, Defined by the Council of Trent. — We define 
that the Holy Apostolic See and the Roman Pontiff holds the primacy 
over the whole world, and that the Roman Pontiff himself is the suc- 
cessor of the blessed Peter, prince of the apostles, and the true vicar of 
Christ, the head of the whole church, the father and doctor of all 
Christians; and that to him, in the person of blessed Peter, was given, 
by our Lord Jesus Christ, full power to feed, rule, and govern the uni- 
versal church, as is contained also in the acts of the ecumenical councils, 
and in the sacred canons. — " The Most Holy Councils," Labbe and Cos 
sart (R. C), Vol. XIII, col. 1167. 

Pope, Poweb of. — The kingly power is not superior to the pontifi- 
cal, but is subject to it, and is bound to obey it. — " Decret. Greg. IX" 
lib. i. tit. xxviii. cap. 6 (" Decretals of Gregory IX " (R. C), book 1, 
title SS, chapter 6). 

Pope, " Vicar of the Son of God." — " Beatus Petrus in terris vica- 
rius filii Dei videtur esse constitutus [Blessed Peter seems to have 
been appointed the vicar of the Son of God on earth]." — " Decretum 
Gratiani," prima pars, dist. xcvi ("Decretum of Gratian" (R. C), part 
1, division 96). 

Pope, Exaltation of. — The Pope is of so great dignity and so 
exalted that he is not a mere man, but as it were God, and the vicar 
of God. 

The Pope is of such lofty and supreme dignity that, properly speak- 
ing, he has not been established in any rank of dignity, but rather has 
been placed upon the very summit of all ranks of dignities. 

The Pope is called most holy because he is rightfully presumed to 
be such. 

Nor can emperors and kings be called most holy; for although in 
civil laws the term " most sacred " seems sometimes to have been 
usurped by emperors, yet never that of " most holy." 

The Pope alone is deservedly called by the name " most holy," 
because he alone is the vicar of Christ, who is the fountain and source 
and fulness of all holiness. 



410 POPE IN PLACE OP GOD 

The Pope by reason of the excellence of his supreme dignity is 
called bishop of bishops. 

He is also called ordinary of ordinaries. 

He is likewise bishop of the universal church. 

He is likewise the divine monarch and supreme emperor, and king 
of kings. 

Hence the Pope is crowned with a triple crown, as king of heaven 
and of earth and of the lower regions. 

Moreover the superiority and the power of the Roman Pontiff by 
no means pertain only to heavenly things, to earthly things, and to 
things under the earth, but are even over angels, than whom he is 
greater. 

So that if it were possible that the angels might err in the faith, 
or might think contrary to the faith, they could be judged and excom- 
municated by the Pope. 

For he is of so great dignity and power that he forms one and the 
same tribunal with Christ. 

So that whatever the Pope does, seems to proceed from the mouth 
of God, as according to most doctors, etc. 

The Pope is as it were God on earth, sole sovereign of the faithful 
of Christ, chief king of kings, having plenitude of power, to whom ha^ 
been intrusted by the omnipotent God direction not only of the earthly 
but also of the heavenly kingdom. 

The Pope is of so great authority and power that he can modify, 
explain, or interpret even divine laws. 

[In proof of this last proposition various quotations are made, 
among them these:] 

The Pope can modify divine law, since his power is not of man 
but of God, and he acts as vicegerent of God upon earth with most 
ample power of binding and loosing his sheep. 

Whatever the Lord God himself, and the Redeemer, is said to do, 
that his vicar does, provided that he does nothing contrary to the faith. 
— Extracts from Ferraris' Ecclesiastical Dictionary (R. C), article on 
the Pope. 

Note. — The full title of this work is " Prompta Bibliotheca canonica, 
juridiea, moralis, theologica nee non ascetica, polemica, rubricistica, Jiistorica." 
There have been various editions of this book since the first was published in 
1746, the latest one being issued from Rome in 1899 at the Press of the Propa- 
ganda. This shows that this work still has the approval of the Roman Catholic 
hierarchy, and the Catholic Encyclopedia (Vol. VI, art. "Ferraris," p. 48) speaks 
of it as " a veritable encyclopedia of religious knowledge " and " a precious mine 
of information." It is therefore legitimate to conclude that the statements in 
this work represent the current Roman Catholic view concerning the power and 
authority of the Pope. — Eds. 

We hold upon this earth the place of God Almighty. — Pope Leo 
XIII, in an encyclical letter dated June 20, 1894, " The Great Encyclical 
Letters of Leo XIII" p. 304. New York: Benziger Brothers. 

Called God 

It is shown with sufficient clearness that by the secular power the 
Pope cannot in any way be bound or loosed, who it is certain was called 
God by the pious leader Constantine, and it is clear that God cannot 
be judged by man. — Decretum of Gratian, part 1, div. 96, chap. 7. 

Note. — While this is one of the interesting perversions of fact so commoD 
in the Decretum of Gratian, yet it shows the extravagant teaching of the time 
concerning the person of the Pope. What Constantine actually said was quite 
different from what Gratian makes him say. — Eds. 



POPE IN PL.ACE OP CHRIST 411 



One Consistory 

Therefore the decision of the Pope and the decision of God con- 
stitute one [i. e., the same] decision, just as the opinion of the Pope 
and of his disciple are the same. Since, therefore, an appeal is always 
taken from an inferior judge to a superior, as no one is greater than 
himself, so no appeal holds when made from the Pope to God, because 
there is one consistory of the Pope himself and of God himself, of which 
consistory the Pope himself is the key-bearer and the doorkeeper. 
Therefore no one can appeal from the Pope to God, as no one can enter 
into the consistory of God without the mediation of the Pope, who is 
the key-bearer and the doorkeeper of the consistory of eternal life; and 
as no one can appeal to himself, so no one can appeal from the Pope 
to God, because there is one decision and one court [curia] of God and 
of the Pope. — From the writings of Augustinus de Ancona (Augustinus 
Triumphus) (R. C), printed without title page or pagination, com- 
mencing, " Incipit summa Catholici doctoris Augustini de Ancona 
potestate ecclesiastica" Questio VI, " De Papalis SentenPiw Appel- 
latione " (On an Appeal from a Decision of the Pope). British Museum, 
London. 

" Another God on Earth " 

For thou art the shepherd, thou art the physician, thou art the 
director, thou art the husbandman; finally, thou art another God on 
earth. — From the Oration of Christopher Marcellus (R. C.) in the fourth 
session of the Fifth Lateran Council, 1512 (an address to the Pope) ; 
" History of the Councils," Laooe and Cossart, Vol. XIV, col. 109. 

Note. — In several editions of the Roman Canon Law printed previously to 
1632, there is found in a gloss (note) upon the word Declaramus in the Extrava- 
gantes of Pope John XXII, title XIIII, chap. 4, the expression Dominum Deum 
nostrum Papam (Our Lord God the Pope). In the edition of the Extravagantes 
printed at Lyons in 1556 these words are found in column 140. In later editions 
of the Canon Law the word Deum (God) has been omitted, and Roman Catholic 
writers claim that it was inserted in some of the earlier editions by a mistake 
of the copyist. It is asserted by one writer, who affirms that he examined the 
original manuscript of the commentator Zenzelinus, in the Vatican library, that 
the word Deum did not appear in it. Under these circumstances Protestants do 
not seem to be warranted in using this particular expression as evidence against 
the Papacy. — Eds. 

All Power 

Christ intrusted his office to the chief Pontiff; . . . but all power 
in heaven and in earth had been given to Christ; . . . therefore the 
chief Pontiff, who is his vicar, will have this power. — Gloss on the 
" Extravagantes Communes," i book 1, " On Authority and Obedience," 
chap. 1, on the words Porro Subesse Rom. Pontiff. (See the collection of 
Canon Laws, published in 1556, "Extravagantes Communes," col. 29.) 

Christ and the Pope 

All names which in the Scriptures are applied to Christ, by virtue 
of which it is established that he is over the church, all the same 
names are applied to the Pope. — " On the Authority of Councils," Bellar- 
mine (R. C), book 2, chap. 17 (Vol. II, p. 266), ed. 1619. 

The Pope's Power to Pardon Sin and to Annul the Canons of the Church 

Peter and his successors have power to impose laws both preceptive 
and prohibitive, power likewise to grant dispensation from these laws, 
and, when needful, to annul them. It is theirs to judge offenses against 



A division of the Corpus Juris Ganonici, or Roman Canon Law. — Eps, 



412 POPE, " CHRIST IN OFFICE " 

the laws, to impose and to remit penalties. This judicial authority will 
even include the power to pardon sin. For sin is a breach of the laws 
of the supernatural kingdom, and falls under the cognizance of its 
constituted judges. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, art. "Pope" 
p. 265. 

He [the Pope] is not subject to them [the canons of the church], 
because he is competent to modify or to annul them when he holds this 
to be best for the church. — Id., p. 268. 

The Pope is the vicar of Christ, or the visible head of the church 
on earth. The claims of the Pope are the same as the claims of Christ. 
Christ wanted all souls saved. So does the Pope. Christ can forgive 
all sin. So can the Pope. The Pope is the only man who claims the 
vicarage of Christ. His claim is not seriously opposed, and this estab- 
lishes his authority. 

The powers given the Pope by Christ were given him, not as a mere 
man, but as the representative of Christ. The Pope is more than the 
representative of Christ, for he is the fruit of his divinity and of the 
divine institution of the church. — Extract from a Sermon by Rev. Jere- 
miah Prendergast, S. J. (R. C), preached in the Church of St. John the 
Baptist, Syracuse, N. Y., Wednesday evening, March 13, 1912, as reported 
in the Syracuse Post-Standard, March 14, 1912. 

For not man, but God separates those whom the Roman Pontiff 
(who exercises the functions, not of mere man, but of the true God), 
having weighed the necessity or benefit of the churches, dissolves, not by 
human but rather by divine authority. — " Decretals of Gregory " (R. C), 
book 1, title 7, chapter 3, on the Transfer of Bishops. 

In 1335 Bishop Alvarez Pelayo lays down the doctrine that as Christ 
partook of the nature of God and man, so the Pope, as his vicar, partici- 
pates with him in the divine nature as to spiritual things and in the 
nature of man as to temporals, so that he is not simply a man, but 
rather a God on earth. These extravagances are perpetuated to modern 
times. During the sessions of the Vatican Council, on Jan. 9, 1870, 
Mermeillod, bishop of Hebron and coadjutor of Geneva, in a sermon 
preached in the church of San Andrea delle Valle, described three incar- 
nations of Christ, — the first in Judea for the atonement, the next in 
the sacrifice of the eucharist, and now " the Saviour is once more on 
earth (he is in the Vatican in the person of an aged man)," and the 
promotion with which the preacher was rewarded showed that such adu- 
lation was duly appreciated. Scarcely less blasphemous were the ex- 
pressions used by the Irish Church at the triduum, or celebration of 
papal infallibility in Dublin, in September, 1870: "The Pope is Christ 
in office, Christ in jurisdiction and power; ... we bow down before thy 
voice, O Pius, as before the voice of Christ, the God of truth; ... in 
clinging to thee, we cling to Christ." — " Studies in Church History," 
Henry C. Lea, p. 389. Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea's Sons & Co., 1883. 

Pope, Superior to a Council.. — It is clear, in the first place, that 
the Pope does not hold his authority from a council, but from God, or 
at all events chiefly from God, and secondarily from councils by the 
command or authority of God. . . . Therefore, neither the council nor 
the church ought to have it in its power to take away or remove this 
authority from him, and, consequently, neither to depose him nor to. 
dismiss him. — " Jacobatius (R* Q.) on the Councils," p. 412. 



POPE, DEPOSING POWER OF 413 

Pope, Power of, over Ecclesiastical Law. — Hence he [the Pope] 
is said to have a heavenly power, and hence changes even the nature of 
things, applying the substantial of one thing to another — can make 
something out of nothing — a judgment which is null he makes to be 
real, since in the things which he wills, his will is taken for a reason. 
Nor is there any one to say to him, Why dost thou do this? For he 
can dispense with the law, he can turn injustice into justice by cor- 
recting and changing the law, and he has the fulness of power. — " De- 
cretals of Gregory " (R. C.J, book 1, title 7, chap. 3, gloss on the Transfer 
of Bishops. 

Pope, Deposing Power of, Defined. — The deposing power of the 
Pope, — what was it but that supreme arbitration whereby the highest 
power in the world, the vicar of the incarnate Son of God, anointed 
high priest, and supreme temporal ruler, sat in his tribunal, impartially 
to judge between nation and nation, between people and prince, between 
sovereign and subject? The deposing power grew up by the providen- 
tial action of God in the world; to subjects obedience, and princes 
clemency. — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ" Henry 
Edward Manning, D. D. (R. G.J, p. 46. London: Burns and Lambert, 
1862. 

Pope, Deposing Power Exercised by Gregory VII. — O blessed 
Peter, prince of the apostles, bend down to us, we beseech thee, thine 
ear; hear me, me thy servant, whom thou hast sustained from infancy 
and preserved till this day from the hands of the wicked, who hate me 
because I am faithful to thee. 

And thou, my lady, mother of God, with blessed Peter, thy brother, 
among the saints, art my witness that the Holy Roman Church placed 
me, in spite of myself, at its helm, and that I sought not to raise myself 
to thy see, but would rather have ended my life in exile than to have 
taken thy place by considerations of worldly glory or in a secular spirit. 
Therefore it is, as I believe, by thy grace, O holy apostle, and not 
because of my works, that it has pleased thee, and that it pleases thee 
still, that the Christian people committed specially to thy care should 
obey me; for thy life has entered into me, and the power that God has 
given me to bind and to loose in heaven and on earth is thy grace. 

So then, strong in this confidence, for the honor and safety of thy 
church, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, I 
depose King Henry [IV], son of the emperor Henry, who, by insolence 
unparalleled, has risen up against thy church, the governments of the 
Teutonic kingdom and of Italy. I loose all Christians from the oaths 
they have taken or may take to him, and I forbid all persons to obey 
him as king; for it is just that he who strives to diminish the honor 
of thy church should lose the honor he himself appears to possess. And 
as he has refused to obey as a Christian, and has not returned to the 
Lord he had forsaken, communicating with those that were excom- 
municated, committing many iniquities, despising the counsels I gave 
him for his salvation, as thou knowest, and separating himself from thy 
church, in which he has put division, I bind him, in thy name, with the 
bond of the anathema; I bind him, relying on thy power, so that 
the nations may know and prove the truth of these words: "Thou 
art Peter, and on this stone the living God has built his church, and 
the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." — " Life of Gregory the 
Seventh," M. Abel Francois Villemain, Vol. II, pp. 48, 49. London: 
Richard Bentley & Son, 1874. 

In the second sentence of excommunication which Gregory [VII] 
passed upon Henry the Fourth are these words: "Come now, I beseech 



414 POPE, AUGUSTINUS TRIUMPHUS ON 

you, most holy and blessed fathers and princes, Peter and Paul, that 
all the world may understand and know that if ye are able to bind and 
to loose in heaven, ye are likewise able on earth, according to the merits 
of each man, to give and to take away empires, kingdoms, princedoms, 
marquisates, duchies, countships, and the possessions of all men. For 
if ye judge spiritual things, what must we believe to be your power over 
worldly things? and if ye judge the angels who rule over all proud 
princes, what can ye not do to their slaves? " — " The Holy Roman Em- 
pire," James Bryce, D. C. L., p. 161. London: Macmillan & Go. 



Pope, Authority of, Now and in Ancient Church. — A Roman 
Catholic bishop derives all his authority from the Pope. No Romanist 
archbishop can consecrate a church, or confirm a child, without receiv- 
ing the pallium from Rome. All Romanist prelates are what they are, 
not by divine providence or permission, but by the grace of the papal 
see! All this is in direct defiance of the laws and practice of the 
ancient church. It is notorious that " most princes in the West, as in 
Germany, France, and England, did invest bishops till the time of 
Gregory VII." It is certain, also, that the popes of Rome, who now 
claim a right to ordain and place bishops throughout the world, were 
themselves appointed by the emperor till the ninth century. — " Letters 
to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., pp. 326, 327. London: Francis 
& John Rivington, 1848. 

Pope, Opposite Views Concerning Power of. — Now [in the four- 
teenth century], as at all times, the strongest partisans of the supremacy 
both of the Papacy and of the church were found among the monks or 
"regulars" (churchmen who lived under a "rule"). In a. d. 1328 
the monk Augustinus Triumphus [Augustinus de Ancona], in his book, 
" Summa de Potestate Ecclesiastical " Of Church Power," maintained, 
with regard to the Pope's position in the church, that he is universal 
bishop; that he can bind and loose in every part of the church; that 
while other bishops have a place, it is under his authority, and he can, 
when occasion calls for it, pass them by; that from the sentence of the 
Pope there is no appeal, not even to God; and that the honor due to 
saints and angels, and in a certain sense the honor due to God, is thus 
rightly given to the vicar of Christ on earth. Five centuries were yet to 
run before the proclamation by the Pope of his official infallibility. But 
most of the other powers to be attributed to him by the Vatican Council 
in the nineteenth century are already conceded by these partisans in 
the fourteenth; and Triumphus goes on to use those attributions in the 
conflict with the emperor. He argued that the only power held im- 
mediately of God is that of the Pope; that the power of sovereigns is 
a subdelegated power; that the Pope, being the vicar of Christ, is, of 
course, to be obeyed rather than the emperor; and that he can, in 
virtue of the same powers, choose an emperor or a dynasty and 
depose them, and can choose and depose kings of any realm in 
Christendom. 

In a. d. 1330 Alvarus Pelagius [Alvarez Pelayo] followed with his 
book, " De Planctu Ecclesim" " Of the Church's Complaint," and from 
the same premises drew like conclusions. He held "that the Pope is 
the sole authority of Christ upon earth; that from him general councils 
derive their power; that he is not bound even by his own laws, for he 
may dispense with them as and when he pleases; and that he has a uni- 
versal jurisdiction in spiritual and in temporal things." 

On the imperial side, on the other hand, arose thinkers who, for the 
first time, were prepared not only to refuse the powers claimed for the 
Bishop of Rome in later centuries over the universal church, but, also 



POPES, HERETICS AMONG 415 

in defense of the civil power, to limit or deny that original independ- 
ence which the church itself now so grievously misused. The most 
remarkable book of this nature was the "Defensor Parts," the com- 
position of Marsilius of Padua, now the emperor's physician, but 
formerly rector of the great University of Paris, aided by John of 
Jandun, one of the imperial secretaries. In this work, published about 
a. d. 1325, it was argued in detail on the internal church question, that 
all presbyters or bishops were equal in the primitive church, greater 
authority being gradually given to one of them in each district only as 
a matter of convenience; that as Peter had no authority over the 
other apostles, so no one succeeding bishop had authority over others 
ruling elsewhere; and that the habit which other bishops and churches 
had got into, of consulting the pastor of the central church of the 
world, had gradually come to be considered a duty on their part, and had 
now led to an unfounded claim of authority by Rome over the churches 
and bishops, and even the princes of Christendom. The universal 
powers of the church, thus denied to any local bishop, were by this 
book assigned to a general council; and Scripture, interpreted when 
need is by the definitions of such a council, is held by it to be the sole 
guide to blessedness. 

These principles, anticipating many results of historical criticism in 
modern times, had already been prepared for by the investigations of 
the universities, and were now spread through Europe by the in- 
cessant labors of William of Occam and others. But the Reformation 
was still two centuries distant, and they took little hold of the hearts 
of men. — "Church and State," A. Taylor Innes, pp. 97, 98. Edinburgh: 
T. & T. Clark. 

Pope, Joan. — An alleged female Pope, the central figure of a 
legend dating from the middle of the thirteenth century. ... In 
the fifteenth century the legend of Pope Joan was regarded as a 
fact, and was one of the main arguments in the controversies on 
the justification and extent of the papal power, additional credibility 
being given the story through its circulation by Roman Catholic his- 
torians. The legend is now -regarded as based on a local Roman tra- 
dition concerning an ancient statue which has disappeared, but which 
seems to have represented a priest of Mithra and a child. This figure 
of the priest was popularly supposed to be a woman, and the unintel- 
ligible inscription on the group was taken to be the epitaph of the 
female Pope. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge, Vol. VI, art. " Pope Joan," p. 185. 

Popes, Many Have Been Heeetics. — Pope Adrian VI, in his Quces- 
tiones de Sacramentis in quartum Sententiarum librum (fol. xxvi. coll. 
iii., iv.), when treating of the minister of confirmation, discusses the 
question, " Utrum papa possit errare in his quae tangunt fldem "f 
[Whether the Pope can err in those things which pertain to faith?] He 
replies, " Dico primo quod si per ecclesiam Romanam intelligat caput 
ejus, puta pontifex, certum est quod possit errare, etiam in Us quae 
tangunt fldem, hwresim per suam determinationem aut decretalem asse- 
rendo. Plures enim fuerunt pontiflces Romani hwretici." [I say firstly, 
if by the church one understands its head, namely, the Pope, it is 
certain that he can err even in those matters which pertain to faith, by 
asserting heresy through his definition or decretal. For many Roman 
pontiffs have been heretics.] I quote from the edition published by 
Pope Adrian in 1522 during his pontificate, under his own eye at Rome. 
— " The Primitive Saints and the See of Rome," F. W. Puller, pp. 398, 
399, Note 2. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1900. 



416 POPERY DESCRIBED 

Popery, A Usurpation of All Authority. — It is to be remarked 
further, that a religious establishment is not to be estimated merely 
by what it is in itself, but also by what it is in comparison with those 
of other nations; . . . and what is still more material, the value of our 
own ought to be very much heightened in our esteem, by considering 
what it is a security from, I mean that great corruption of Christian- 
ity, — popery, which is ever hard at work, to bring us again under its 
yoke. Whoever will consider the popish claims to the disposal of 
the whole earth, as of divine right; to dispense with the most sacred 
engagements; the claims to supreme absolute authority in religion; 
in short, the general claims which the canonists express by the terms 
" plenitude " of " power," — whoever, I say, will consider popery as it 
is professed at Rome, may see that it is manifest open usurpation of all 
divine and human authority. — Bishop Butler, Sermon before' the 
House of Lords in Westminster Abbey, on the King's Accession, June 
11, 1747; quoted in "Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Wordsworth, D. D., 
p. 820. London: Francis & John Rivington, 1848. 

Popery and Christianity, Wylie on. — We are accustomed to speak 
of popery as a corrupt form of Christianity. We concede too much. 
The Church of Rome bears the same relation to the Church of Christ 
which the hierarchy of Baal bore to the institute of Moses; and popery 
stands related to Christianity only in the same way in which paganism 
stood related to primeval revelation. Popery is not a corruption simply, 
but a transformation. It may be difficult to fix the time when it passed 
from the one into the other; but the change is incontestable. Popery is 
the gospel transubstantiated into the flesh and blood of paganism, under 
a few of the accidents of Christianity. — " The Papacy" Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
p. 14. Published under the auspices of the Evangelical Alliance, Edin- 
burgh, 1851; Johnstone and Hunter, printers. 

Popery, Paganism of. — I am afraid that, after all that has been 
said, not a few will revolt from the above comparative estimate of 
popery and undisguised paganism. Let me, therefore, fortify my opin- 
ion by the testimonies of two distinguished writers, well qualified to 
pronounce on this subject. They will, at least, show that I am not 
singular in the estimate which I have formed. The writers to whom I 
refer, are Sir George Sinclair of Ulbster, and Dr. Bonar of Kelso. Few 
men have studied the system of Rome more thoroughly than Sir George, 
and in his " Letters to the Protestants of Scotland " he has brought all 
the fertility of his genius, the ciiriosa felicitas [painstaking felicity] 
of his style, and the stores of his highly cultivated mind, to bear upon 
the elucidation of his theme. Now, the testimony of Sir George is this: 
" Romanism is a refined system of Christianized heathenism, and chiefly 
differs from its prototype in being more treacherous, more cruel, more 
dangerous, more intolerant." The mature opinion of Dr. Bonar is the 
very same, and that, too, expressed with the Cawnpore massacre particu- 
larly in view: "We are doing for popery at home," says he, "what we 
have done for idolaters abroad, and in the end the results will be the 
same; nay, worse; for popish cruelty, and thirst for the blood of the 
innocent, have been the most savage and merciless that the earth has 
seen. Cawnpore, Delhi, and Bareilly are but dust in comparison with the 
demoniacal brutalities perpetrated by the Inquisition, and by the 
armies of popish fanaticism." These are the words of truth and 
soberness, that no man acquainted with the history of modern Europe 
can dispute. There is great danger of their being overlooked at this 
moment. It will be a fatal error if they be. Let not the pregnant 
fact be overlooked, that, while the Apocalyptic history runs down to 



PRIESTHOOD, JEWISH AND ROMAN 417 

the consummation of all things, in that divine foreshadowing all the 
other paganisms of the world are in a manner cast into the shade by 
the paganism of papal Rome. It is against Babylon that sits on the 
seven hills that the saints are forewarned; it is for worshiping the 
beast and his image pre-eminently, that " the vials of the wrath of God, 
that liveth and abideth forever," are destined to be outpoured upon the 
nations. — " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 285, 7 th 
edition. London: 8. W. Partridge & Go. 

Presbyterian Church. — Page 146. 

Priesthood. — Sacrifice and priesthood are, by the ordinance of 
God, in such wise conjoined, as that both have existed in every law. 
Whereas, therefore, in the New Testament, the Catholic Church has re- 
ceived, from the institution of Christ, the holy visible sacrifice of the 
eucharist; it must needs also be confessed that there is, in that church, 
a new, visible, and external priesthood (can. i), into which the old has 
been translated. And the Sacred Scriptures show, and the tradition of 
the Catholic Church has always taught, that this priesthood was insti- 
tuted by the same Lord our Saviour (can. iii), and that to the apostles 
and their successors in the priesthood was the power delivered of con- 
secrating, offering, and administering his body and blood, as also of 
forgiving and retaining sins (Canon P). — "Dogmatic Canons and De- 
crees,'" pp. 150, 151. New York: The Devin- Adair Company, 1912. 

Priesthood, Priests Called Gods. — As bishops and priests are as 
certain interpreters and heralds of God, who in his name teach men the 
divine law and the precepts of life, and are the representatives on earth 
of God himself, it is clear that their function is such that none greater 
can be conceived; wherefore they are justly called not only "angels" 
(Mai. 2: 7), but also "gods" (Ps. 81: 6), holding as they do among 
us the power and authority of the immortal God. But although they 
at all times held a most exalted dignity, yet the priests of the new tes- 
tament far excel all the others in honor; for the power of consecrating 
and offering the body and blood of our Lord, and of remitting sins, 
which has been conferred on them, transcends human reason and in- 
telligence, still less can there be found on earth anything equal and 
like to it. — " Catechism of the Council of Trent," translated by Rev. J. 
Donovan, D. D. (R. C), p. 275. Dublin: James Duffy, Sons & Co. 

Priesthood, Jewish, a Shadow of Roman. — It is only neces- 
sary to run over the books of the Old Testament, especially Exodus 
Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, to establish the fact that the Jewish 
church, called by the evangelists and the apostles the shadow and the 
figure of the Christian society, can in fact be the shadow and figure of 
the Catholic Church alone. In the Jewish system there is one visible 
head, Moses, continuing to live on in the sovereign pontiffs, the suc- 
cessive high priests, who sat in his chair. This head presides over a 
complete hierarchy, to which entire obedience is due under the severest 
penalties. These priests teach with authority, explain the law, preserve 
the traditions, maintain the practice of morality, pray, and offer sacri- 
fices, — in a word, govern the religious society. In these features who 
cannot recognize Jesus Christ still living for the government of the 
Catholic Church in Peter and his successors, the Roman pontiffs presid- 
ing over the whole ecclesiastical hierarchy, over the authority, the con- 
secration, and the functions of the priests of the new law? If Christ 
is come " not to destroy the law, but to carry it to perfection," all that 



See Canon 1, under " Order," p. 353. 
27 



418 PRIESTHOOD, "CREATOR OF HIS CREATOR" 

is imperfect in the synagogue ought to be perfect in the church: high 
priesthood, sacraments, sacrifice, etc., etc. This perfection of the law 
we perceive throughout the Catholic system; Protestants can find in 
theirs only the law destroyed. — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the 
Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C), p. 62. Philadelphia: 
Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Priesthood, Canons on. — Canon IX. If any one saith that the sac- 
ramental absolution of the priest is not a judicial act, but a bare min- 
istry of pronouncing and declaring sins to be forgiven to him who 
confesses; provided only he believe himself to be absolved, or (even 
though) the priest absolve not in earnest, but in joke; or saith that the 
confession of the penitent is not required in order that the priest may 
be able to absolve him; let him be anathema. 

Canon X. If any one saith that priests who are in mortal sin have 
not the power of binding and of loosing; or that not priests alone are 
the ministers of absolution, but that to all and each of the faithful of 
Christ is it said: "Whatsoever you shall bind upon earth shall be bound 
also in heaven; and whatsoever you shall loose upon earth shall be 
loosed also in heaven;" and, "Whose sins you shall forgive, they are 
forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained;" 
by virtue of which words every one is able to absolve from sins, to 
wit, from public sins by reproof only, provided he who is reproved yield 
thereto, and from secret sins by a voluntary confession; let him be 
anathema. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees," pp. 118, 119. New York: 
The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Priesthood, The Pkiest " Another Christ." — The priest is the 
man of God, the minister of God, the portion of God, the man called of 
God, consecrated to God, wholly occupied with the interests of God; he 
that despiseth him, despiseth God; he that hears him hears God: he 
remits sins as God, and that which he calls his body at the altar is 
adored as God by himself and by the congregation [italics his]. This 
shows Jesus Christ as God-man! . . . The priest is not vested with the 
functions and powers of the priesthood except by a holy anointing, 
whence comes the name of Christ (anointed) given him in the Scrip- 
tures. This shows that the incarnation was for the Saviour an anoint- 
ing altogether divine, celebrated by the prophets, which causes the name 
of Christ to be added to his name Jesus. . . . The priest daily offers a 
great sacrifice; and the victim which he immolates is the Lamb of God, 
bearing the sins of the world; and by continence, by apostolic self- 
devotion, he ought daily to associate himself with this great immola- 
tion. This shows Jesus Christ content to offer himself as a holocaust 
upon the altar of the cenacle and On that of the cross, for the salvation 
of the whole world. . . . From the virtue of this sacrifice, which he 
offers daily, the priest derives the power and the right to teach the 
faith, to administer the sacraments, to govern souls. It is because Jesus 
Christ, becoming our Redeemer, by the sovereign efficacy of his sacrifice, 
is thereby also teacher, pattern, pastor, legislator, supreme judge of all 
men, the eternal glory of the saints. In one word, the priest, such as 
he is in the Christian system, that is to say, the Catholic priest, pre- 
supposes, represents, shows forth Jesus Christ, the God-man, Jesus 
Christ as he is known and adored by the whole of Christendom. — " Cath- 
olic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, S. J. 
(R. C), pp. 543, 544. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Priesthood, The Priest the Creator of the Creator. — With regard 
to the power of priests over the real body of Jesus Christ, it is of faith 
that when they pronounce the words of consecration, the Incarnate 



PRIESTHOOD, MEDIEVAL. VIEWS OF 419 

Word has obliged himself to obey and to come into their hands under 
the sacramental species. . . . We are* struck with wonder when we . . . 
find that in obedience to the words of his priests — Hoc est corpus 
meum [This is my body] — God himself descends on the altar, that he 
comes wherever they call him, and as often as they call him, and places 
himself in their hands, even though they should be his enemies. And 
after having come, he remains, entirely at their disposal; and they move 
him as they please, from one place to another; they may, if they wish, 
shut him up in the tabernacle, or expose him on the altar, or carry him 
outside the church; they may, if they choose, eat his flesh, and give 
him for the food of others. . . . Besides, the power of the priest sur- 
passes that of the Blessed Virgin Mary; for, although this divine mother 
can pray for us, and by her prayers obtain whatever she wishes, yet 
she cannot absolve a Christian from even the smallest sin. . . . 

Thus the priest may, in a certain manner, be called the creator of 
his Creator, since by saying the words of consecration, he creates, as it 
were, Jesus in the sacrament, by giving him a sacramental existence, 
and produces him as a victim to be offered to the eternal Father. As 
in creating the world it was sufficient for God to have said, Let it be 
made, and it was created, — He spoke, and they were made, — so it is 
sufficient for the priest to say, "Hoc est corpus meum," and, behold, 
the bread is no longer bread, but the body of Jesus Christ. " The power 
of the priest," says St. Bernardine of Sienna, " is the power of the 
divine person; for the transubstantiation of the bread requires as much 
power as the creation of the world." And St. Augustine has written: 
" O the venerable sanctity of the hands! O happy function of the priest! 
he that created (if I may say so) gave me the power to create him; 
and he that created me without me is himself created by me! " As the 
word of God created heaven and earth, so, says St. Jerome, the words 
of the priest create Jesus Christ. . . . When he ascended into heaven, 
Jesus Christ left his priests after him to hold on earth his place of 
mediator between God and men, particularly on the altar. — " Dignity 
and Duties of the Priest; or Selva," St. Alphonsus Liguori (R. G.J, pp. 
26-34. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1889. 

Priesthood, Medieval Belief Concerning. — The requirements of 
the practical religion of everyday life were also believed to be in the 
possession of this ecclesiastical monarchy to give and to withhold. For 
it was the almost universal belief of medieval piety that the mediation 
of a priest was essential to salvation; and the priesthood was an inte- 
gral part of this monarchy, and did not exist outside its boundaries. 
" No good Catholic Christian doubted that in spiritual things the clergy 
were the divinely appointed superiors of the laity, that this power pro- 
ceeded from the right of the priests to celebrate the sacraments, that 
the Pope was the real possessor of this power, and was far superior to 
all secular authority." 

In the decades immediately preceding the Reformation, many an 
educated man might have doubts about this power of the clergy over 
the spiritual and eternal welfare of men and women; but when it came 
to the point, almost no one could venture to say that there was nothing 
in it. And so long as the feeling remained that there might be some- 
thing in it, the anxieties, to say the least, which Christian men and 
women could not help having when they looked forward to an unknown 
future, made kings and peoples hesitate before they offered defiance to 
the Pope and the clergy. The spiritual powers which were believed to 
come from the exclusive possession of priesthood and sacraments went 
for much in increasing the authority of the papal empire. — " A History 
of the Reformation^ Thomas M. Lindsay, M. A., D. D., pp. 3, 4. New 
York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1906. 



420 PRIMACY OF THE POPE 



Priesthood, New Testament Doctrine of. — In ancient times it was 
held that men in general could not have direct access to God, that any 
approach to him must he mediated by some member of the class of 
priests, who alone could approach God, and who must accordingly be 
employed by other men to represent them before him. This whole con- 
ception vanishes in the light of Christianity. By virtue of their relation 
to Christ all believers have direct approach to God, and consequently, 
as this right of approach was formerly a priestly privilege, priesthood 
may now be predicated of every Christian. That none needs another to 
intervene between his soul and God; that none can thus intervene for 
another; that every soul may and must stand for itself in personal re- 
lation with God — such are the simple elements of the New Testament 
doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. — The International Standard 
Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. IV, art. 
" Priesthood in the New Testament,'" p. 2446. 

Priesthood, The Heavenly Sanctuary. — Heaven is the sphere of 
his [Christ's] ministry. When God said to Moses, to make all according 
to the pattern showed him in the mount, to serve as a shadow of the 
heavenly things; in the very appointment of the tabernacle, there was 
the indication that it was but a copy and promise of the true tabernacle, 
with its heavenly sanctuary. . . . All the ministry or service of the 
priests in the tabernacle had its fulfilment in Him. The priests served 
in the tabernacle day by day, ordered everything for the service of God 
according to his will; as representatives of the people they received the 
assurance of God's favor, and brought them out God's blessing. Jesus 
is the minister of the heavenly sanctuary. He represents us there. . . . 

A priest must have a sanctuary in which he dwells, to receive all 
who come to seek his God. Our great High Priest has his sanctuary 
in the heavens; there he dwells, there we find him; there he receives 
us, there he introduces us to meet God; there he proves that he is a 
priest who abides continually, and who gives those who come to God 
through him the power to do it too — to abide continually in his pres- 
ence. — " The Holiest of All," Rev. Andrew Murray, pp. 264, 265. Lon- 
don: James Nisbet & Co., 1895. 

Priesthood, Christ the Only Priest. — Page 522. 

Primacy of Bishop of Rome, Argument on Matthew 16: 18. — 
The rule of Biblical interpretation imposed upon us is this: that the 
Scriptures are not to be interpreted contrary to the unanimous consent 
of the Fathers. It is doubtful whether any instance of that unanimous 
consent is to be found. But this failing, the rule seems to lay down for 
us the law of following, in their interpretation of Scripture, the major 
number of the Fathers, that might seem to approach unanimity. Ac- 
cepting this rule, we are compelled to abandon the usual modern expo- 
sition of the words, " On this rock will I build my church." 

In a remarkable pamphlet " printed in facsimile of manuscript," 
and presented to the Fathers almost two months ago, we find five dif- 
ferent interpretations of the word "rock," in the place cited; "the first 
of which declares" (I transcribe the words) "that the church was 
built on Peter; and this interpretation is followed by seventeen Fathers 
— ■ among them, Origen, Cyprian, Jerome, Hilary, Cyril of Alexandria, 
Leo the Great, Augustine. 

" The second interpretation understands from these words, ' On 
this rock will I build my church,' that the church was built on all the 
apostles, whom Peter represented by virtue of the primacy. And this 
opinion is followed by eight Fathers — among them, Origen, Cyprian, 
Jerome, Augustine, Theodoret, 



PRIVATE JUDGMENT 421 

" The third interpretation asserts that the words, ' On this rock,' 
etc., are to he understood of the faith which Peter had professed — that 
this faith, this profession of faith, by which we believe Christ to be the 
Son of the living God, is the everlasting and immovable foundation of 
the church. This interpretation is the weightiest of all, since it is 
followed by forty-four Fathers and doctors; among them, from the 
East, are Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, Chrysostom, The- 
ophylact; from the West, Hilary, Ambrose, Leo the Great; from Africa, 
Augustine. 

" The fourth interpretation declares that the words, ' On this rock,' 
are to be understood of that rock which Peter had confessed, that is, 
Christ — that the church was built upon Christ. This interpretation 
is followed by sixteen Fathers and doctors. 

" The fifth interpretation of the Fathers understands by the name 
of the rock, the faithful themselves, who, believing Christ to be the 
Son of God, are constituted living stones out of which the church is 
built." 

Thus far the author of the pamphlet aforesaid, in which may be 
read the words of the Fathers and doctors whom he cites. 

From this it follows, either that no argument at all, or one of the 
slenderest probability, is to be derived from the words, " On this rock 
will I build my church," in support of the primacy. Unless it is cer- 
tain that by the rock is to be understood the apostle Peter in his own 
person, and not in his capacity as the chief apostle speaking for them 
all, the word supplies no argument whatever, I do not say in proof of 
papal infallibility, but even in support of the primacy of the Bishop 
of Rome. If we are bound to follow the majority of the Fathers in this 
thing, then we are bound to hold for certain that by the rock should 
be understood the faith professed by Peter, not Peter professing the 
faith. — Speech of Archbishop EenricTc; cited in "An Inside View of the 
Vatican Council," edited by Leonard Woolsey Bacon, pp. 107-109. New 
York: American Tract Society. 

Private Judgment, From a Speech on, in the House of Commons, 
1530. — Because each man is created by God a free citizen of the world, 
and obliged to nothing so much as the inquiry of these means by which 
he may attain his everlasting happiness, it will be fit to examine to 
whose tuition and conduct he commits himself. . . . Shall each man, 
without more examination, believe his priests, in what religion soever, 
and call their doctrine his faith? . . . Must he take all that each priest 
upon pretense of inspiration would teach him, because it might be so? 
Or, may he leave all, because it might be otherwise? Certainly, to em- 
brace all religions, according to their various and repugnant rites, 
tenets, traditions, and faiths, is impossible. . . . On the other side, to 
reject all religions indifferently is as impious; ... so that there is a 
necessity to distinguish. . . . Neither shall he fly thus to particular 
reason, which may soon lead him to heresy; but, after a due separa- 
tion of the more doubtful and controverted parts, shall hold himself 
to common, authentic, and universal truths. ... It will be worth the 
labor, assuredly, to inquire how far these universal notions will guide 
us, before we commit ourselves to any of their abstruse and scholastic 
mysteries, or supernatural and private revelations. 

These, therefore, as universal and undoubted truths, should in my 
opinion be first received; they will at least keep us from impiety and 
atheism, and together lay a foundation for God's service and the hope 
of a better life. . . . That will dispose us to a general concord and 
peace; for, when we are agreed concerning these eternal causes and 
means of our salvation, why should we so much differ for the rest? 



422 PROPHECY, PURPOSE OF 

. . . The common truths of religion, being firmer bonds of unity than 
that anything emergent out of traditions should dissolve them, let us 
establish and fix these catholic or universal notions ... so that 
whether my Lord Bishop of Rochester, Luther, Zwinglius, Erasmus, or 
Melanchthon, etc., be in the right, we laics may so build upon these 
catholic and infallible grounds of religion, as whatsoever structure of 
faith be raised, these foundations yet may support them. — " Parlia- 
mentary History," Hansard, Vol. I, p. 506; cited in " British History and 
Papal Claims," James Parton, B. A., Vol. I, pp. 48, 49. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1893. 

Prophecy, Primary Idea of. — What is a prophecy? The primary 
idea of a prophet is not one who foretells, but one who " brings to light " 
or " makes manifest." A man might be a prophet, while yet not fore- 
telling any future event. Elisha was simply an inspired teacher, unfold- 
ing the hidden things of God. The idea of foretelling is secondary: 
first, insight; second, foresight. Very naturally God, in giving to a 
man insight into his secret mysteries, might grant insight into that 
future which has to do with these mysteries; and such insight is fore- 
sight. Oftentimes a true insight into the present implies a foresight of 
the future as the key to present problems. 

Foresight was frequently granted to prophets, in order to furnish 
additional evidence of their divine mission and commission. But the 
prime element in the prophet is capacity to teach spiritual truth. This 
discrimination is important, for, first, it leads us to look for evidence 
of the prophetic office and authority in the very nature of the truths 
he proclaims and teaches. In the character of his message is often 
higher proof of his divine calling than in miracle or prediction. This 
was pre-eminently true of Christ, the greatest of prophets. Secondly, 
this conception of the true criterion of a prophet will lead to rejection 
of any whose teachings are plainly unsound and unscriptural, even 
though he might work apparent wonders or predict future events. The 
Bible teaches us to find prophetic credentials, first of all, in this con- 
formity of his moral and spiritual teaching to a divine pattern. There 
must be correspondence between his utterances and the Word of God 
and the moral sense of mankind. Dent. 13:3. — "Many Infallible 
Proofs," Arthur T. Pierson, D. D., pp. 35, 36. London: Morgan and 
Scott. 

Prophecy, Real Purpose of. — The declaration of events yet future 
is a faculty not given to man. Whenever there is clear evidence of its 
existence, we are compelled either to resort to the hypothesis of a lucky 
chance or to postulate divine foreknowledge. The predictions of the 
Hebrew prophets cannot be ascribed to chance. Where they exist, they 
are only to be ascribed to divine foreknowledge. 

We must beware, however, that we do not ascribe that foreknowl- 
edge to the prophets themselves. The predictions of the prophets were 
frequently verified in a way far different from that which they them- 
selves expected. The written record of their sayings is the witness to 
their prophetic power, and not their anticipations as to its fulfilment, 
which may have been partial or even false. It is divine and not human 
foreknowledge of which prophecy is the record. And we affirm that 
there are those broad features in the Hebrew prophecy which warrant 
us in regarding it as a record of divine foreknowledge, and that a wide 
and general survey of all the circumstances forbids, and emphatically 
forbids, us otherwise regarding it. [p. 242] . . . 

To acknowledge, however, the predictive character of prophecy is 
not an end in itself, but only a means to an end, the end being to accept 



PROPHECY, UNITY AND AIM OF 423 

the message of prophecy, whether conveyed with or without prediction, 
as the message of God. If there are real predictions in prophecy, then 
they must be the work of the Spirit of God. We may be sure that if 
that is the case, he desires us to acknowledge his work, but only that 
we may adore him. If we lose ourselves in stolid wonderment at his 
work, or in the excitement of contending for it, instead of giving our 
hearts to him and conforming our wills to his will, we shall miss the 
true end of prophecy; but none the less may we miss that end if we are 
content with vague generalities as to the glory, the beauty, the dignity, 
the grandeur of prophecy, and the like, and after all refuse to acknowl- 
edge the patent and conspicuous evidence it bears of being the special 
and distinct utterance of the mind of God conveyed in a highly excep- 
tional and superhuman way, and bearing superhuman credentials. 

In short, the object and design of all prophecy is that we should 
imbibe its spirit; and the evangelist apostle has told us that "the testi- 
mony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy," that the spirit which animates 
the faculty is the spirit that bears witness to Jesus and about Jesus, 
[pp. 244, 245] — " Old Testament Prophecy," Rev. Stanley Leathes, D. D., 
pp. 242-245. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

Prophecy, Subject, Unity, and Object of. — The gradual progress of 
Christianity in the world, in the face of all opposition, the various perse- 
cutions with which the church of Christ was to be afflicted, its successes 
and reverses, its joys and its trials, its approximation to extinction, 
and its final and lasting triumph, are all the subject of express prophe- 
cies uttered by our Lord ana his apostles. — " Fulfilled Prophecy" Rev. 
W. Goode, D. D., F. S. A., p. 9, 2d edition. London: James Nisbet & Co., 
1891. 

There is unity in these prophecies with respect to the source from 
which they profess to be derived. All were uttered by individuals be- 
tween whom, as a body, there could be no mutual intercommunication; 
but all were worshipers of the same God, and professed to derive their 
inspiration from the same source. And all these various prophecies 
are connected together and interwoven with each other. We must, there- 
fore, receive the whole as a divine revelation, or reject the whole as a 
human fabrication. And if we reject it, we must suppose that a series 
of prophecies was uttered at various times, during a period of four 
thousand years, by men separated from each other by long intervals of 
time, — prophecies differing from one another in circumstantials, but re- 
lating mostly to the same events, and all accomplished in those events, — 
without any interposition of more than human intelligence. — Id., p. 12. 

We must remember, further, the great end of prophecy. It was 
not written to enable those who lived before the period of its fulfilment 
to know precisely what was about to happen. This was well understood 
by the ancient prophets, to whom it was revealed, says St. Peter, that 
not unto themselves, but unto us, they did minister the things which, 
by the aid of the Holy Spirit, they delivered to mankind. 1 Peter 
1: 12. Hence it was veiled in language to a certain extent dark and 
obscure, but which was exactly applicable to the events that fulfilled 
it, and became by them clear and plain. It was not ambiguous, or ca- 
pable of various meanings, like the heathen oracles, so as to be adapted 
to almost anything that might happen, but had one definite signification, 
to which the event exactly answered, and thus proved the foreknowledge 
of it by him from whom the prophecy emanated. Thus it answered 
the purpose for which it was given, which was not to enable man to 
discern the exact course of future events, but that on its fulfilment we 



424 PROPHECY, HAND OF GOD IN 

might see in it the proofs of a superintending divine agency in the 
affairs of men. To man the precise knowledge of future events would 
be anything but a blessing. It would produce a moral paralysis unfit- 
ting him for action. Prophecy, therefore, is, by the mercy of God, in 
consideration of our imperfection, clothed in language which, while it 
shadows forth the future with sufficient plainness for the purpose of 
warning or encouragement, awaits for its full interpretation the event 
of which it speaks. — "Fulfilled Prophecy," Rev. W. G-oode, D. D., 
F. 8. A., p. 15, 2d edition. London: James Nisoet & Co., 1891. 

Thus the great object of prophecy is accomplished. That object 
appears to have been, so far to unveil the future as to reveal to man 
the prominent outlines of God's subsequent providential dealings with 
mankind, and especially those events that were to have a decisive influ- 
ence upon his present position or future hopes as a being destined for 
translation to another and an eternal world; but at the same time to 
reveal these things in terms which, until their accomplishment, should 
leave men unacquainted with the precise time and manner in which 
they were to be fulfilled. — Id., p. 20. 

Prophecy, Hand of God in. — If only one single man had left a book 
of predictions concerning Jesus Christ, and had distinctly and precisely 
marked out the time, place, manner, and other circumstances of his ad- 
vent, life, doctrine, death, resurrection, and ascension, — a prophecy, or 
series of prophecies, so astonishing, so circumstanced, so connected, 
would be the most wonderful thing in the world, and would have infi- 
nite weight. But the miracle is far greater: for here is a succession of 
men, for four thousand years, who were widely separated from each 
other by time and place, yet who regularly, and without any variation, 
succeeded one another to foretell the same event. Here, therefore, the 
hand of God is manifest; and Jesus Christ is evidenced to be the Mes- 
siah. Since the beginning of the world, all the prophecies have been 
present to his mind: he has taken from them all that seemed contra- 
dictory, when not considered in respect to him; he has equally accom- 
plished them, whether the thing they predicted concerning him were 
humiliating or divine; and has demonstrated that he is the center and 
end of them all, by reducing them to unity in his own person. 

Further, by the accomplishment of the prophecies, which is the 
particular and incommunicable character of Jesus Christ, all seducers 
or pretended Messiahs, whether past or future, are convicted of im- 
posture. — "An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the 
Holy Scriptures," Thomas Hartwell Home, B. D., Vol. I, pp. 296, 297. 
London: T. Cadell, 1839. 

Prophecy, Compass or. — In the Holy Scriptures we have a series 
of prophecies extending through a period of more than 4,000 years, and 
relating to a course of events commencing at the very beginning of the 
world's history, and terminating only at its close. Within its compass 
are -brought all the most important facts in the history of the human 
race; so far as they set forth the character of the divine government, 
or affect the interests of God's worshipers. The point of time at which 
we stand enables us to see the fulfilment of but a portion of those 
prophecies. Many of them, especially those that relate to that kingdom 
which our blessed Lord was to establish in the world, include the events 
of a long series of years in the midst of which we are living, and will 
afford warning, instruction, and comfort to all the successive genera- 
tions of mankind till time shall be no more. — "Fulfilled Prophecy," 
Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. 8. A., p. 10, 2d edition. London: James Nisoet 
& Co., 1891. 



PROPHECY, VALUE OF 425 

Prophecy, Related to Redemption. — The gradual accomplishment 
of one great scheme of mercy, was evidently the great object in view in 
the mind of God; and they who spoke of future events, under his inspi- 
ration, foretold only what had some connection with the work of human 
redemption. The rise and fall of empires were of little account with 
them, except so far as they stood connected with the interests of reli- 
gion in the world. — " Fulfilled Prophecy," Rev. W. Goode, D. D., F. 8. A., 
p. 11, 2d edition. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Prophecy, Indirect. — Even the historic books are indirect prophe- 
cies. First, because they prepare for and point toward Him. They tell 
of a chosen man, family, tribe, nation, out of whom, as the consummate 
flower of this historic elect race, comes a divine Leader and Lawgiver, 
the Founder of the church of the world. The centuries are marshaled 
by an invisible Power, and take up their march toward the cross of 
Christ; there they all find both their rallying and radiating center. 
Reading history in the light of the cradle at Bethlehem and the cross 
of Calvary, all its pages are illumined with new significance. — " Many 
Infallible Proofs," Arthur T. Pier son, D. D., p. 203. London: Morgan 
and Scott. 

Prophecy, The Unanswerable Argument. — Among all external, 
historical proofs, prophecy is the unanswerable argument. Among all 
internal and experimental proofs, the one all-sufficient is the person of 
Christ. — Id., p. 212. 

Prophecy, Evidential Value of. — Of all the various lines of Chris- 
tian evidence, none is so specially adapted to these last days as that 
based on fulfilled prophecy. . : . 

The prophecies of Daniel stand pre-eminent among all others in 
their evidential value. It is an astounding fact, that not only does his 
brief book give a foreview of twenty-five centuries of Jewish and Gen- 
tile history, including the first and the second advents of Christ, but 
that it also fixes the chronology of various episodes of the then unknown 
future, with, a simple certainty which would be audacious if it were 
not divine. Would any mere man dare to foretell, not only a long suc- 
cession of events lying far in the remote future, but in addition the 
periods they would occupy? This Daniel has done, and the predictions 
have come to pass. — " Light for the Last Days," Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan 
Guinness, p. v. London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Prophecy, Fulfilled and to Be Fulfilled. — If in opening to his 
disciples the Scriptures, and expounding unto them all things in the 
law and in the prophets and in the Psalms, concerning himself, he 
demonstrated his Messiahship by the accuracy with which every predic- 
tion was fulfilled; if his birth of the virgin, his nativity in Bethlehem, 
his ministry and work, were all foretold; if prophecy was fulfilled by 
the beast that carried him, by the nation that rejected him, by the dis- 
ciple that betrayed him, by the price of his betrayal, by the nails that 
pierced his hands, by his death, and burial, and resurrection, and ascen- 
sion, — if in all these instances God fulfilled his word with the utmost 
literality and precision, by what rule shall we, when we read the words 
of those same prophets concerning his future glory, refuse to accept 
them as precise and unquestionable statements of things which must 
shortly come to pass? If the prophecies of his shame were literally 
fulfilled, shall the predictions of his glory be cast aside as vague and 
shadowy? If the cross on which he hung was a reality, shall the throne 
which he shall inherit be a figure of speech? If the sufferings which he 



426 PROPHECIES, PROTESTANT MAXIMS OF 

endured were real, shall the glory which is to follow be an empty vision 
or an idle dream? Surely if any portion of the prophecy were to be 
figuratively expounded, it should be that portion which told of the 
shame, and sorrow, and suffering of the Son of God. — " The Reign of 
Christ on Earth," Daniel T. Taylor, Editor's Preface, pp. xviii, xix. 
Boston: Scriptural Tract Repository, 1882. 

Prophecy.— Pages 16, 22, 189, 245, 246, 307-310, 316, 362, 363, 436, 
444, 473, 514, 570, 629. 

Prophecies, Maxims in the Interpretation of. — Ever since the 
time of the Reformation, the following maxims in the interpretation of 
the sacred prophecies have been generally received by the Protestant 
churches : 

1. That the visions of Daniel commence with the times of the 
prophet. 

2. That the events predicted in the Apocalypse begin from the time 
of [the] prophecy, or within the first century. 

3. That the fourth beast denotes the Roman Empire. 

4. That Babylon in the Apocalypse denotes Rome. 

5. That the little horn in Daniel 7 denotes the Papacy. 

6. That the man of sin relates to the same power. 

7. That the prophecy in 1 Timothy 4 is fulfilled in past events. 

8. That Babylon denotes, at least inclusively, Rome papal. — " First 
Elements of Sacred Prophecy" Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 1. London: William 
Edward Painter, 1843. 

Prophecies, Protestant Interpretation of. — The writers of the 
primitive church almost unanimously contradict the futurists, and agree 
with the Protestant interpreters, on the following points: 

1. That the head of gold denotes the Babylonian Empire, not the 
person of Nebuchadnezzar, or Babylon and Persia in one. 

2. That the silver denotes the Medo-Persian Empire. 

3. That the brass denotes the Greek Empire. 

4. That the iron denotes the Roman Empire. 

5. That the clay mingled with the iron denotes the intermixture of 
barbarous nations in the Roman Empire. 

6. That the mingling with the seed of men relates to intermarriages 
among the kings of the divided empire. 

7. That the lion denotes the Babylonian Empire. 

8. That the eagle wings relate to Nebuchadnezzar's ambition. 

9. That the bear denotes the Medo-Persian Empire. 

10. That the rising on one side signifies the later supremacy of the 
Persians. 

11. That the leopard relates to the Macedonian Empire. 

12. That the four wings denote the rapidity of Alexander's conquests. 

13. That the fourth beast is the Roman Empire. 

14. That the ten horns denote a tenfold division of that empire, 
which was then future. 

15. That the division began in the fourth and fifth centuries. 

16. That the rise of the ten horns is later than the rise of the 
beast. 

17. That the vision of the ram and he-goat begins from the time of 
the prophecy. 

18. That the higher horn of the ram denotes the Persian dynasty, 
beginning with Cyrus, 



PROTESTANTS, RELIGION OF 427 

19. That the first horn of the he-goat is Alexander the Great. 

20. That the breaking of the horn, when strong, relates to the sud- 
den death of Alexander in the height of his power. 

21. That the four horns denote four main kingdoms, into which the 
Macedonian Empire was divided. — " First Elements of Sacred Proph- 
ecy," Rev. T. R. Birks, pp. 40, 41. London: William E. Painter, 1843. 

Prophet, Signification of. — The ordinary Hebrew word for prophet 
is ndbi, derived from a verb signifying "to bubble forth" like a fountain; 
hence the word means one who announces or pours forth the declara- 
tions of God. The English word comes from the Greek prophetes 
{Trpo<pT]T7ji), which signifies in classical Greek one who speaks for another, 
specially one who speaks for a god, and so interprets his will to man; 
hence its essential meaning is " an interpreter." The use of the word 
in its modern sense as " one who predicts " is post-classical. The larger 
sense of interpretation has not, however, been lost. In fact, the English 
word " prophet " has always been used in a larger and in a closer sense. 
The different meanings or shades of meanings in which the abstract 
noun is employed in Scripture have been drawn out by Locke as fol- 
lows: "Prophecy comprehends three things: prediction; singing by the 
dictate of the Spirit; and understanding and explaining the mysterious, 
hidden sense of Scripture by an immediate illumination and motion of 
the Spirit." — "A Dictionary of the* Bible" William Smith, LL. D., art. 
" Prophet," pp. 534, 535, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter and 
Coates, copyright 1884. 

Protest of the Princes.— Pages 89, 440, 441, 452. 

Protestant, Origin of the Name. — The name " Protestant " orig- 
inated from the " protestation " in which the leading German princes 
friendly to the Reformation united with fourteen cities of Germany on 
April 25, 1529, against the decree of the Roman majority of the second 
Diet of Speyer. It was a designation quite colorless from the religious 
point of view, and was first used as a political epithet by the opponents 
of those who signed the protest. — The New S chaff -Herzog Encyclopedia 
of Religious Knowledge, Vol IX, art. " Protestantism," p. 290, 291. 

Protestants, Religion of, Chillingworth's Statement. — By the 
" religion of Protestants," I do not understand the doctrine of Luther 
or Calvin or Melanchthon, or the Confession of Augsburg or Geneva, 
or the Catechism of Heidelberg, or the Articles of the Church of Eng- 
land, no, nor the harmony of Protestant confessions, but that wherein 
they all agree, and to which they all subscribe with a greater harmony, 
as a perfect rule of their faith and actions; that is, the Bible. The 
Bible, I say, the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants! Whatsoever 
else they believe besides it, and the plain, irrefragable, indubitable 
consequences of it, well may they hold it as a matter of opinion; but 
as matter of faith and religion, neither can they with coherence to 
their own grounds believe it themselves, nor require the belief of it 
of others, without most high and most schismatical presumption. I for 
my part, after a long and (as I verily believe and hope) impartial 
search of " the true way to eternal happiness," do profess plainly that 
I cannot find any rest for the sole of my foot but upon this rock only. 
— "Works of William Chilling worth," M. A., Vol. II, pp. 409-411. Ox- 
ford University Press, 1838. 

Protestants. — Pages 90, 120, 121, 236, 237, 239, 242, 296, 321 407 
408, 440, 441, 605, 607. 



428 PROTESTANTISM AND CHRISTIANITY 



Protestantism, Defined. — Protestantism is a principle which has 
its origin outside human society: it is a divine graft on the intellectual 
and moral nature of man, whereby new vitalities and forces are intro- 
duced into it, and the human stem yields henceforth a nobler fruit. It 
is the descent of a heaven-born influence which allies itself with all the 
instincts and powers of the individual, with all the laws and cravings 
of society, and which, quickening both the individual and the social 
being into a new life, and directing their efforts to nobler objects, per- 
mits the highest development of which humanity is capable, and the 
fullest possible accomplishment of all its grand ends. In a word, 
Protestantism is revived Christianity. — " The History of Protestant- 
ism," Rev. J. A. Wylie, LL. D., Vol. I, p. 2. London: Cassell and Company. 

Protestantism, A Return to Primitive Christianity. — Protestant- 
ism in its primary principle is the return to primitive Christianity. 
The whole development which we have traced, culminating in the eccle- 
siastical-doctrinal system of the Roman Church, is regarded as a cor- 
ruption, since foreign and even heathen elements have been brought in, 
so that the religion established by Christ is obscured or lost. For Prot- 
estants the Bible only now becomes the infallible, inspired authority in 
faith and morals. Interpretations by the Fathers or by the councils are 
to be taken only as aids to its understanding. With this principle is 
associated a second, the liberty of the individual; he reads the Sacred 
Scriptures and interprets them for himself without the intervention of 
priests or church; and he enters by faith in Christ into communion 
with God, so that all believers are priests. Here may be noted a fun- 
damental difference in the psychology of religion, since in the Roman 
Church the chief appeal is to the emotions, while in the Reformed it is 
to the intelligence. Yet this appeal to the intelligence is not rational- 
ism: the latter makes reason the supreme authority, rejecting all which 
does not conform to it; the Bible is treated like any other book, to be 
accepted or rejected in part or in whole as it agrees with our canons of 
logic and our general science, while religion submits to the same proc- 
ess as do other departments of knowledge. But in Protestantism rea- 
son and the light of nature are in themselves as impotent as in the 
Roman Church. The Bible interpreted by man's unaided intelligence is 
as valueless as other writings, but it has a sacramental value when 
the Holy Spirit accompanies its teaching, and the power of God uses 
it and makes the soul capable of holiness. — The Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica, Vol. VI, art. " Christianity," p. 287, 11th edition. 

Protestantism, Beliefs of. — It is important that we should know 
why we call ourselves Protestants. It is because we believe in the 
great principles of the Reformation. 

1. We believe that we are justified by faith in Christ alone, and 
not by any works of ours. Good works are the fruits of faith and the 
proof of its sincerity. 

2. We believe in the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures — that we 
need not go beyond them to learn how we should live and what doc- 
trines we should hold. 

3. We believe in the priesthood of all believers — that sinful men 
can approach God directly without any mediation save that of Jesus 
Christ. 

4. We believe in an open Bible so that all men may learn for them- 
selves what is the will of God for their salvation. 

5. We believe that all should be encouraged to search Scripture at 
first hand and not be afraid of differing from " infallible " interpreters. 



PROTESTANTISM, CENTER OF 429 

6. We believe in full liberty of conscience, and in the responsibility 
of each man to God for his faith and conduct. — Rev. J. M. Kyle, D. D., 
in Protestant Magazine, August, 1915. 

Protestantism, Three Fundamental Doctrines of. — The Protes- 
tant goes directly to the Word of God for instruction, and to the throne 
of grace in his devotions; while the pious Roman Catholic consults the 
teaching of his church, and prefers to offer his prayers through the 
medium of the Virgin Mary and the saints. 

From this general principle of evangelical freedom, and direct in- 
dividual relationship of the believer to Christ, proceed the three fun- 
damental doctrines of Protestantism — the absolute supremacy of (1) 
the Word, and of (2) the grace of Christ, and (3) the general priest- 
hood of believers. The first is called the formal, or, better, the objective 
principle; the second, the material, or, better, the subjective principle; 
the third may be called the social, or ecclesiastical principle. German 
writers emphasize the first two, but often overlook the third, which is 
of equal importance. — The New B chaff -Her zog Encyclopedia of Reli- 
gious Knowledge, Vol. IX, art. "Reformation," p. 419. 

Protestantism, The Center of. — The center of Protestantism is 
not a principle, not a power, not a doctrine, but a Person. In its inner- 
most essence Protestantism is witness for Christ. Let this never be 
forgotten, let it be taken close to our hearts and held there forever. 
We are witnesses for Christ, for the power of Christ, for the love of 
Christ, for the sole claim of Christ upon our obedience, our allegiance, 
and our love. No one — no thing — shall stand between us and him 

— no person, however venerated; no system, however splendid; no 
organization, however ancient or imposing. Especially we are witnesses 
for the finished work of Christ as our only Saviour. We know that 
what is usually considered the cardinal doctrine of Protestantism is 
the doctrine of justification by faith. It was of this Luther became the 
champion, and It was this he called " the article of a standing or a 
falling church." But what does it mean? We are saved by faith indeed, 
but faith in itself has no power to save. It is only a link uniting us 
to Him who saves. Justification by faith means justification by Christ 

— by trusting him, following him, having him. Faith in itself is noth- 
ing — Christ is all. That is what Protestantism means — Christ is all. 
As one of our martyrs said in the fire, crying it out again and again 
in his dying agonies: "None but Christ! None but Christ! " That is 
the center word of Protestantism — " None but Christ." As long as we 
hold to that, we live, we grow, we triumph. Once let that go, and all 
goes. — " The Romance of Protestantism," D. Alcock, pp. 10-12. New 
YorTc: Eaton and Mains, 1908. 

Protestantism, Test of Doctrines of. — Protestantism, as we have 
seen, was a resolve to let no church and no ceremony and no official 
stand between the sinner and his Saviour. This central doctrine of 
Protestantism, justification by faith alone, forbids any rite and any ex- 
perience to come between us and Christ. Baptism, when used as a 
rite with independent power located mysteriously in " holy water," by 
which regeneration and justification are supposed to be produced, is a 
rival of Christ and not a help toward him. And infused or inherent 
righteousness, when regarded as the sandy foundation of justification 
before God, only leads us away from the rock of his righteousness on 
which justification should be built. We object to " baptismal justifica- 
tion," and we object to " justification through inherent righteousness," 
on the same clear ground that they lead us away from Christ instead 
of leading us to him. Whatever interposes itself between us and him, 



430 PROTESTANTISM, TEACHINGS OF 

so as to detract from his unique relation to us as Saviour and Lord, 
must be rejected. We need no other test than this regarding any doc- 
trine. Does it detract from the Saviour's rightful honor as Saviour of 
the world? If it does, it is to be in the name of Protestantism rejected, 
no matter what names can be quoted in its favor or what temporary 
purpose it may be supposed to serve. — " The Genius of Protestantism'' 
Rev. R. M'Cheyne Edgar, M. A., D. D., p. 162. Edinburgh: Oliphant, 
Anderson, and Ferrier, 1900. 

Protestantism, First Foundation Stone of. — The righteousness of 
Christ instead of man's righteousness is the first foundation stone upon 
which Protestantism was built. — "Modernism and the Reformation,'" 
John Benjamin Rust, Ph. D., D. D., p. 71. New York: Fleming H. Re- 
vell Company. 

Protestantism, A Difference. — Calvin presupposes that in God 
alone certainty of salvation is to be found, and that the deepest differ- 
ence between Catholicism and Protestantism lies in the fact that the 
former makes the certainty of salvation depend upon the priestly me- 
diation of the church, and the latter builds it upon the immediate 
fellowship of God. — Id., p. 72. 

Protestantism, What It Stood for. — Protestantism was actuated 
by zeal for the glory of God, the mediatorial work of Jesus Christ, 
and the divine authority of the Bible. The Protestants insisted upon 
the supreme authority of Scripture, and its sufficiency, over against the 
traditional interpretations which seemed to them to make void the 
Word of God, and to substitute human fallible authority for divine 
infallible authority. They urged the sovereign right of God to forgive 
sin, and were zealous against any kind of barter or purchase in eccle- 
siastical works. They knew that salvation was by divine grace alone, 
and they would not allow any place in it for human merit, or an opus 
operatum in the sacraments. Jesus Christ, to them, was their mediator, 
sacrifice, and priest, and they would not recognize any other sacrifice, 
any other mediators, or any other priests that in any way depreciated 
their Saviour's mediatorial work. They worshiped God alone, and it 
was to them simply idolatry to worship, even in a secondary sense, 
Virgin and saints, relics, images, and pictures. They had such an ex- 
alted conception of the two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
that they were unwilling to classify with them any, even the most 
sacred, Christian institutions. They were so filled with the gospel of 
Jesus Christ that the preaching of that gospel seemed to them such a 
great function of the Christian ministry that everything else fell into 
its shadow. — Prof. Charles Augustus Briggs, D. D., Litt. D., Union 
Theological Seminary (New York), in the Homiletic Review, March, 1912. 

Protestantism, The Final Court of Appeal for. — We firmly be- 
lieve, on what we consider very rational grounds, that the Bible is the 
final court of appeal in matters of faith and practice. The Bible self- 
interpreting and self-correcting — the Bible in its self-harmonized whole 
— the Bible studied, obeyed, illumined by the Holy Spirit, by whom it 
exists — the Bible, the tested, the proved, the ever new, the inexhaust- 
ible. — The Bible Record, March, 1911. 

Protestantism, Triumphs of. — Within fifty years from the day on 
which Luther publicly denounced communion with the Papacy, and 
burned the bull of Leo before the gates of Wittenberg, Protestantism 
attained its highest ascendancy, an ascendancy which it soon lost, and 
which it has never regained. Hundreds, who could well remember 



PROTESTANTISM, FOUNDATION STONE OF 431 

Brother Martin, a devout Catholic, lived to see the revolution, of which 
he was the chief author, victorious in half the states in Europe. In 
England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Livonia, Prussia, Saxony, Hesse, 
Wurtemburg, the Palatinate, in several cantons of Switzerland, in the 
northern Netherlands, the Reformation had completely triumphed; and 
in all the other countries on this side of the Alps and the Pyrenees, 
it seemed on the point of triumphing. — Lord Macaulay, in his Essay 
on Ranke's "History of the Popes of Rome;" "Miscellaneous Essays and 
Poems,'" Thomas Babington Macaulay, Vol. II, pp. 475, 476. Chicago: 
Donohue, Henneberry & Go. 

Protestantism, Losses of. — The history of the two succeeding 
generations [after the Reformation] is the history of the struggle be- 
tween Protestantism possessed of the North of Europe, and Catholi- 
cism possessed of the South, for the doubtful territory which lay be- 
tween. All the weapons of carnal and of spiritual warfare were em- 
ployed. Both sides may boast of great talents and of great virtues. 
Both have to blush for many follies and crimes. At first the chances 
seemed to be decidedly in favor of Protestantism; but the victory re- 
mained with the Church of Rome. On every point she was successful. 
If we overleap another half century, we find her victorious and domi- 
nant in France, Belgium, Bavaria, Bohemia, Austria, Poland, and Hun- 
gary. Nor has Protestantism, in the course of two hundred years, been 
able to reconquer any portion of what was then lost. — Id., pp. 483, 484. 

Protestantism, Meaning of. — The secret of the strength of Prot- 
estantism lies in its name. Luther, Calvin, the Reformers everywhere, 
protested against the imposition upon them, in the name of religion, of 
things which were not true. They protested against papal indulgences, 
pretensions of priests to pardon sin, lying miracles, conscious false- 
hoods, and childish superstitions. Against these they fought, and died 
as martyrs, as the early Christians died for refusing to acknowledge 
the divinity of the emperor. They were required to say that they 
believed what they knew they did not believe, and they gave their lives 
rather than lie against their own souls. — " Lectures on the Council of 
Trent," James Anthony Froude, p. 206. London: Longmans, Green & 
Co., 1896. 

Protestantism, Foundation Stone of. — His [Martin Luther's] fa- 
vorite book even now, however, was the Bible, an entire copy of which 
he found in the library of the convent also: it was the treasure from 
which he nevermore parted; it, the sacred thing into whose spirit he 
sought to press further and further; it, that higher wisdom, the mean- 
ing and consistent tenor of which he strove to realize more and more 
fully in his life. And thus it became also the foundation stone of 
Protestantism! — "History of the Reformation," Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, 
Vol. I, p. 84. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1878. 

Protestantism, Not a Schism. — Those who know the story of the 
strivings and yearnings of the centuries which preceded the Reforma- 
tion know well that the Reformed Church is the church reformed, and 
that it is not to be viewed as if it were either a new communion or a 
mere secession from the Catholic Church. There never was a time, 
even when the mystery of iniquity was most potent, when there were 
not purity and piety and faith, or when there were not protests and 
attempts at reform. In the best sense Protestantism is not a breaking 



432 PTOLEMY'S "ALMAGEST" 



away from the undivided Church of the West, but is the evangelicalism 
of that church — that in virtue of which it survived and was a church, 
purified, strengthened, and, above all, made explicit. — " The Arrested 
Reformation," Rev. William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 48, 49. Lon- 
don: Morgan and Scott, 1912. 

Protestantism.— Pages 319, 321, 413, 528. 

Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. — Page 367. 

Ptolemy's " Almagest." — The same divine care which raised up 
Herodotus and other Greek historians to carry on the records of the 
oast from the point to which they had been brought by the writings of 
the prophets at the close of the Babylonish captivity; the Providence 
which raised up Josephus, the Jewish historian, at the termination of 
New Testament history, to record the fulfilment of prophecy in the 
destruction of Jerusalem, — raised up also Ptolemy in the important 
interval which extended from Titus to Hadrian, that of the completion 
of Jewish desolation, to record the chronology of the nine previous cen- 
turies, and to associate it in such a way with the revolutions of the 
solar system as to permit of the most searching demonstration of its 
truth. 

Ptolemy's great work, the " Almagest," is a treatise on astronomy, 
setting forth the researches of ancient observers and mathematicians 
with reference to the position of the stars, the exact length of the 
year, and the elements of the orbits of the sun, moon, and planets. This 
work was written in Greek, and subsequently translated into Arabic, 
Persian, Hebrew, and Latin, etc.; it became the textbook of astronomic 
knowledge both in the East and in Europe, and retained that high posi- 
tion for about fourteen centuries, or till the time of Copernicus, the 
birth of modern astronomy, three centuries ago. 

The ^chronological value of the " Almagest " is owing to the fact 
that it interweaves a series of ancient dates with a series of celestial 
positions. It contains a complete catalogue of the succession of Baby- 
lonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman monarchs, from Nabonassar to 
Hadrian and Antoninus, together with the dates of their accession and 
the duration of their reigns. Its astronomic events are referred to 
definite historic dates, and by this connection there is conferred on the 
latter the character of scientific certainty. — " Light for the Last Days" 
Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness, Appendix A, pp. 395, 396. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Ptolemy's Canon. — Connected with the era of Nabonassar is the 
so-called Astronomical or Regal Canon, which was used by the ancient 
astronomers for the purpose of recording the dates of astronomical phe- 
nomena. The canon consists of the names of the several kings of the 
Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman Empires, with the length 
of reign in complete years. It is proved beyond all doubt that the prin- 
ciple on which the length of reign of the Roman emperors is assigned, 
is the following: The epoch of each reign is the 1st Thoth immediately 
preceding the proclamation, even if the date of the proclamation lies 
toward the end of the year. Eckhel says: Hwc Doctrina adeo^ vera est, 
adeo solidis argumentis et exemplis stabilita, ut jam a nemine in du- 
bium vocetur [This teaching is true, being established by convincing 
arguments and examples, so that it is now called in question by no one]. 
This being the Egyptian usage in respect of the Roman emperors, it is 
highly probable that the Egyptian reigns are dated on the same prin- 
ciple; i. e., that the years of the Ptolemies are reckoned complete from 



PTOLEMY'S CANON 433 



the 1st Thoth immediately preceding each accession. Whether the ear- 
lier reigns, Babylonian and Persian, are reckoned in the same way, may 
perhaps be questioned; certain it is, however, that the years are counted 
complete at 365 days each, and that each reign begins 1 Thoth. Of 
course, therefore, the date cannot, in every instance, be that of the 
accession, but is probably the 1st Thoth of the year in which the acces- 
sion took place. — " Chronology of the Holy Scriptures" Henry Browne, 
M. A., p. 484. London: John W. Parker, 1844. 

Ptolemy's Canon.— SmwSS 

KINGS OF THE ASSYRIANS AND MEDES Julian Time 

Each Sum B # C. 

1. Nabonassar 14 14 Feb. 26, 747 

2. Nadius 2 16 23, 733 

3. Khozirus and Porus 5 21 22, 731 

4. Jougaius . 5 26 21, 726 

5. Mardocempadus 12 38 20,721 

6. Archianus 5 43 17, 709 

7. First Interregnum 2 45 15, 704 

8. Belibus 3 48 15, 702 

9. Apronadius 6 54 14,699 

10. Regibelus 1 55 13, 693 

11. Mesesimordachus 4 59 12,692 

12. Second Interregnum ......... 8 67 11, 688 

13. Asaridinus 13 80 9,680 

14. Saosduchinus . . . : 20 100 6, 667 

15. Khuniladanus : 22 122 1, 647 

16. Nabopolassar 21 143 Jan. 27, 625 

17. Nabokolassar 43 186 21, 604 

18. Ilvarodamus 2 188 11, 561 

19. Nerikassolasar 4 192 10, 559 

20. Nabonadius ., . . 17 209 9, 555 

PERSIAN KINGS 

21. Cyrus 9 218 Jan. 5, 538 

22. Cambyses 8 226 3, 530 

23. Darius I 36 262 1, 522 

24. Xerxes 21 283 Dec. 23, 486 

25. Artaxerxes I 41 324 17,465 

26. Darius II 19 343 70 424 

27. Artaxerxes II 46 389 2, 405 

28. Ochus 21 410 Nov. 21, 359 

29. Arogus 2 412 16, 338 

30. Darius III 4 416 15, 336 

31. Alexander of Macedon 8 424 14, 332 

YEARS OF THE KINGS AFTER THE DEATH OF KING ALEXANDER 

1. Philip, after Alexancer the Founder 7 7 12, 324 

2. Alexander ^Egus 12 19 10, 317 

KINGS OF THE GREEKS IN EGYPT 

3. Ptolemy Lagus 20 39 7, 305 

4. Ptolemy Philadelphia 38 77 2, 285 

5. Ptolemy Euergetes I 25 102 Oct. 24, 247 

6. Ptolemy Philopator 17 119 18, 222 

7. Ptolemy Epiphanes 24 143 13, 205 

8. Ptolemy Philometor 35 178 7, 181 

9. Ptolemy Euergetes II 29 207 Sept. 29, 146 

28 



434 PTOLEMY'S CANON 

10. Ptolemy Soter 36 243 21, 117 

11. Ptolemy Dionysius 29 272 12, 81 

12. Cleopatra 22 294 5, 52 

KINGS OF THE EOMANS 

13. Augustus 43 337 Aug. 29, 30 

A. D. 

14. Tiberius 22 359 20, 14 

15. Caius 4 363 15, 36 

16. Claudius 14 377 14, 40 

17. Nero 14 391 10, 54 

18. Vespasian 10 401 7, 68 

19. Titus 3 404 5, 78 

20. Domitian 15 419 4, 81 

21. Nerva 1 420 July 31, 96 

22. Trajan 19 439 31, 97 

23. Adrian 21 460 26, 116 

24. Antoninus 23 483 21, 137 

— " Light for the Last Days" Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness, pp. 402. 
403. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Note. — The first column shows the years of each king's reign, the second 
the sum of the years from the beginning of the era (Feb. 26, 747 B. C.) to the 
end of each reign. The last column gives the date, according to our reckoning, 
when each reign begins. This last is no part of the canon, nor is it included in 
Dr. Guinness' book from which we quote the canon. The column of modern- 
style dates we take from " Chronology of the Holy Scriptures," by Henry Browne, 
M. A., pp. 485, 486. London : John W. Parker, 1844. — Eds. 

Ptolemy's Canon, Authority of. — From its great use as an astro- 
nomical era, confirmed by unerring characters of eclipses, this canon 
justly obtained the highest authority among historians also. It has 
most deservedly been esteemed an invaluable treasure, omni auro pretio- 
sior [more precious than all gold], as Calvisius says, and of the great- 
est use in chronology, without which, as Marsham observes, there could 
scarcely be any transition from sacred to profane history. — "A New 
Analysis of Chronology and Geography" Rev. William Hales, D. D., 
Vol. I, p. 166. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

The most valuable record of this period, independent of Scripture, 
is the Canon of Ptolemy. The length of each reign is there given, 
expressed in Egyptian years, and dated from the era of Nabonassar. 
a. c^ 747. The Egyptian year consisted of 365 days, without intercala- 
tion; and its Thoth, or commencement, will thus fall later in the Julian 
year the higher we ascend. The accession of each monarch, in the 
canon, is referred to the beginning of the year in which his reign began. 
— " The Four Prophetic Empires" Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., p. 24, 2d 
edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley. 1845 

Ptolemy's Canon, Principles on Which Constructed. — The prin- 
ciples upon which this truly scientific canon was constructed are next to 
be explained. 

Rule 1. The reigns consist of full or complete years. . . . 

Rule 2. Each king's reign begins at the Thoth, or New Year's Day, 
before his accession, and all the odd months of his last year are included 
in the first year of his successor. 

Thus, the actual accession of Alexander the Great, was at the de- 
cisive victory of Arbela, Oct. 1. b. c. 331, but his reign in the canon 
began the preceding New Year's Day of the same current Nabonassarean 
year, Nov. 14, b. c. 332, which ended soon after the battle, Nov. 14, b. c. 
331, [See Fig. 1, next page.] 



PTOLEMY'S CANON 



435 



The death of Alexander the Great was in the 114th Olympiad, ac- 
cording to Josephus, May 22, b. c. 323; but the era of his successor, 
Philip Aridseus, began in the canon the preceding New Year's Day, 
Nov. 12, b. c. 324, as confirmed by Censorinus, who reckons from thence 
294 years to the accession of Augustus, b. c. 30. But b. c. 324 — 294 = 
b. c. 30. [See Fig. 2.] 

Tiberius died March 16, a. d. 37, but the reign of his successor, 
Caius Caligula, began in the canon from the preceding New Year's Day, 
Aug. 14, a. d. 36. LSee Fig. 3.] 

From these two rules, it follows, that the last year of any reign 
belongs thereto wholly, or exclusively, and that the beginning of a reign 





i Years of J 
• Canon i 

i 4<6 i 

[_NOV. 14 {_ 




! Years of \ 

j Canon i 

i 

! 424 ; 
< In Canon i-™*L 2 -.i 

i 

i 

Actual Time! 425 | 

(OCT. 1 r_NOV.!2 J. 




j Years of j 
• Canon j 

! 783 ! 




< In Canon 
Actual Time 

( MAR. 16 


B.C. 
332 


B.C. 
324 


A.D. 
36 


r aug.h !" 

< In Canon i 
Actual Time 1 

(MAY 33 j ?S4 j 




! 417 ; 

•_NOV. 14 ] 




331 


323 


37 


[ A06.I4 "J 

! 785 ! 




! 418 ! 




i 
i 426 ! 




330 


322 


38 





Fig. 1. Alexander's 
Succession 



Fig. 2. Aridaeus's 

Succession 



Fig. 3. Caligula's 
Succession 



is sometimes dated in the canon near a full year before the actual acces- 
sion. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 170, 171. London: G. J. O. & F. Rivington, 1830. 



Years of 
Canon 

283 

_OECJ?__ 

2S4 
pec. \j_ m 
285 



B.C. 
465 



464 



463 






In Canon 



Actual Time 

c AUTUMN 




*0 anil Ho* 



B.C. 465 




464 


AUTUMN 


463 


t 1 31 YEAR 


462 


2=? • 


461 


t 3SJ - 


460 


4« - 


459 


s- • 


458 


•*" ■ 


457 


, 7- ' 


456 


, a • • etc 



Fig. 4. Artaxerxes' 
Succession 



Fig. 5. Time of Year of 
Artaxerxes' Succession 



Fig. 6. Seventh Year 
of Artaxerxes 



Note. — Inasmuch as the canon shows only that Artaxerxes began his reign 
sometime in the Nabonassarean year beginning Dec. 17, 465 b. c, and ending 
Dec. 17, 464 (see Fig. 4), the question is, At what time of the year did he come 
to the throne? Here Inspiration itself gives the answer. The record of Ezra 
and Nehemiah fully establishes the fact that Artaxerxes began his reign at the 
end of the summer, or in the autumn (Neh. 1:1; 2:1; Ezra 7 : 7-9), which shows 
that the king came to the throne at such a season that the ninth month Chisleu 
(November-December) came in order before Nisan, the first (March-April), while 
the fifth month (July-August) was also in the same year of the king (see Fig. 5). 
Thus he came to the throne somewhere between the latter part of August and the 
latter part of November. His first year, therefore, was from the very late 
summer or autumn of 464 b. c. to the autumn of 463 b. c, and his seventh year 
was from the autumn of 458 B. c. to the autumn of 457 B. C. (Fig. 6). — Eds. 



436 PTOLEMY'S CANON 



Ptolemy's Canon, Application of, in Pbophecy. — It is a deeply 
interesting fact that these four empires are similarly presented as 
successive in the celebrated astronomical Canon of Ptolemy, which 
traces the course of imperial rule from the era of Nabonassar, king of 
Babylon, to the reign of the Roman Emperor Antoninus. Between the 
historical and chronological outline given in the Canon of Ptolemy, and 
that set forth in the fourfold image of Nebuchadnezzar's vision, there 
is the most striking and complete agreement. " As the good Spirit of 
God," says Faber ["The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," Vol. II, p. 7], 
" employs the four successive empires of Babylon, Persia, Greece, and 
Rome, in the capacity of the Grand Calendar of Prophecy, so Ptolemy 
has employed the very same four empires in the construction of his 
invaluable canon; because the several lines of their sovereigns so begin 
and end, when the one line is engrafted upon the other line, as to 
form a single unbroken series from Nabonassar to Augustus Caesar. 

" In each case the principle of continuous arrangement is identical. 
Where Ptolemy makes the Persian Cyrus the immediate successor of 
the Babylonic Nabonadius, or Belshazzar, without taking into account 
the preceding kings of Persia or of Media, there, in the image, the 
silver joins itself to the gold; where Ptolemy makes the Grecian 
Alexander the immediate successor of the Persian Darius, without tak- 
ing into account the preceding kings of Macedon, there, in the image, 
the brass joins itself to the silver; and where Ptolemy makes the 
Roman Augustus the immediate successor of the Grecian Cleopatra 
without taking into account the long preceding roll of the Consular 
Fasti and the primitive Roman monarchy, there, in the image, the 
iron joins itself to the brass. In short, the Canon of Ptolemy may well 
be deemed a running comment upon the altitudinal line of the great 
metallic image." — " Creation Centred in Christ," H. Grattan Guinness, 
D. D., pp. 236, 237. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1896. 

Note. — While it is true that the Grecian royal line did not become extinct 
until the death of Cleopatra, b. c. 30, authorities are quite generally agreed that 
world dominion passed from Greece to Rome at the battle of Pydna, b. c. 168. — 
Eds. 

Ptolemy's Canon. — Page 39. 

Purgatory Defined. — It is a place in which the souls of the right- 
eous dead, subject to temporal punishment, suffer enough [or make 
satisfaction]. — " Theologia," Dens (R. C), Tom. VII, Tractatus de Qua- 
tuor Novissimis, N. 25, " Be Purgatorio " (Dens' Theology, Vol. VII, 
Treatise on The Four Last Things, No. 25, " On Purgatory "). 

Purgatory, Decree Concerning. — Whereas the Catholic Church, 
instructed by the Holy Ghost, has, from the Sacred Writings and the 
ancient tradition of the Fathers, taught in sacred councils, and very 
recently in this ecumenical synod, that there is a purgatory, and that 
the souls there detained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful, but 
principally by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar; the holy synod en- 
joins on bishops that they diligently endeavor that the sound doctrine 
concerning purgatory, transmitted by the holy Fathers and sacred coun- 
cils, be believed, maintained, taught, and everywhere proclaimed by the 
faithful of Christ. — Decree Concerning Purgatory, published in the 
Twenty-Fifth Session of the Council of Trent; " Dogmatic Canons and 
Decrees," p. 165. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Purgatory, Pretended Scripture Proof for. — Holy Scripture does 
not mention the word " purgatory," but the idea is conveyed of a place 
of expiation after death. This is neither heaven nor hell. From the 



PURGATORY FROM PAGANISM 437 



Old Testament we infer the existence of purgatory, as a belief of the 
Jews, from the passage telling the action of Judas Maccabeus regarding 
the dead. He made a collection and sent to Jerusalem 2,000 drachms 
of silver, that sacrifice might be offered for the sins of those who had 
died. 2 Mac. 12: 43-45. 

In the New Testament, reference is generally made to the words of 
our divine Lord in Matt. 12: 32: "He that shall speak against the Holy 
Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the 
world to come." St. Augustine and St. Gregory, among many others, 
have gathered from these words that some sins may be remitted in the 
world to come, and that, consequently, there is a purgatory. 

The passage of St. Paul, 1 Cor. 3: 11-15, is taken in its concluding 
words, " But he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire," to refer to 
the cleansing fire of purgatory. — The Catholic Citizen, May 1, 1915. 

Purgatory, Its Place. — The ordinary place of purgatory, which 
is appropriately and generally understood by the name purgatory, is 
under the earth, near to hell. — " Theologia," Dens (R. C.J, Tom. VII, 
Tractatus de Quatuor Novissimis, N. 27, " Be Loco Purgatorii " (Dens' 
Theology, Vol. VII, Treatise on The Four Last Things, No. 27, " On the 
Place of Purgatory "). 

Purgatory Adopted from Paganism. — Go wherever we may, in an- 
cient or modern times, we shall find that paganism leaves hope after 
death for sinners who, at the time of their departure, were consciously 
unfit for the abodes of the blest. For this purpose a middle state has 
been feigned, in which, by means of purgatorial pains, guilt unremoved 
in time may in a future world be purged away, and the soul be made 
meet for final beatitude. In Greece the doctrine of a purgatory was 
inculcated by the very chief of the philosophers. Thus Plato, speaking 
of the future judgment of the dead, holds out the hope of final deliver- 
ance for all, but maintains that, of " those who are judged," " some " 
must first " proceed to a subterranean place of judgment, where they 
shall sustain the punishment they have deserved; " while others, in 
consequence of a favorable judgment, being elevated at once into a 
certain celestial place, " shall pass their time in a manner becoming the 
life they have lived in a human shape." In pagan Rome, purgatory was 
equally held up before the minds of men; but there, there seems to have 
been no hope held out to any of exemption from its pains, [p. 167] . . . 

In Egypt, substantially the same doctrine of purgatory was incul- 
cated. But when once this doctrine of purgatory was admitted into the 
popular mind, then the door was opened for all manner of priestly ex- 
tortions. Prayers for the dead ever go hand in hand with purgatory; 
but no prayers can be completely efficacious without the interposition 
of the priests; and no priestly functions can be rendered unless there 
be special pay for them. Therefore, in every land we find the pagan 
priesthood " devouring widows' houses," and making merchandise of 
the tender feelings of sorrowing relatives, sensitively alive to the im- 
mortal happiness of the beloved dead. — " The Two Babylons" Rev. 
Alexander Hislop, pp. 167, 168, 7th edition. London: 8. W. Partridge 
& Co. 

Pythagorean Doctrine. — Page 200. 

Quakers. — Page 146. 

Reformation, The, Its Importance. — The Reformation of the six- 
teenth century is, next to the introduction of Christianity, the greatest 
event in history. It was no sudden revolution; for what has no roots 



438 REFORMATION, PREPARATION FOR 

in the past can have no permanent effect upon the future. It was pre- 
pared by the deeper tendencies and aspirations of previous centuries, 
and, when finally matured, it burst forth almost simultaneously in all 
parts of Western Christendom. It was not a superficial amendment, 
not a mere restoration, but a regeneration; not a return to the Augus- 
tinian, or Nicene, or ante-Nicene age, but a vast progress beyond any 
previous age or condition of the church since the death of St. John. It 
went, through the intervening ages of ecclesiasticism, back to the foun- 
tain-head of Christianity itself, as it came from the lips of the Son of 
God and his inspired apostles. ... It brought out from this fountain 
a new phase and type of Christianity, which had never as yet been fully 
understood and appreciated in the church at large. It was, in fact, a 
new proclamation of the free gospel of St. Paul, as laid down in the 
epistles to the Romans and Galatians. It was a grand act of emanci- 
pation from the bondage of the medieval hierarchy, and an assertion of 
that freedom wherewith Christ has made us free. It inaugurated the 
era of manhood and the general priesthood of believers. It taught the 
direct communion of the believing soul with Christ. It removed the 
obstructions of legalism, sacerdotalism, and ceremonialism, which, like 
the traditions of the Pharisees of old, had obscured the genuine gospel 
and made void the Word of God. — "A History of the Creeds of Christen- 
dom," Philip Schaff, D. D., pp. 204, 205. New York: Harper & Brothers. 
1877. 

Reformation, The, Preparation for. — It [the Reformation] was 
not an abrupt revolution, but had its roots in the Middle Ages. There 
were many " reformers before the Reformation," and almost every doc- 
trine of Luther and Calvin had its advocates long before them. The 
whole struggling of medieval Catholicism toward reform and liberty; the 
long conflict between the German emperors and the popes; the reform- 
atory councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel; the Waldenses and Albi- 
genses in France and northern Italy; Wycliffe and the Lollards in Eng- 
land; Hus and the Hussites in Bohemia; Arnold of Brescia, and Savona- 
rola, in Italy; the spiritualistic piety and theology of the mystics of the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; the theological writings of Wesel, 
Goch, and Wessel, in Germany and the Netherlands; the rise of the na- 
tional languages and letters in connection with the feeling of national 
independence; the invention of the printing press; the revival of let- 
ters and classical learning under the direction of Agricola, Reuchlin, 
and Erasmus, — all these, and similar movements, were preparations for 
the Reformation. The evangelical churches claim a share in the inherit- 
ance of all preceding history, and own their indebtedness to the mis- 
sionaries, schoolmen, Fathers, confessors, and martyrs of former ages, 
but acknowledge no higher authority than Christ and his inspired or- 
gans. — Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. Ill, 
art. "Reformation," subtitle, "Preparation for the Reformation," p. 

f, 3d edition, 1891. 



Reformation, The, God's Instruments in Its Accomplishment. — 
God who prepares his work through ages, accomplishes it by the weak- 
est instruments, when his time is come. — " History of the Reformation," 
J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 2, chap. 1, par. 1. 

Reformation, The, Its Beginnings in the Struggles of a Humble 
Spirit. — The Reformation, commenced by the struggles of a humble 
spirit in the cell of a cloister at Erfurt, had continually increased. . . . 
A final struggle remained to be undergone. The Word was destined to 
triumph over the emperor of the West, over the kings and princes of 



REFORMATION, LUTHER 439 

the earth; and then, victorious over all the powers of the world, to 
uprise in the church, and reign as the very Word of God. — " History of 
the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 7, chap. 1, par. 1. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Early Work. — Martin Luther, the son 
of a German peasant, was horn in 1483. In his twenty-second year he 
left the study of law and entered the Augustinian convent at Erfurt. 
His legal studies had prepared him to sympathize with the German 
Church and the German Empire against the aggressions of Rome; but 
now for some years these external questions were forgotten, in a pro- 
found and passionate desire to solve, chiefly in the study of the Holy 
Scriptures, the question how the individual man may be just with God. 
He visited Rome in 1511, and on his return to the University of Witten- 
berg, in which he had for some years been professor of philosophy, he 
became doctor of Biblical theology, and his preaching of justification of 
a sinner by faith became a most powerful influence through the whole 
of Saxony. The inevitable collision between this and the church sys- 
tem came when Tetzel, a Dominican monk, was authorized by Pope 
Leo X to go through Germany selling pardons or indulgences in the form 
of stamped tickets, at the rate of a few ducats for the graver sins. — 
" Church and State," A. Taylor Innes, pp. Ill, 112. Edinburgh: T. & T. 
Clark. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Experience on Pilate's Staircase. — 
One day, among others, wishing to obtain an indulgence promised by the 
Pope to all who should ascend on their knees what is called Pilate's 
staircase, the poor Saxon monk [Luther] was humbly creeping up those 
steps, which he was told had been miraculously transported from Jeru- 
salem to Rome. But while he was performing this meritorious act, he 
thought he heard a voice of thunder crying from the bottom of his heart, 
as at Wittenberg and Bologna, " The just shall live by faith." These 
words, that twice before had struck him like the voice of an angel from 
God, resounded unceasingly and powerfully within him. He rises in 
amazement from the steps up which he was dragging his body; he shud- 
ders at himself; he is ashamed of seeing to what a depth superstition 
had plunged him. He flies far from the scene of his folly. — " History 
of the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 2, chap. 6, 
par. 19. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Saying Concerning Rome. — Luther 
subsequently regarded his visit to Rome as a good providence of God; for 
he said to his friends that he would not have missed this journey for a 
thousand florins. On the other hand, however, he likewise recognized 
the danger of a lengthy stay in that city, on which account he was, in 
after years, accustomed to say, " He who goes to Rome for the first time, 
seeks a knave; the second time, he finds him; the third time, he brings 
him back with him." — " History of the Reformation," Dr. K. R. Hagen- 
bach, Vol. I, p. 89. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1878. 

Reformation, The, Eck's Appeal to Prejudice Against Luther. — 
Eck: " I am surprised at the humility and modesty with which the rev- 
erend doctor [Luther] undertakes to oppose, alone, so many illustrious 
Fathers, and pretends to know more than the sovereign pontiffs, the 
councils, the doctors, and the universities! ... It would be surprising, 
no doubt, if God had hidden the truth from so many saints and martvrs 
— until the advent of the reverend father! " — " History of the Reforma- 
tion," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 5, chap. 5, par. 24. 



440 REFORMATION, LUTHER 

Reformation, The, Luther's Reply to Spalatin. — But Luther, un- _ 
dismayed, turned his eyes on the messenger, and replied: "Go and tell 
your master [Spalatin, chaplain to the Elector Frederick], that even 
should there be as many devils in Worms as tiles on the housetops, 
still I would enter it." — " History of the Reformation," J. H. Merle 
D'Aubigne, D. D., book 7, chap. 7, last par. 

Reformation, The, "Here I stand; I can do no other." — " Since 
your most serene majesty and your high mightinesses require from me a 
clear, simple, and precise answer, I will give you one, and it is this: I 
cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the councils, because 
it is clear as the day that they have frequently erred and contradicted 
each other. Unless therefore I am convinced by the testimony of Scrip- 
ture, or by the clearest reasoning, — unless I am persuaded by means of 
the passages I have quoted, — and unless they thus render my conscience 
bound by the Word of God, I cannot and I will not retract, for it is 
unsafe for a Christian to speak against his conscience." And then, 
looking round on this assembly before which he stood, and which held 
his life in its hands, he said: "Here I stand, I can do no other; may 
God help me! Amen!" — Id., book 7, chap. 8, par. 54. 

Reformation, The, Luther's Protest Repeated by the Princes. — 
At Worms, Luther stood alone; at Spires, the one man has grown into 
a host. The " No " so courageously uttered by the monk in 1521 is now 
in 1529 taken up and repeated by princes, cities, and nations. Its echoes 
travel onward, till at last their murmurs are heard in the palaces of 
Barcelona and the basilicas of Rome. Eight years ago the Reformation 
was simply a doctrine, now it is an organization, a church. This little 
seed, which on its first germination appeared the smallest of all seeds, 
and which popes, doctors, and princes beheld with contempt, is a tree, 
whose boughs, stretched wide in air, cover nations with their shadow. . . . 

In that document [their Protest drawn up in legal form] they 
recite all that had passed at the Diet, and they protest against its 
decree, for themselves, their subjects, and all who receive or shall here- 
after receive the gospel, and appeal to the emperor, and to a free and 
general council of Christendom. On the morning after their appeal, 
the 26th, the princes left Spires. This sudden departure was significant. 
It proclaimed to all men the firmness of their resolve. Ferdinand 
had spoken his last word and was gone. They, too, had spoken theirs, 
and were gone also. Rome hoists her flag; over against hers the 
Protestants display theirs; henceforward there are two camps in Chris- 
tendom. 

Even Luther did not perceive the importance of what had been done. 
The Diet he thought had ended in nothing. It often happens that the 
greatest events wear the guise of insignificance, and that grand eras 
are ushered in with silence. Than the principle put forth in the 
Protest of the 19th April, 1529, it is impossible to imagine one that 
could more completely shield all rights, and afford a wider scope for 
development. Its legitimate fruit must necessarily be liberty, civil and 
religious. What was that principle? This Protest overthrew the lord- 
ship of man in religious affairs, and substituted the authority of God. 
But it did this in so simple and natural a way, and with such an avoid- 
ance of all high-sounding phraseology, that men could not see the gran- 
deur of what was done, nor the potency of the principle. The protest- 
ers assumed the Bible to be the Word of God, and that every man ought 
to be left at liberty to obey it. This modest affirmation falls on our ear 
as an almost insipidity. Compared with some modern charters of rights, 
and recent declarations of independence, how poor does it look! Yet let 
us see how much is in it. " The Word," say the protesters, " is the 



REFORMATION, PROTEST OF THE PRINCES 441 

only truth; it is the sure rule of all doctrine and of all life; " and " each 
text of the Holy Scriptures ought to be explained by other and clearer 
texts." Then what becomes of the pretended infallibility of Rome, in 
virtue of which she claims the exclusive right of interpreting the Scrip- 
tures, and binding down the understanding of man to believe whatever 
she teaches? It is utterly exploded and overthrown. And what be- 
comes of the emperor's right to compel men with his sword to practise 
whatever faith the church enjoins, assuming it to be the true faith 
simply because the church has enjoined it? It too is exploded and 
overthrown. The principle, then, so quietly lodged in the Protest, lays 
this twofold tyranny in the dust. The chair of the Pontiff and the sword 
of the emperor pass away, and conscience comes in their room. But 
the Protest does not leave conscience her own mistress; conscience is 
not a law to herself. That were anarchy — rebellion against Him who 
is her Lord. The Protest proclaims that the Bible is the law of con- 
science, and that its Author is her alone Lord. Thus steering its course 
between the two opposite dangers, avoiding on this hand anarchy, and 
on that tyranny, Protestantism comes forth unfurling to the eyes of the 
nations the flag of true liberty. Around that flag must all gather who 
would be free. — " The History of Protestantism" Rev. J. A. Wylie, 
Vol. I, pp. 551-553. London: Cassell & Go. 

Reformation, The, Protest of the Princes. — Thus, in presence of 
the diet, spoke out those courageous men whom Christendom will hence- 
forward denominate The Protestants. . . . 

The principles contained in this celebrated protest of the 19th April, 
1529, constitute the very essence of Protestantism. Now this protest 
opposes two abuses of man in matters of faith: the first is the intrusion 
of the civil magistrate, and the second the arbitrary authority of the 
church. Instead of these abuses, Protestantism sets the power of con- 
science above the magistrate; and the authority of the Word of God 
above the visible church. In the first place, it rejects the civil power 
in divine things, and says with the prophets and apostles: "We must 
obey God rather than man." In presence of the crown of Charles the 
Fifth, it uplifts the crown of Jesus Christ. But it goes farther: it lays 
down the principle that all human teaching should be subordinate to 
the oracles of God. Even the primitive church, by recognizing the writ- 
ings of the apostles, had performed an act of submission to this supreme 
authority, and not an act of authority, as Rome maintains; and the 
establishment of a tribunal charged with the interpretation of the Bible, 
had terminated only in slavishly subjecting man to man in what should 
be most unfettered — conscience and faith. In this celebrated act of 
Spires, no doctor appears, and the Word of God reigns alone. Never 
has man exalted himself like the Pope; never have men kept in the 
background like the Reformers. — " History of the Reformation" J. H. 
Merle D'Aubigne, D. D., book 13, chap. 6, pars. 16-19. 

Reformation, The, The Sixty-seven Articles of Zurich. — The 
Sixty-seven Articles of Zurich were prepared for, and maintained at, the 
great public disputation held in that city in 1523, which virtually decided 
the repudiation of Rome. They thus correspond to Luther's theses of six 
years before. Though not enforced as a standard, they were an epoch- 
making theological manifesto, and exercised a certain local normative 
function. . . . The Reformation produced no more impressive or thought- 
provoking document. Their scope, purport, and form may best be gath- 
ered from a few examples in their own words: 

" 1. All who say that the gospel is nothing without the approval of 
the church, err and cast reproach upon God. 



442 REFORMATION, STRENGTH OF 

" 2. The sum of, the gospel is that our Lord Jesus Christ, the true 
Son of God, has made known to us the will of his heavenly Father, and 
redeemed us hy his innocence from eternal death and reconciled us to 
God. 

" 3. Therefore Christ is the only way to salvation for all who were, 
who are, and who shall be. 

" 7, 8. Christ is the head of all believers. All who live in this Head 
are his members, and children of God. And this is the true catholic 
church, the communion of saints. 

" 17. Christ is the one eternal high priest. Therefore those who 
give themselves out as high priests are opposed, to the glory and power 
of Christ and reject Christ. 

" 18. Christ, who offered himself once on the cross, is the sufficient 
and perpetual sacrifice for the sins of all believers. Therefore the mass 
is no sacrifice, but a commemoration of the one sacrifice of the cross 
and a seal of the redemption through Christ. 

" 22. Christ is our righteousness. Hence it follows that our works 
are good so far as they are Christ's, but not good so far as they are 
our own. . . . 

" 27. All Christians are brethren of Christ, and brethren one with 
another; therefore they ought not to call any one 'father' upon earth. 
This does away with orders, sects, factions, etc. 

" 34. The so-called spiritual power has no ground for its display in 
the teaching of Christ, 

" 49. Greater scandal I know not than that priests should be for- 
bidden lawful wedlock, but allowed for money to have concubines. 
Shame on it! 

" 50. God alone forgives sins, and that through Christ Jesus, our 
Lord, alone. 

" 52. Confession therefore to priest or neighbor ought not to be for 
remission of sins, but for consultation. 

" 57. Holy Scripture knows of no purgatory after this life. 

" 58. The judgment of the deceased is known to God alone. 

" 59. The less that God reveals to us concerning these matters, the 
less ought they to be searched into by us. 

" 60. If any one in anxiety for the dead beseeches or prays for 
favor to them from God, I do not condemn him; but to appoint a time 
concerning it, — a seven-year for a mortal sin, — and to lie for profit, is 
not human but devilish. 

" 62. Scripture knows no other presbyters or priests than those who 
proclaim God's word." — "A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith," 
William A. Curtis, B. D., D. Litt., pp. 195, 196. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Reformation, The, Real Strength of. — The real strength of the 
Reformation movement did not lie in statesmen or even Reformers, but 
in the loyal, earnest men and women in all the nations, who in their 
sense of sin and their yearning for reconciliation to God had gone di- 
rectly to him, as the Reformers did, and had found pardon and peace 
in his free saving grace. At its best it was a great revival of heart 
religion, the greatest since apostolic days; and wherever that side of it 
predominated, it not only overcame all opposition, but spread in spite 
of the most cunning and cruel devices of the foe. — " The Arrested Ref- 
ormation," Rev. William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 7, 8. London: 
Morgan and Scott, 1912. 

Reformation, The, A Return to the Living God. — But it was not 
restored learning, it was not rekindled genius, it was not reinvigorated 



REFORMATION AND THE ATONEMENT 443 

reason, it was not the newborn power of the press, it was not its own 
accumulated vices and consummated corruptions before which the Pa- 
pacy went down over half Christendom, which constituted the great 
assailing force which dealt the crushing and confounding stroke. These 
all came up at the right time, and did good service as auxiliaries in 
the great battle. The onslaught was more mightily made; the stroke 
was more divinely dealt. The victorious and irresistible assailant was 
a soul deeply stirred and divinely inspired, possessed by an intense 
yearning and filled with a quickening truth, eager to be rid of the 
crushing burden of sin, and finding only full deliverance in the free 
grace of God. 

The Reformation has been spoken of not altogether wrongly as the 
insurrection of reason against authority, as the assertion of the right 
of private judgment in matters of religion, as the general emancipation 
of the intellect: the Reformation was all this, and something likewise 
far diviner. It was the re-enthronement of God's truth; it was the 
reproduction of a vital principle of Christianity long hidden and buried 
under a heap of false dogmas and idle observances; it was the resto- 
ration of the soul to its right place in things spiritual, the renewal of 
direct communication between the spirit of man and the Spirit of God. 
The Reformation brought with it the negation of much, but it began 
with the most positive, profound, and glorious of all conceivable affirma- 
tions, that salvation is from the Lord, that divine life flows down into 
our hearts directly from the Divine Being. It brought low the Church of 
Rome by magnifying the Word; it deposed the Pope over the half of 
Christendom by re-enthroning faith in the living God. Luther was no 
subversive speculator, no discontented priest, but a sin-stricken soul, 
who weary of dead works had turned to living faith, and after trial of 
man's absolution had won healing from God's grace. He never sought 
directly to emancipate the intellect; he did not at first seek to over- 
throw the Papacy, but he sought to bring Christendom back into personal 
and living contact with the living God, and to pour into other souls the 
fire of that potent truth which had kindled his own. The Reformation 
was in truth a baptism of fire, a coming down of the Holy Ghost upon 
Christendom. — " The Papal Drama" Thomas H. Gill, pp. 182, 183. Lon- 
don: Longmans, Green & Co., 1866. 

Reformation, The, Doctrine of the Atonement at. — The innumera- 
ble masses of the later Middle Ages were so many confessions of the 
deep-felt need of atonement; and, formal as they ultimately became, they 
were in intention so many cries for forgiveness from the terror-struck 
consciences of sinful men and women. Luther was a true child of the 
church in his keen apprehension of the same need, and it was precisely 
because he realized it with exceptional truth and depth that he was 
forced to seek some deeper satisfaction than the offering of masses could 
afford. He reasserted the truth that the need had been met and an- 
swered once for all by the sacrifice on the cross: and by proclaiming the 
sufficiency of that one eternal offering he swept away all the " sacrifices 
of masses," while at the same time he provided the answer to the crav- 
ing to which they testified. The doctrine of the atonement, as asserted 
at the Reformation, is the true answer to that cry of the human con- 
science which the church of the preceding age had vainly endeavored 
to satisfy. The sacrament, of which the mass was a perversion, was 
thus restored to its true character as a pledge and an instrument of 
blessings bestowed by God, instead of a propitiatory offering on the 
part of men. The cross of Christ, the favorite symbol of the medieval 
church, was thus held aloft by the Reformer in still deeper reality, as 
the central symbol of the church's message, and as the one adequate 



444 REFORMATION AND PROPHECY 

ground for the faith to which he called men. — "Luther's Primary 
Works," edited oy Wace and Buchheim, pp. 434, 435. London: Hodder 
and Stoughton, 1896. 

Reformation, The, Milton on. — When I recall to mind at last, 
after so many dark ages, wherein the huge overshadowing train of error 
had almost swept all the stars out of the firmament of the church; how 
the bright and blissful Reformation (by divine power) struck through 
the black and settled night of ignorance and anti-Christian tyranny, 
methinks a sovereign and reviving joy must needs rush into the bosom 
of him that reads and hears; and the sweet odor of the returning gos- 
pel imbathe his soul with the fragrancy of heaven. Then was the sacred 
Bible sought out of the dusty corners where profane falsehood and 
neglect had thrown it, the schools opened, divine and human learning 
raked out of the embers of forgotten tongues, the princes and cities 
trooping apace to the new erected banner of salvation; the martyrs, 
with the unresistable might of weakness, shaking the powers of dark- 
ness, and scorning the fiery rage of the old red dragon. — " Prose Works 
of John Milton," pp. 4, 5, " From the Treatise of Reformation in Eng- 
land.'''' New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

Reformation, The, Lines Drawn by. — After the first shock of bat- 
tle was over, and the counter-Reformation had done its work, it was 
found that Protestantism and the Evangel had triumphed among the 
Germanic or Teutonic peoples, whereas Rome had kept the great Latin 
or Romance nations. On the one side of the line were the North Ger- 
mans and the Swiss, the Scandinavians and the English, the Scots and 
the Dutch. On the other were the Austrians and the Italians, the Span- 
ish and the French. And as it was then, so it is now. From the first 
the victory of the Reformation was swift and decisive among the peoples 
of Northern Europe, and they have never gone back on the choice which 
they made in the sixteenth century. — " The Arrested Reformation," Rev. 
William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., pp. 3, 4. London: Morgan and Scott, 
1912. 

Reformation, The, Relation of Prophecy to. — I do not say that 
the teachings of Scripture prophecy form the sole foundation of the 
Reformation. The doctrinal and practical truths of Scripture guided 
the action of the Reformers as well as the prophetic. They opposed the 
Church of Rome, as condemned alike by the doctrines, the precepts, and 
the prophecies of the Word of God. It might be difficult to say which 
of tne three weighed with them most. On each they were clear and 
emphatic. These three elements cannot be separated in estimating the 
springs of the Reformation. From the first, and throughout, that move- 
ment was energized and guided by the prophetic word. Luther never 
felt strong and free to war against the papal apostasy till he recog- 
nized the Pope as Antichrist. It was then he burned the papal bull. 
Knox's first sermon, the sermon which launched him on his mission as 
a Reformer, was on the prophecies concerning the Papacy. The Reform- 
ers embodied their interpretations of prophecy in their confessions of 
faith, and Calvin in his " Institutes." All the Reformers were unani- 
mous in the matter; even the mild and cautious Melanchthon was as 
assured of the antipapal meaning of these prophecies as was Luther 
himself. And their interpretation of these prophecies determined their 
reforming action. It led them to protest against Rome with extraor- 
dinary strength and undaunted courage. It nerved them to resist the 
claims of that apostate church to the uttermost. It made them martyrs; 
it sustained them at the stake. And the views of the Reformers were 
shared by thousands, by hundreds of thousands. They were adopted by 



RELIGIONS OF THE EAST 445 

princes and peoples. Under their influence nations abjured their alle- 
giance to the false priest of Rome. In the reaction which followed, all 
the powers of hell seemed to he let loose upon the adherents of the 
Reformation. War followed war: tortures, burnings, and massacres 
were multiplied. Yet the Reformation stood undefeated and unconquer- 
able. God's Word upheld it, and the energies of his almighty Spirit. 
It was the work of Christ as truly as the founding of the church eight- 
een centuries ago; and the revelation of the future which he gave from 
heaven — that prophetic book with which the Scripture closes — was one 
of the mightiest instruments employed in its accomplishment. — "Ro- 
manism and the Reformation," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., F. R. A. 8., 
pp. 153, 154. London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1891. 

Reformation, The, Its Fundamental Doctrine the One Mediator. 
— The church had fallen, because the great doctrine of justification by 
faith in the Saviour had been taken away from her. It was necessary, 
therefore, before she could rise again, that this doctrine should be re- 
stored to her. As soon as this fundamental truth should be re-estab- 
lished in Christendom, all the errors and observances that had taken 
its place — all that multitude of saints, of works, penances, masses, in- 
dulgences, etc., would disappear. As soon as the one only Mediator and 
his only sacrifice were acknowledged, all other mediators and sacrifices 
would vanish. — " History of the Reformation," J. H. Merle D'Aubignc. 
D. D., book 1, chap. 6, par. 6. 

Reformation, The, Not Yet Completed. — The present situation 
[the incompleted work of reform] is not only sad but intolerable, and 
prayer should be offered continually that it may soon come to an end. 
Those who love our Lord can never look with complacency on the per- 
sistence of a great unreformed system which in so many respects is a 
menace to the spirituality of the kingdom of God; and what does the 
prayer, " Thy Kingdom come," mean if it does not involve the endeavor 
to complete the Reformers' work? — " The Arrested Reformation," Rev. 
William Muir, M. A., B. D., B. L., p. 23. London: Morgan and Scott. 191:2. 

Reformation.— Pages 70, 295, 296, 317, 376, 377, 405, 431, 528, 533. 

Reformed Episcopal Church. — Page 147. 

Religions of the East, Judaism No Product of. — It is clear that 
from none of the religions here treated of could the religion of the 
ancient Hebrews have originated. The Israelite people at different pe- 
riods of its history came, and remained for a considerable time, under 
Egyptian, Babylonian, and Persian influence; and there have not been 
wanting persons of ability who have regarded " Judaism " as a mere 
offshoot from the religion of one or other of these three peoples. But 
with the knowledge that we have now obtained of the religions in ques- 
tion, such views have been rendered untenable, if not henceforth impos- 
sible. Judaism stands out from all other ancient religions, as a thing 
sv.i generis [of its own kind], offering the sharpest contrast to the sys- 
tems prevalent in the rest of the East, and so entirely different from 
Vcem in its essence that its origin could not but have been distinct 
and separate, [pp. 174, 175] . . . 

The historic review which has been here made lends no support to 
the theory that there is a uniform growth and progress of religions from 
the fetishism to polytheism, from polytheism to monotheism, and from 
monotheism to positivism, as maintained by the followers of Comte. 



446 RELIGIOUS LIBERTY DEFINED 



None of the religions here described shows any signs of having been 
developed out of fetishism, unless it be the shamanism of the Etruscans. 
In most of them the monotheistic idea is most prominent at the first, 
and gradually becomes obscured, and gives way before a polytheistic 
corruption, [p. 175] . . . 

Altogether, the theory to which the facts appear on the whole to 
point, is the existence of a primitive religion, communicated to man 
from without, whereof monotheism and expiatory sacrifice were parts, 
and the gradual clouding over of this primitive revelation everywhere, 
unless it were among the Hebrews, [pp. 175, 176] — " The Religions of 
the Ancient World,'" George Rawlinson, M. A., pp. 174-176. New York: 
Hurst & Go. 

Religious Liberty, Defined by the Dictionary. — Religious liberty, 
the right of freely adopting and professing opinions on religious sub- 
jects, and of worshiping or refraining from worship according to the 
dictates of conscience, without external control. — The Century Diction- 
ary and Cyclopedia, Vol. IV, art. " Liberty," subtitle " Religious Liberty." 

Religious Liberty, View of, in Early Church. — It is a fundamen- 
tal human right, a privilege of nature, that every man should worship 
according to his convictions. It is assuredly no part of religion to com- 
pel religion. It must be embraced freely and not forced. Chris- 
tians cannot slay their enemies, or condemn, as Moses commanded 
the contemners of the law to be put to death. — Tertullian, Ad. Scap. 
cap. ii; cited in " The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical Study of 
the Coercive Power of the Church," E. Vacaudard, translated by Ber- 
trand L. Conway, C. S. P., p. 3. Imprimatur, John M. Farley, D. D., 
Archbishop of New York; N. Y., June 24, 1907. New York: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1908. 

I ask you bishops to tell me, whose favor did the apostles seek in 
preaching the gospel, and on whose power did they rely to preach Jesus 
Christ? Today, alas! while the power of the state enforces divine faith, 
men say that Christ is powerless. The church threatens exile and im- 
prisonment; she in whom men formerly believed while in exile and 
prison, now wishes to make men believe her by force. . . . What a strik- 
ing contrast between the church of the past and the church of today! — 
St. Hilary of Poitiers, Contra Auxentium, cap. iv (when Arian bishops 
used the power of the state against Catholics, A. D. 363) ; cited in " The 
Inquisition" E. Vacaudard, p. 6. 

To sum up: As late as the middle of the fourth century and even 
later, all the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers who discuss the question 
of toleration are opposed to the use of force. — Id., p. 7. 

Religious Liberty, When the Church Seized the Sword. — When 
the Christian church became the Roman Church, and the Roman Church, 
by the might of its unconquerable spirit and its indestructible faith, 
became the Roman Empire, . . . the church, instead of giving both hands 
to the Bible, gave one hand to the sword, and that not the left hand; 
and wickedly grasping a power under whose blows it had many times 
fallen prostrate and bleeding in the dust, the persecuted then became 
the persecutors, the sufferers became the avengers, only the victims 
were not their former enemies, but members of their own household of 
faith. — " Religious Liberty," Henry M. King, pp. 4, 5. Providence: Pres- 
ton and Rounds. 



RELIGOUS LIBERTY, VIEWS OF 447 

Religious Liberty, Roman Catholic View of Liberty of Conscience. 
- — Liberty of conscience is a perverse opinion diffused by fraudulent 
endeavors of infidels. 

It is a corrupt fountain, a folly, a poisonous error. 

It is an injury to the church and the state, vaunted with shameless 
impudence as becoming to religion. 

It is the liberty of error and the death of the soul. 

It is the abyss, the smoke whereof darkens the sun, and the locusts 
out of which lay waste the earth. 

The liberty of the press is an evil liberty, never sufficiently exe- 
crated or abhorred. 

It is an extravagance of doctrines, and a portentous monstrosity of 
errors, at which we are horrified. — Giviltd Gattolica (R. G.), Serie IV, 
Vol. IV, p. 430; cited in " The Pope, the Kings, and the People," William 
Arthur, A. M., p. 31. London: Rodder and Stoughton, 1903. 

Religious Liberty, Theodoeic, the Goth, on. — In his remonstrances 
with Justin, the great barbarian monarch [Theodoric] displays senti- 
ments far above his times, yet they were the sentiments that had 
hitherto regulated his actions. " To pretend to a dominion over the 
conscience is to usurp the prerogative of God. By the nature of things, 
the power of sovereigns is confined to political government. They have 
no right of punishment but over those who disturb the public peace. 
The most dangerous heresy is that of a sovereign who separates him- 
self from part of his subjects because they believe not according to his 
belief." — " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe,'" John 
William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 354. New York: Harper & 
Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Religious Liberty, A Hard Lesson for the Reformers to Learn. — 
The principles which had led the Protestants to sever themselves from 
the Roman Church, should have taught them to bear with the opinions 
of others, and warned them from the attempt to connect agreement in 
doctrine or manner of worship with the necessary forms of civil govern- 
ment. Still less ought they to have enforced that agreement by civil 
penalties; for faith, upon their own showing, had no value save when 
it was freely given. . . . But whether it was that men only half saw 
what they had done, or that finding it hard enough to unrivet priestly 
fetters, they welcomed all the aid a temporal prince could give, the 
result was that religion, or rather religious creeds, began to be involved 
with politics more closely than had ever been the case before. Through 
the greater part of Christendom wars of religion raged for a century or 
more. [p. 332] ... In almost every country the form of doctrine which 
triumphed associated itself with the state, and maintained the despotic 
system of the Middle Ages, while it forsook the grounds on which that 
system had been based. — " The Holy Roman Empire," James Bryce, 
D. G. L., pp. 332, 333. London: Macmillan & Go., 1892. 

Religious Liberty, First Clear Pronouncement on, in Church 
Articles. — There was, however, one body or band of Separatists in 
James's reign who had pushed farther ahead, and grasped the idea of 
liberty of conscience at its very utmost. . . . They were the poor and 
despised Anglo-Dutch Anabaptists who called John Smyth their leader. 
In a Confession, or Declaration of Faith, put forth in 1611 by the English 
Baptists in Amsterdam, just after the death of Smyth, this article oc- 
curs: " The magistrate is not to meddle with religion, or matters of con- 
science, nor compel men to this or that form of religion; because Christ 
is the King and Lawgiver of the church and conscience." It is believed 



448 RELIGOUIS LIBERTY, METHODIST VIEW OF 

that this is the first expression of the absolute principle of liberty of 
conscience in the public articles of any body of Christians. — " The Life 
of John, Milton," David Masson, Vol. Ill, p. 101. 

Religious Liberty, Rogee Williams the Pioneer of, in the New 
World. — [It is] a monstrous paradox that God's children should perse- 
cute God's children, and that they that hope to live eternally together 
with Christ Jesus in the heavens, should not suffer each other to live in 
this common air together, etc. I am informed it was the speech of an 
honorable knight of the Parliament: "What! Christ persecute Christ in 
New England? " — " The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution," Roger Williams, 
p. 370, note 1. London: The Hanserd Knotty s Society; printed by 
J. Haddon, 1848. 

At a time when Germany was desolated by the implacable wars of 
religion; when even Holland could not pacify vengeful sects; when 
France was still to go through the fearful struggle with bigotry; when 
England was gasping under the despotism of intolerance; almost half a 
century before William Penn became an American proprietary; and 
while Descartes was constructing modern philosophy on the method of 
free reflection — Roger Williams asserted the great doctrine of intel- 
lectual liberty, and made it the corner-stone of a political constitution. 
It became his glory to found a state upon that principle. ... He was the 
first person in modern Christendom to establish civil government on the 
doctrine of the liberty of conscience, the equality of opinions before the 
law. — " History of the United Slates," George Bancroft, part 1, chap. 15, 
(Vol. I, pp. 254, 255). New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Religious Liberty, Famous Preacher on, at Time of Rise of Meth- 
odism. — It highly becomes those who are the advocates for the interfer- 
ence of government to restrain the efforts of Methodists and dissenters 
to diffuse the principles of knowledge and piety, to advert to the con- 
sequences which must result. 

Those who are conscientious will feel it their duty, in opposition to 
the mandates of authority, to proceed patiently, enduring whatever pun- 
ishment the legislature may think proper to inflict. The government, 
irritated at their supposed criminal obstinacy, will be tempted to enact 
severer laws, accompanied with severer penalties, which the truly con- 
scientious will still think it their duty to brave, imitating the example 
of the early teachers of Christianity, who departed from the presence of 
the council " rejoicing that they were thought worthy to suffer for the 
name of Christ." 

Thus will commence a struggle betwixt the ruling powers and the 
most upright part of the subjects, which shall first wear each other out, 
the one by infliction, or the other by endurance; prisons will be crowded, 
cruel punishments will become familiar, and blood probably will be 
spilt. The nation will be afflicted with the frightful spectacle of inno- 
cent and exemplary characters suffering the utmost vengeance of the 
law for crimes which the sufferers glory in having committed. 

It is an inherent and inseparable inconvenience in persecution that 
it knows not where to stop. It only aims at first to crush the obnoxious 
sect; it meets with a sturdy resistance; it then punishes the supposed 
crime of obstinacy, till at length the original magnitude of the error is 
little thought of in the solicitude to maintain the rights of authority. 
This is illustrated in the letter of Pliny to Trajan, treating of the perse- 
cution of the Christians. — " The Works of Robert Hall, A. M." Vol. III. 
pp. 402, 403. London: Holdsworth and Ball, 1833. 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, BANCROFT ON 449 

Religious Liberty, Provision of United States Constitution. — 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof. — Article I of Amendments to the 
Federal Constitution of the United States of America. 

Religious Liberty, A Virginia Presbytery's Memorial on. — Every 
argument for civil liberty gains additional strength when applied to lib- 
erty in the concerns of religion; and there is no argument in favor of 
establishing the Christian religion but what may be pleaded with equal 
propriety for establishing the tenets of Mahomet by those who believe 
the Alcoran; or, if this be not true, it is at least impossible for the magis- 
trate to adjudge the right of preference among the various sects which 
profess the Christian faith, without erecting a chair of infallibility, 
which would lead us back to the Church of Rome. — Extract from the 
Memorial of the Presbytery of Hanover to the General Assembly of Vir- 
ginia, " Journal of the House of Delegates of Virginia," Oct. 24, 1776. 

Religious Liberty, Bancroft on the United States Constitution. 
— No one thought of vindicating liberty of religion for the conscience of 
the individual, till a voice in Judea, breaking day for the greatest epoch 
in the life of humanity by establishing for all mankind a pure, spir- 
itual, and universal religion, enjoined to render to Caesar only that 
which is Csesar's. The rule was upheld during the infancy of this 
gospel for all men. No sooner was the religion of freedom adopted by 
the chief of the Roman Empire, than it was shorn of its character of 
universality, and enthralled by an unholy connection with the unholy 
state; and so it continued till the new nation,— the least defiled with 
the barren scoffings of the eighteenth century, the most sincere believer 
in Christianity of any people of that age, the chief heir of the Refor- 
mation in its purest form, — when it came to establish a government 
for the United States, refused to treat faith as a matter to be regulated 
by a corporate body, or having a headship in a monarch or a state. 

Vindicating the right of individuality even in religion and in religion 
above all, the new nation dared to set the example of accepting in its 
relations to God the principle first divinely ordained in Judea. It left 
the management of temporal things to the temporal power; but the 
American Constitution, in harmony with the people of the several States, 
withheld from the Federal government the power to invade the home of 
reason, the citadel of conscience, the sanctuary of the soul; and not 
from indifference, but that the infinite Spirit of eternal truth might 
move in its freedom and purity and power. — "History of the United 
States," George Bancroft, book 5, chap. 1 (Vol. VI, p. 444). New York: 
D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Religious Liberty, First Amendment Dictated by Regard for Re- 
ligion. — It was under a solemn consciousness of the dangers from 
ecclesiastical ambition, the bigotry of spiritual pride, and the intoler- 
ance of sects thus exemplified in our domestic as well as in foreign 
annals, that it was deemed advisable to exclude from the national gov- 
ernment all power to act upon the subject. — " Commentaries on the Con- 
stitution" Joseph Story, p. 702, sec. 992 (1 vol. edition), 1833. 

By the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, 
it is provided that " Congress shall make no law respecting the estab- 
lishment of a religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," and the 
States of the American Union have, in their various constitutions, placed 
the same restriction upon their legislatures. The amendment of the 
Constitution and the like provisions in State constitutions were not dic- 
29 



450 RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, EARLY PRESIDENTS ON 



tated by indifference or hostility to the principles of the Christian reli- 
gion, but aimed to prevent not merely the establishment of any one form 
of religion, however widely spread, but to establish upon a firm footing 
the right before the law of every religious sect. — Solicitor for the De- 
partment of State (Washington, D. C), in Statement presented to Edin- 
burgh World Missionary Conference, 1910; in "Missions and Govern- 
ments," p. 124, Vol. VII of Report of Commission. Edinburgh: Oliphant, 
Anderson and Ferrier. 

The framers of the Constitution recognized the eternal principle 
that man's relation with his God is above human legislation, and his 
rights of conscience inalienable. Reasoning was not necessary to estab- 
lish this truth; we are conscious of it in our own bosoms. It is this 
consciousness which, in defiance of human laws, has sustained so many 
martyrs in tortures and in flames. They felt that their duty to God 
was superior to human enactments, and that man could exercise no 
authority over their consciences. It is an inborn principle which noth- 
ing can eradicate. The bigot, in the pride of his authority, may lose 
sight of it; but, strip him of his power, prescribe a faith to him which 
his conscience rejects, threaten him in turn with the dungeon and the 
fagot, and the spirit which God has implanted in him rises up in rebel- 
lion, and defies you. — From House Report on Sunday Mails, communi- 
cated to House of Representatives, March 4, 5, 1830; "American State 
Papers," Class 1 VII, Post Office Department, p. 230. Washington: Gales 
and Seaton, 1834. 

Religious Liberty, George Washington on Constitutional Guaran- 
tee of. — If I could have entertained the slightest apprehension that the 
Constitution framed by the convention where I had the honor to preside 
might possibly endanger the religious rights of any ecclesiastical so- 
ciety, certainly I would never have placed my signature to it; and if I 
could now conceive that the general government might ever be so ad- 
ministered as to render the liberty of conscience insecure, I beg you will 
be persuaded that no one would be more zealous than myself to establish 
effectual barriers against the horrors of spiritual tyranny and every spe- 
cies of religious persecution. For, you doubtless remember, I have often 
expressed my sentiments that any man, conducting himself as a good 
citizen and being accountable to God alone for his religious opinions, 
ought to be protected in worshiping the Deity according to the dictates 
of his own conscience. — George Washington, to Baptist delegation, Aug. 
8, 1789; cited in "A History of the Baptists," Thomas Armitage, D. D., 
LL. D., pp. 806, 807. New York: Bryan, Taylor & Co., 1887. 

Religious Liberty, Thomas Jefferson on. — Well aware that Al- 
mighty God hath created the mind free; that all attempts to influence 
it by temporal punishments or burdens, or by civil incapacitations, tend 
only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and are a departure 
from the plan of the holy Author of our religion, who, being Lord both 
of body and mind, yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, 
as was in his almighty power to do. — "Act for Establishing Religious 
Freedom " (1786); in " Notes on the State of Virginia," Thomas Jefferson, 
p. 235. Boston: Lilly and Wait, 1832. 

Religious Liberty, James Madison on Unalienable Rights of 
Conscience. — The religion, then, of every man must be left to the con- 
viction and conscience of every man; and it is the right of every man 
to exercise it as these may dictate. This right is in its nature an 
unalienable right. It is unalienable, because the opinions of men, de- 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, PATRICK HENRY'S DEFENSE 451 

pending only on the evidence contemplated by their own minds, cannot 
follow the dictates of other men. It is unalienable, also, because wnat 
is here a right toward men is a duty toward the Creator. It is the 
duty of every man to render to the Creator such homage, and such only, 
as he believes to be acceptable to him. This duty is precedent, both in 
order of time and in degree of obligation, to the claims of civil society. 
— From Madison's Memorial to the General Assembly of Virginia, 1785; 
" Writings of James Madison" Vol. I, p. 162. Philadelphia, 1865. 

Religious Liberty, Patrick Henry on. — Religion, or the duty which 
we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed 
only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence. — Virginia " Dec- 
laration of Rights," article 16, drawn up by Patrick Henry. See Tyler's 
"Patrick Henry," pp. 183, 184. 

Religious Liberty, Patrick Henry's Defense of Baptist Ministers 
in Colonial Virginia. — If I have rightly understood, the king's attorney 
has framed an indictment for the purpose of arraigning and punishing 
by imprisonment these three inoffensive persons before the, bar of this 
court for a crime of great magnitude, — as disturbers of the peace. May 
it please the court, what did I hear read? Did I hear it distinctly, or 
was it a mistake of my own? . . . "Preaching the gospel of the Son 
of God!" . . . 

Amid a silence that could be felt, he waved the indictment three 
times round his head, ..." Great God! " 

At this point, . . . the audience relieved their feelings by a burst of 
sighs and tears. The orator continued : " May it please your Worships, 
in a day like this, when Truth is about to burst her fetters; when man- 
kind are about to be aroused to claim their natural and inalienable 
rights; when the yoke of oppression that has reached the wilderness of 
America, and the unnatural alliance of ecclesiastical and civil power is 
about to be dissevered, — at such a period, when Liberty, Liberty of 
Conscience, is about to wake from her slumberings, and inquire into 
the reason of such charges as I find exhibited here today in this indict- 
ment " — 

Here occurred another of his appalling pauses. ..." If I am not 
deceived, — according to the contents of the paper I now hold in my 
hand, — these men are accused of preaching the gospel of the Son of 
God! "... He waved the document three times around his head, as 
though still lost in wonder; and then with the same electric attitude of 
appeal to heaven, he gasped, "Great God! " 

This was followed by another burst of feeling from the spectators; 
and again this master of effect plunged into the tide of his discourse: 

"May it please your Worships, there are periods in the history of 
man when corruption and depravity have so long debased the human 
character that man sinks under the weight of the oppressor's hand, — 
becomes his servile, abject slave. . . . But may it please your Worships, 
such a day has passed. From that period when our fathers left the 
land of their nativity for these American wilds, — from the moment they 
placed their feet upon the American continent, — from that moment 
despotism was crushed, the fetters of darkness were broken, and Heaven 
decreed that man should be free, — free to worship God according to the 
Bible. . . . But, may it please your Worships, permit me to inquire once 
more, For what are these men about to be tried? This paper says, for 
preaching the gospel of the Saviour to Adam's fallen race! " 

Again he paused. For the third time he slowly waved the indict- 
ment round his head; and then turning to the judges, looking them full 
in the face, exclaimed with the most impressive effect, 
"What laws have they violated?" 



452 RELIGIOUS LIBERTY NOT TOLERATION 

The whole assembly were now painfully moved and excited. The 
presiding judge ended the scene by saying, 

" Sheriff, discharge these men." — " Life of Thomas Jefferson," James 
Parton, pp. 205, 206. 

Religious Liberty, Thomas Jeffebson's Forecast of Peril to. — 
Besides, the spirit of the times may alter, will alter. Our rulers will 
become corrupt, our people careless. A single zealot may commence 
persecution, and better men be his victims. It can never be too often 
repeated, that the time for fixing every essential right on a legal basis 
is while our rulers are honest and ourselves united. From the conclu- 
sion of this war [the Revolution] we shall be going down hill. It will 
not then be necessary to resort every moment to the people for support. 
They will be forgotten, therefore, and their rights disregarded. They 
will forget themselves, but in the sole faculty of making money, and 
will never think of uniting to effect a due respect for their rights. The 
shackles, therefore, which shall not be knocked off at the conclusion of 
this war, will remain on us long, will be made heavier and heavier, till 
our rights shall revive or expire in a convulsion. — " Notes on the State 
of Virginia," Thomas Jefferson, p. 169 (last part of Query XVII). Bos- 
ton: Lilly and Wait, 1832. 

Religious Liberty, U. S. Grant on Separation of Church and 
State. — Leave the matter of religious teaching to the family altar, and 
keep the church and state forever separate. — U. S. Grant; cited in 
Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edition 1915. 

Religious Liberty, On Religion by Majorities. — Let us reject this 
decree. In matters of conscience the majority has no power. — Declara- 
tion of the Princes, at the Diet of Spires, 1529; "History of the Ref- 
ormation," J. H. Merle D'Aubigne, book 13, chap. 5, par. 14. 

Religious Liberty, The Question of a "Right Conscience." — As 
for New England, we never banished any for their consciences, but for 
sinning against conscience, after due means of conviction. — Rev. 
Thomas Shepard (1605-1649) ; in "Massachusetts : Its Historians and Its 
History," Charles Francis Adams," p. 23. Boston: Houghton Mifflin & 
Co., 1894. 

A man enjoys religious liberty when he possesses the free right of 
worshiping God according to the dictates of a right conscience, and of 
practising a form of religion most in accordance with his duties to God. 
— " The Faith of Our Fathers," James Cardinal Gibbons (R. C), pp. 
264, 265. Baltimore: John Murphy & Co., 1893. 

Religious Liberty, Famous English Jurist on. — Conscience is not 
controllable by human laws nor amenable to human tribunals. Persecu- 
tion, or attempts to force conscience, will never produce conviction, and 
are only calculated to make hypocrites or — martyrs. — Lord Mansfield's 
Speech in the House of Lords, Feb. 4, 1776; cited in Appendix to "Black- 
stone's Commentaries and Burns' Ecclesiastical Law," p. 152. 

Religious Liberty, Not Religious Toleration, but Religious 
Rights. — There is a very great difference between toleration and liberty. 
... In our country we ask no toleration for religion and its free exer- 
cise, but we claim it is an inalienable right. — " Church and State in the 
United States," Philip Schaff, D. D., LL. D., p. 14. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1888. 



RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, RESULTS OF STATE RELIGION 453 

Religious Liberty, Conscientious Men True Friends of Civil Au- 
thority. — Conscientious men are not the enemies, but the friends, of 
any government but a tyranny. They are its strength, and not its weak- 
ness. Daniel, in Babylon, praying contrary to the law, was the true 
friend and supporter of the government; while those who, in their pre- 
tended zeal for the law and the constitution, would strike down the 
good man, were its real enemies. It is only when government tran- 
scends its sphere, that it comes in conflict with the consciences of men. 
— "Moral Science," James H. Fairchild, p. 179. New York: Sheldon & 
Co., 1892. 

Religious Liberty, The Logic and Results of State Religion. — If 
the state, as such, can possess a religion, we assert that the individual 
thenceforward can have none, and that the smallest degree of religious 
liberty is an anti-social heresy. We defy anything to be granted to the 
state, unless everything be granted, or anything to be refused to it, 
unless everything be refused. . . . The state which desires to deprive 
me of my religion, alarms me far less than the state which would have 
one of its own. A constitution which makes the state religious makes 
the individual irreligious, inasmuch as he consents to such a constitu- 
tion. In vain will he declaim against dissimulation and falsehood; 
there exists in the political order to which he adheres, a primary false- 
hood, in which, by virtue of his adhesion, he is an accomplice. Nor 
does this remain an abstract falsehood; it has practical results; it pro- 
duces a long line of individual falsehoods. He who accepts it, accepts 
the civil power as the responsible ruler of his conscience, and charges 
the state to provide a religion for him. . . . 

Moreover, it is impossible for us to regard this merely as a theory 
without consequences. This system, so hostile to the principle of reli- 
gious profession, can arise only from contempt or forgetfulness of this 
principle. It has been established through the weakness or decay of 
convictions. What wonder, then, that its effects should correspond 
with its cause, and that having its origin in indifference, it should also 
produce remissness? When the church can consent to the fiction of a 
state religion, she has lost to a certain extent the consciousness of its 
reality, and this consciousness has a tendency to grow weaker and 
weaker. — " The Conscience of the State," Prof. Alexander Vinet, pp. 
12-14. London: Arthur Miall, 1867. 

Religious Liberty, Man Cannot Repeat Jewish Theocracy. — The 
Jewish constitution was a theocracy, in which Jehovah assumed to that 
people a special relation,— a relation which he never sustained to any 
other portion of our race, — the relation of their King, — himself con- 
ducting the administration of their government, by a system of super- 
natural interposition, and immediate manifestation of his presence and 
authority. Who but Jehovah himself can imitate this? He must select 
another Abraham, make of his seed a nation, separate that nation 
to himself as a peculiar people, and, regarding the community, collec- 
tively considered as his church, institute for it the ordinances of an 
exclusive worship, as well as prescribe for it its civil constitution and 
laws. To talk of imitation, in a case so thoroughly peculiar, or to call 
that imitation, in which the very essence of the thing imitated is of 
necessity wanting, is the height of absurdity. It must be God's doing, 
not man's. — " Civil Establishments of Christianity," Ralph Wardlaw, 
D. D. (Glasgow), p. 12. London: Arthur Miall, 1866. 

Religious Liberty.— Pages 4Q1-4Q7, 429, 479, 480. 



454 RESURRECTION, "THE THIRD DAY" 

Resurrection, " The Third Day." — The particular length of this 
space [between the crucifixion and the resurrection] is determined in 
the third day; but that expression being capable of some diversity of 
interpretation, it is not so easily concluded how long our Saviour was 
dead or buried before he revived or rose again. It is written expressly 
in St. Matthew, that as Jonas was three days and three nights in the 
whale's belly, so should the Son of man be three days and three nights 
in the heart of the earth. From whence it seemeth to follow, that 
Christ's body was for the space of three whole days and three whole 
nights in the grave, and after that space of time rose from thence. And 
hence some have conceived, that being our Saviour rose on the morn- 
ing of the first day of the week, therefore it must necessarily follow 
that he died and was buried on the fifth day of" the week before, that 
is on Thursday, otherwise it cannot be true that he was in the grave 
three nights. 

But this place, as express as it seems to be, must be considered with 
the rest in which the same truth is delivered; as when our Saviour said, 
"After three days I will rise again;" and again, " Destroy this temple, 
and in three days I will build it up;" or, "Within three days I will 
build another made without hands." But that which is most used, both 
in our Saviour's prediction before his death and in the apostles' lan- 
guage after the resurrection, is that he rose from the dead the third day. 
Now, according to the language of the Scriptures, if Christ were slain 
and rose the third day, the day on which he died is one, and the day on 
which he arose is another, and consequently there could be but one 
day and two nights between the day of his death and of his resurrec- 
tion. As in the case of circumcision, the male child eight days old was 
to be circumcised, in which the day on which the child was born was one, 
and the day on which he was circumcised was another, and so there 
were but six complete days between the day of his birth and the day of 
his circumcision. The day of Pentecost was the fiftieth day from the 
day of the wave offering; but in the number of the fifty days was b^>th 
the day of the wave offering and of Pentecost included, as now among the 
Christians still it is. Whitsunday is now the day of Pentecost and 
Easter day the day of the resurrection, answering to that of the wave 
offering; but both these must be reckoned to make the number of 
fifty days. Christ, then, who rose upon the first day of the week (as is 
confessed by all), died upon the sixth day of the week before; for if 
he had died upon the fifth, he had not risen upon the third, but the 
fourth day, as Lazarus did.i Being then, it is most certain that our 
Saviour rose on the third day, being according to the constant lan- 
guage of the Greeks and Hebrews; he cannot be said to rise to life on 
the third day, who died upon any other day between which and the day 
of his resurrection there intervened any more than one day, therefore 
those other forms of speech which are far less frequent, must be so 
interpreted as to be reduced to this expression of the third day so often 
reiterated. 

When, therefore, we read that after three days he would raise the 
temple of his body, we must not imagine that he would continue the 
space of three whole days dead, and then revive himself; but upon the 

1 " Tpiraios [Tritaios] then, in respect of his coming to or from any place, 
is that person which is now the third day to or from that place ; which cannot 
be better interpreted, as to the Greek language, than in the expression of a 
' tertian ' fever, called so because the second accession is upon the third day from 
the first, and the third from the second, etc. In which case there is but one day 
between, in which the patient is wholly free from his disease: from whence 
7rapa /xlai> [para mian] and rptrat'/cws [tritailcds] is the same in the language 
of the physicians." — Page lfik- 



REVELATION, TWO VIEWS OF 455 

third day he would rise again; as Joseph and his mother after three 
days found him in the temple, that is, the third day after he tarried 
behind in Jerusalem. And when we read that he was three days and 
three nights in the heart of the earth, we must not look upon those 
nights as distinct from the days, but as Moses spake, the evening and 
the morning, that is, the night and the day, were £he first day; and as 
the saint spake unto Daniel, Unto two thousand and three hundred eve- 
nings and mornings, intending thereby so many days; nor must we 
imagine that those three days were completed after our Saviour's 
death, and before he rose: but that upon the first of those three days 
he died, and upon the last of those three days he rose. As we find 
that eight days were accomplished for the circumcision of the child; 
and yet Christ was born upon the first and circumcised upon the last 
of those eight days; nor were there any more than six whole days 
between the day of his birth and the day of his circumcision; . . . 
and as the Jews were wont to speak, the priests in their courses by the 
appointment of David were to minister before the Lord eight days, 
whereas every week a new course succeeded, and there were but seven 
days' service for each course (the Sahbath on which they began and 
the Sabbath on which they went off, both being reckoned in the eight 
days), — so the day on which the Son of God was crucified, dead, and 
buried, and the day on which he revived and rose again were included 
in the number of three days. And thus did our Saviour rise from the 
dead upon the third day properly, and was there three days and three 
nights in the heart of the earth synecdochically. — "An Exposition of 
the Greed," John Pearson, D. D., pp. 396-402. London and New York: 
George Bell & Sons, 1893. 

Revelation, Protestant and Catholic View of. — The main ques- 
tion, which we have now to answer, is this: How doth man attain to 
possession of the true doctrine of Christ; or, to express ourselves in a 
more general, and at once more accurate manner, How doth man 
obtain a clear knowledge of the institute of salvation, proffered in 
Christ Jesus? The Protestant says, By searching Holy Writ, which 
is infallible: the Catholic, on the other hand, replies, By the church, 
in which alone man arrives at the true understanding of Holy Writ. 
— "Symbolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. C), p. 277. London: 
Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Revelation, Book of, Genuineness and Inspiration of. — So ends 
our catena of testimonies to the genuineness and divine inspiration of 
the Apocalypse, traced as proposed through the three half-centuries 
that followed its publication. Alike from East and West, North 
and South, — from the churches of the Asiatic province and the Syrian, 
of Italy and of Gaul, of Egypt and of Africa, — we have heard an un- 
broken and all but uniform voice of testimony in its favor. Nay, even 
what there is of contrary testimony has been shown only to confirm 
and add new weight to that which it opposes : for it proves how unable 
they who most wished it were to find evidence or argument of this kind, 
of any real value, and such as could bear examination, on their side of 
the question. 

Let me just add, by way of supplement to my sketch of the earlier 
historic evidence, that in what remained of the third century, while 
no other opponent to it appeared of any note, the Apocalypse was re- 
ceived as the work of the inspired apostle John, alike by the schismatic 
Novatians and Donatists, and by the most eminent writers of the 
Catholic Church; e. g., Victorinus, Methodius, Arnobius, Lactantius: 
further, that in the earlier half of the fourth century, while Eusebius 



456 REVELATION, DATE OF 

doubted, Athanasius received it; and in its later half, while Cyril of 
Jerusalem apparently hesitated respecting it, and Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom, though not rejecting, did yet but sparingly refer to it 
as inspired Scripture, it was on the other hand fully and unhesitatingly 
acknowledged, among the Greeks, by Epiphanius, Basil, and Cyril of 
Alexandria: as well as by Ephrem the Syrian, and, among the Latins, 
by Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. Subsequently in the Greek Church, 
though the book was never formally rejected by any ecclesiastical 
council, yet the same variety of opinion was expressed by its chief 
authors as by those of the fourth century. On the other hand, by the 
Latin Church it was universally received; and in the third Council of 
Carthage, held a. d. 397, and presided over by the great Augustine, 
was solemnly declared to be included in the canon of inspired Scripture. 
— " Horce Apocalypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 31-35, 
3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Revelation, Book of, Date Assigned to. — The varied historical 
evidence that has been inquired into, all concurs to confirm the date 
originally and expressly assigned by Irenaeus to the Apocalypse, as seen 
and written at the close of the reign of Domitian: that is, near the 
end of the year 95, or beginning of 96. Accordingly, the most approved 
modern ecclesiastical historians and Biblical critics, — writers who have 
had no bias on the point in question, one way or the other, from any 
particular cherished theory of Apocalyptic interpretation, — for example 
alike Dupin, Basnage, Turretin, Spanheim, Mosheim, Milner, Le Clerc, 
Mill, Whitby, Lampe, Neander, Lardner, Tomline, Burton, etc., etc., — 
have alike adopted it. And we may, I am persuaded, depend on its cor- 
rectness with as unhesitating and implicit confidence, as on the truth 
of almost any of the lesser facts recorded in history. It seems sur- 
prising to me that respectable and learned commentators should have 
wasted their time and labor in building up Apocalyptic expositions on 
the sandy foundation of an earlier Neronic date. It seems stranger 
still that they should have allowed themselves so to represent the 
present state of evidence and argument on the point, as if the fact of 
this earlier date were a thing admitted, and beyond doubt. — Id., pp. 
50, 51. 

From the first witness who speaks upon the point in the latter 
half of the second century down to the first half of the fifth, we have 
a succession of Fathers bearing testimony with one accord, and in 
language which admits of no misunderstanding, to the fact that St. 
John was banished to Patmos under the reign of Domitian, and that 
there he beheld those visions of the Apocalypse which he afterward 
committed to writing. These Fathers too are men ... of ability, 
learning, and critical insight into the history of bygone times. . . . 
They belong to the most different and widespread regions of the church 
— to Gaul, Alexandria, the proconsular province of North Africa, 
Pannonia, Syria, and Rome. They are thus in a great degree independ- 
ent of each other, and they convey to us the incontestable impression 
that for at least the first four centuries of the Christian era, and over 
the whole extent of the Christian church, it was firmly believed that 
St. John had beheld the visions of the Apocalypse in the days of 
Domitian, and not of Nero. — Baird Lecture on the Revelation of St. 
John, by Professor Milligan, p. 308, 1885; cited in " Key to the Apoc- 
alypse," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 7, 8. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1899. 

Revelation, Book of, Evidence of Its Inspiration. — "What, too, but 
Omniscience could have foreseen that a system, such as that of the 



REVELATION, WARNING 457 

Papacy, could ever effect an entrance into the Christian church, and s 
practise and prosper as it has done? How could it ever have entered 
into the heart of John, the solitary exile of Patmos, to imagine that any 
of the professed disciples of that Saviour whom he loved, and who 
said, " My kingdom is not of this world," should gather up and systema- 
tize all the idolatry and superstition and immorality of the Babylon of 
Belshazzar, introduce it into the bosom of the church, and, by help of it, 
seat themselves on the throne of the Csesars, and there, as the high 
priests of the Queen of Heaven, and gods upon earth, for twelve hun- 
dred years, rule the nations with a rod of iron? Human foresight could 
never have done this; but all this the exile of Patmos has done. His 
pen, then, must have been guided by Him who sees the end from the 
beginning, and who calleth the things that be not as though tfcey were. 
— " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 290, 7th edition. 
London: 8. W. Partridge & Co. 

Revelation, Book of, For the Church. — The command to send what 
was written to the seven churches of Asia, showed that the revelation 
was not intended for the evangelist himself alone, but for the church 
at large: and the declaration added, " Blessed is he that heareth, and 
he that readeth the words of this prophecy," was alike an injunction 
and an encouragement from the divine Spirit to all members of the 
church to peruse and study it. — " Horce Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. 
Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 72, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and 
Seeley, 1847. 

Revelation, Book of, A Warning. — The Apocalypse thus assumes 
the rank not merely of an elucidation of the divine will, nor of an 
evidence of Christianity, but of a warning, of the highest and most 
pressing nature, to all men, in the entire range of human society. It 
is not the mere abstract study of the theologian, nor the solitary con- 
templation of the man of piety, but a great document addressed to the 
mighty of the earth; Wisdom calling out trumpet-tongued to the lead- 
ers of national council; the descended minister of heaven, summoning 
for the last time the nations to awake to the peril already darkening 
over their heads, and cut themselves loose from those unscriptural and 
idolatrous faiths, with which they must otherwise go down; the Spirit 
of God, commanding the teachers and holders of the true faith to pre- 
pare themselves by a more vigorous cultivation of their talents, by a 
vigilant purity, by a generous and hallowed courage, for that high serv- 
ice of God and man in which they may so soon be called on to act, 
and perhaps to suffer; and proclaiming to all men alike the infinite 
urgency of redeeming the time before the arrival of a period, that to 
the whole world of idolatry, European and barbarian, shall come with 
a civil ruin, of which the subversion of Jerusalem was but a type; and 
with a physical destruction that can find no parallel but in the inevi- 
table fury of the deluge. — " The Apocalypse of St. John" Rev. George 
Croly, A. M., pp. 6, 7, 2d edition. London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Revelation, Book of, Antidote for the Papacy. — The Holy Spirit, 
foreseeing, no doubt, that the Church of Rome would adulterate the 
truth by many "gross and grievous abominations" (I use the words 
of the judicious Hooker) ; and that she would anathematize all who 
would not communicate with her, and denounce them as cut off from 
the body of Christ and from hope of everlasting salvation: foreseeing, 
also, that Rome would exercise a wide and dominant sway for many 
generations, by boldly iterated assertions of unity, antiquity, sanctity, 
and universality; foreseeing also that these pretensions would be 



458 RIGHTEOUSNESS OF GOD 

supported by the civil sword of many secular governments, among 
which the Roman Empire would be divided at its dissolution; and that 
Rome would thus be enabled to display herself to the world in an 
august attitude of imperial power, and with the dazzling splendor of 
temporal felicity: foreseeing also that the Church of Rome would capti- 
vate the imaginations of men by the fascinations of art allied with 
religion; and would ravish their senses and rivet their admiration by 
gaudy colors, and stately pomp, and prodigal magnificence: foreseeing 
also that she would beguile their credulity by miracles and mysteries, 
apparitions and dreams, trances and ecstasies, and would appeal to 
their evidence in support of her strange doctrines: foreseeing likewise 
that she would enslave men, and much more women, by practising 
on their affections, and by accommodating herself, with dexterous 
pliancy, to their weaknesses, relieving them from the burden of thought 
and from the perplexity of doubt, by proffering them the aid of infalli- 
bility; soothing the sorrows of the mourner by dispensing pardon and 
promising peace to the departed; removing the load of guilt from the 
oppressed conscience by the ministries of the confessional, and by nicely 
poised compensations for sin; and that she would flourish for many 
centuries in proud and prosperous impunity, before her sins would 
reach to heaven, and come in remembrance before God: foreseeing also 
that many generations of men would thus be tempted to fall from the 
faith, and to become victims of deadly error; and that they who clung 
to the truth would be exposed to cozening flatteries, and fierce assaults, 
and savage tortures from her, — the Holy Spirit, we say, foreseeing 
all these things in his divine knowledge, and being the ever-blessed 
Teacher, Guide, and Comforter of the church, was graciously pleased 
to provide a heavenly antidote for these widespread and long-enduring 
evils, by dictating the Apocalypse. — " Union with Rome,'* Chr. Words- 
worth, D. D„ pp. 80, 81. London: Longmans, Green & Co.. 1909. 

Revelation, Book of. — Page 127. 

Righteousness of God, The. — Sin, Paul argues, cannot simply be 
passed over; it needs a propitiation, in order to show forth and to 
vindicate the absolute righteousness of God. That righteousness is 
no abstract law; it is his own character. He had, indeed, passed by 
sins of former times; but that long forbearance on the part of God had 
in view this signal exhibition of his righteousness in the gift and death 
of his Son, whereby he could be at once righteous himself, and accept 
as righteous him that hath faith in Jesus. This redemptive process is 
God's own act. The propitiation which his character demands, it also 
provides. Nor do the demand and its satisfaction spring from two 
opposite principles within him — his justice and his mercy. His love 
is not something apart from his righteousness, which prevails upon it 
to assume a new attitude toward men: it is but one manifestation of 
it — the form which it takes in order to fulfil itself in God's relation 
to a sinful humanity. — " The Christ of History and of Experience^ 
David W. Forrest, D. D., pp. 222, 223. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1914. 

Robes, Ascension, Joshua V. Himes on. — We are glad to be able 
to print the following letter from " Father Himes," who is undoubtedly 
the best living authority on the question which has interested so many 
of our readers: 

"To the Editors of the 'Outlook: ' 

"I have been much interested in the articles lately appearing in 
the Outlook upon the question of ascension robes. I am glad that pub- 



ROBES, ASCENSION 459 

lie interest has been again aroused upon this topic, for it is time it 
should be settled, and settled right; and nothing is truly settled until 
it is settle'd right. 

" I wish to say that I was intimately associated with William Miller 
for eleven years, beginning in 1839; that with him I attended hundreds 
of meetings, laboring with him in public and private, and was with him 
at his home in the State of New York on the night of the tenth day of 
the seventh month, when we expected the Lord to come; and having had 
a perfect knowledge of everything connected with that work, I know the 
whole story of ascension robes to be a concoction of the enemies of the 
Adventists, begotten of religious prejudices, and that there is not a 
scintilla of truth in it. No wonder the writer in the Outlook of October 
27, did not give his name and address The statement that ' to be pre- 
pared, dressed in their ascension robes, was the instruction given by 
their leaders to the rank and file of the Millerites,' is almost too silly 
to be noticed. The writer originated, and with others signed, the call 
for the first Adventist Conference, which was held with the church over 
which he was pastor in Boston, Mass., in 1840. 

"During those eventful days, from 1840 to 1844, and for several years 
after, I had charge of all their publishing work, and no man, living or 
dead, knew better what was taught and done by Adventists than did I. 
There were some excesses, such as always attend great religious up- 
heavals, but they were not committed by the ' instruction of their lead- 
ers,' and the putting on of ascension robes was not one of these excesses. 

" When these stories first started, and while I was publishing in the 
interests of the Adventist cause, I kept 'a standing offer in the paper 
of which I was editor, of a large reward for one well-authenticated case 
where an ascension robe was worn by those looking for the Lord's re- 
turn. No such proof has ever been forthcoming. It was always rumor, 
and nothing more. Absolute evidence never has been furnished. It has 
always been one of those delightful falsehoods which many people have 
wanted to believe, and hence its popularity and perpetuity until this 
present day. I have refuted the story hundreds of times in both the 
Advent Herald in Boston, Mass., and in the Midnight Cry in New York, 
which had a circulation of tens of thousands of copies; and no accusers 
ever made an attempt to defend themselves, although I held my columns 
open to them to do so. And now, at the age of ninety years, with a full 
personal experience of those times, before God, who is my Judge, and 
before whose tribunal I must soon appear, I declare again that the ascen- 
sion robe story is a tissue of falsehoods from beginning to end, and I am 
glad of the opportunity to deny it once more before 1 die. 

" The preparation urged upon the ' rank and file ' of those looking 
for the coming of the Lord was a preparation of heart and life by a con- 
fession of Christ, a forsaking of their sins and living a godly life; and 
the only robes they were exhorted to put on were the robes of righteous- 
ness obtained by faith in Jesus Christ — garments made white in the 
blood of the Lamb. Nothing of an outward appearance was ever thought 
of or mentioned. J. V. Himes." 

Note. — The foregoing was written Oct. 29, 1804, and appeared in the Out- 
look (New York) of Nov. 24, 1894, p. 875. At that time Mr. Himes was rector 
of St. Andrews Episcopal church, Elk Point, S. Dak., U. S. A. He died there, 
July 27, 1895, aged 91 years. — Eds. 

Roman Catholic, Use of the Combination Explained. — Roman 
Catholic, a qualification of the name Catholic commonly used in English- 
speaking countries by those unwilling to recognize the claims of the one 
true church. Out of condescension for these dissidents, the members of 
that church are wont in official documents to be styled " Roman Cath- 



460 ROME, THE FOURTH KINGDOM 

olics " as if the term Catholic represented a genus of which those who 
owned allegiance to the Pope formed a particular species. It is in fact 
a prevalent conception among Anglicans to regard the whole Catholic 
Church as made up of three principal branches, — the Roman Catholic, 
the Anglo-Catholic, and the Greek Catholic. . . . 

In the Oxford English Dictionary, the highest existing authority 
upon questions of English philology, the following explanation is given 
under the heading " Roman Catholic: " " The use of this composite term 
in place of the simple Roman, Romanist, or Romish, which had acquired 
an invidious sense, appears to have arisen in the early years of the 
seventeenth century. For conciliatory reasons it was employed in the 
negotiations connected with the Spanish Match (1618-1624) and appears 
in formal documents relating to this printed by Rushworth (I; 85-89). 
After that date it was generally adopted as a non-controversial term, 
and has long been the recognized legal and official designation, though 
in ordinary use Catholic alone is very frequently employed " (New Ox- 
ford Diet., VIII, 766). — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, art. "Ro- 
man Catholic," pp. 181, 188. 

Note. — The words Romish, Romanist, popish, papist, and papistical are 
highly objectionable to Roman Catholics, and may properly be avoided by Prot- 
estant writers. Some of these objectionable words are found in extracts in this 
book, and are allowed to appear, not because they are approved of, but because 
it is difficult to use the quotations without these words. Protestant writers and 
speakers ought to be considerate of the feelings of Roman Catholics, and in the 
use of language in the controversy, to apply the golden rule. — Eds. 

Rome, Fourth Kingdom of Daniel 2. — All attempts to make out 
the fourth empire of Daniel (spoken of in the dream of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, chap. 2, and in Daniel's vision, chap. 7) to be the kingdom of 
Alexander's successors, have proved decided failures. The fourth king- 
dom can be no other than the Roman, which is described in both the 
passages referred to as having two distinct stages: (1) An undivided 
stage, in which the empire was strong as iron, and was under a central 
government; (2) a divided stage, in which it was split up into a plural- 
ity of kingdoms, indicated by the ten toes of the image (chap. 2) and 
by the ten horns of the beast (chap. 7), which kingdoms no device or 
power of man, or any schemes of matrimonial alliances, could ever 
contrive to weld together again. — "An Introduction to the Old Testa- 
ment," Rev. Charles H. H. Wright, D. D., Ph. D., p. 196. New York: 
Thomas Whittaker. 

Rome, An Empire) that " Filled the World." — The empire of the 
Romans filled the world, and when that empire fell into the hands of 
a single person, the world became a safe and dreary prison for his ene- 
mies. The slave of imperial despotism, whether he was condemned to 
drag his gilded chain in Rome and the Senate, or to wear out a life of 
exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen banks of the Danube, 
expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was im- 
possible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast extent 
of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without being 
discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the 
frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, 
inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners and 
unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase the 
emperor's protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. " Wher- 
ever you are," said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, " remember that you 
are equally within the power of the conqueror." — " The History of the 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 3, par. 
37 (Vol. I, pp. 99, 100). New York: Harper & Brothers. 



ROME, EXTENT OF 461 

Rome, Cardinal Manning on Prophecy of. — The legions of Rome 
occupied the circumference of the world. The military roads which 
sprang from Rome traversed all the earth; the whole world was, as it 
were, held in peace and in tranquillity by the Universal presence of this 
mighty heathen empire. It was " exceedingly terrible," according to the 
prophecies of Daniel; it was as it were of iron, beating down and sub- 
duing the nations. — " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ," 
Henry Edward Manning, D. D., p. 122. London: Burns and Lambert, 
1862. 

Rome, A Single City Ruling the Earth. — Can any one be so indif- 
ferent or idle as not to care to know by what means, and under what 
kind of polity, almost the whole inhabited world was conquered and 
brought under the dominion of the single city of Rome, and that too 
within a period of not quite fifty-three years? Or who again can be so 
completely absorbed in other subjects of contemplation or study, as to 
think any of them superior in importance to the accurate understanding 
of an event for which the past affords no precedent? — " The Histories of 
Polybius," E. 8. Shuckburgh's translation, book 1, par. 1 (Vol. I, p. 1). 
London: Macmillan <& Co., 1889. 

The Roman conquest, on the other hand [unlike its predecessors], 
was not partial, nearly the whole inhabited world was reduced by them 
to obedience: and they left behind them an empire not to be paralleled 
in the past or rivaled in the future. — Id., par. 2 (p. 2). 

Though from the frozen pole our empire run, 
Far as the journeys of the southern sun. 

— " Pharsalia," Lucan, book 10. 

Till her superb dominion spread 

East, where the sun comes forth in light, 

And west to where he lays his head. 

— Horace, Ode 15, " To Augustus," book 4. 

Rome, Greeted from India. — The letter was written in Greek upon 
a skin; the import of it was, that Porus was the writer, that although 
he was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he highly esteemed 
the friendship of Caesar; that he was willing to allow him a passage 
through his country, in whatever part he pleased, and to assist him in 
any undertaking that was just. — " The Geography of Strabo," book 15, 
chap. 2 (Vol. Ill, p. 119). London: Henry G. Bohn, 1857. 

Note. — Strabo quotes Nicolaus Damascenus, who saw aft embassy from 
India bearing a letter to Augustus Caesar. — Eds. 

The Romans have surpassed (in power) all former rulers of whom 
we have any record. — Id., book 17, chap. 3, p. 295. 

Rome, Under Julius C^sar. — i The decisive battle [between Pompey 
and Caesar] was fought at Pharsalus in Thessaly (48 b. a). Pompey 
was beaten and his army scattered; he himself fled to Egypt, where he 
was murdered as he sought to land. But lesser commanders held out 
in the various provinces against the victor, and he was compelled to 
make a series of campaigns against them. First, the east was brought 
into order. In Egypt, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy, descendants 
of the old Greek rulers, were placed on the throne under Roman pro- 
tection, and Caesar came under the fascination of the intelligent and 
charming but morally unscrupulous young queen. [Dan. 11: 17.] A 



462 ROME, "THE IRON MONARCHY" 

battle at Zela (47 b. c.) overthrew the son of Mithridates, who attempted 
to withstand him. It is of these incidents that Byron writes: 

" Alcides with the distaff now he seems at Cleopatra's feet, 
And now himself he beams and came and saw and conquered." 

The formidable array of Pompeian generals in Africa was anni- 
hilated in the battle of Thapsus (46 b. c). A last stand in Spain was 
made, only to be overthrown in 45 b. c. at the battle of Munda. After 
four years of fighting, Csesar was master of the situation, and the oppor- 
tunity was open to him of solving the problems of the state, which had 
been in the balance for nearly a hundred years. But early in 44 b. c. 
(March 15) he was assassinated in the senate house by a band of con- 
spirators, led by Gaius Cassius and a favorite friend, Marcus Brutus, 
and the Roman world again plunged into anarchy. — "A History of the 
Ancient World" George Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 415, 416. New 
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Rome, " The Iron Monarchy." — The arms of the republic, some- 
times vanquished in battle, always victorious in war, advanced with 
rapid steps to the Euphrates, the Danube, the Rhine, and the ocean; 
and the images of gold, or silver, or brass, that might serve to repre- 
sent the nations and their kings, were successively broken by the iron 
monarchy of Rome. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 38, general observations at end of chap- 
ter, par. 1 (Vol. Ill, p, 634). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Rome, As Recognized in Imperial Times. — Rejoice, blessed Daniel! 
tnou hast not been in error: all these things have come to pass. 

33. After this again thou hast told me of the beast dreadful and ter- 
rible. " It had iron teeth and claws of brass: it devoured and brake in 
pieces, and stamped the residue with the feet of it." Already the iron 
rules; already it subdues and breaks all in pieces; already it brings all 
the unwilling into subjection; already we see these things ourselves. 
Now we glorify God, being instructed by thee. — " Treatise on Christ and 
Antichrist," Hippolytus, sees. 32, 33; il Ante-Nicene Fathers" Vol. Y, 
p. 210. 

Rome, Its Policy and Aim of World-Conquest. — We have no room 
to doubt that Providence had decreed to the Romans the sovereignty of 
the world, and the Scriptures had prophesied their future grandeur; but 
they were strangers to those divine oracles; and besides, the bare pre- 
diction of their conquests was no justification with regard to them. 
Although it be difficult to affirm, and still more so to prove, that this 
people had fram their first rise, formed a plan in order to conquer and 
subject all nations; it cannot be denied, if we examine their whole con- 
duct attentively, that it will appear that they acted as if they had a 
foreknowledge of this; and that a kind of instinct determined them to 
conform to it in all things. 

But be this as it may, we see, by the event, to what this so much 
boasted lenity and moderation of the Romans was confined. Enemies to 
the liberty of all nations, having the utmost contempt for kings and 
monarchy, looking upon the whole universe as their prey, they grasped, 
with insatiable ambition, the conquest of the whole world; they seized 
indiscriminately all provinces and kingdoms, and extended their empire 
over all nations; in a word, they prescribed no other limits to their vast 
projects, than those which deserts and seas made it impossible to pass. 
— " Ancient History," Charles Rollin, book 18, chap. 1, sec. 7, "Reflec- 
tions," at end of section (Vol. IV, p. 79). New York: Nafis and Cornish, 
1845. 



ROME, POLICY OF 463 

Rome, Early Aim at Supreme Sovereignty. — Whilst the Gauls 
were victorious and the whole of the city in their power, the gods and 
men of Rome still held, still dwelt in, the capitol and the citadel. And 
now that the Romans are victorious and the city recovered, are the cita- 
del and capitol to be abandoned? Shall our good fortune inflict greater 
desolation on this city than our evil fortune wrought? Even had there 
been no religious institutions established when the city was founded 
and passed down from hand to hand, still, so clearly has Providence 
been working in the affairs of Rome at this time, that I for one would 
suppose that all neglect of divine worship has been banished from 
human life. [chap. 51] . . . 

This is the 365th year of the city [388 b. a], Quirites, yet in all 
the wars you have for so long been carrying on amongst all those 
ancient nations, not to mention the separate cities, the Volscians in 
conjunction with the ^Equi and all their strongly fortified towns, the 
whole of Etruria, so powerful by land and sea, and stretching across 
Italy from sea to sea — none have proved a match for you in war. 
This has hitherto been your fortune; what sense can there be — perish 
the thought! — in making trial of another fortune? Even granting 
that your valor can pass over to another spot, certainly the good for- 
tune of this place cannot be transferred. Here is the capitol where in 
the old days a human head was found, and this was declared to be an 
omen; for in that place would be fixed the head and supreme sovereign 
power of the world, [chap. 54] — " The History of Rome," Livy, " The 
Speech of Camillas Against Migrating to Veii" after the destruction of 
Rome by the Gauls, translated by Canon W. L. Roberts, book 5, chaps. 
51, 54. Everyman's Library edition, Vol. I, pp. 347, 351, 352. 

Rome, As Plutarch Viewed Its Policy. — < It is manifest to him that 
will reason aright, that the abundance of success which advanced the 
Roman Empire to such vast power and greatness is not to be attributed 
to human strength and counsels, but to a certain divine impulse and a 
full gale of running fortune which carried all before it that hindered 
the rising glory of the Romans. For now trophies were erected upon 
trophies, and triumphs hastened to meet one another: before the blood 
was cold upon their arms, it was washed off with the fresh blood of their 
falling enemies. Henceforth the victories were not reckoned by the 
numbers of the slain or the greatness of the spoils, but by the kingdoms 
that were taken, by the nations that were conquered, by the isles and 
continents which were added to the vastness of their empire. — "Mor- 
als," Plutarch, article on " Fortune of the Romans," par. 11. 

Rome, Its Skilful Diplomacy. — The Romans were wont to take 
great care not to appear to be the aggressors, or to attack their neigh- 
bors without provocation; but to be considered always to be acting in 
self-defense, and only to enter upon war under compulsion. — " The His- 
tories of Polybius," E. 8. Shuckburgh's translation, "Shorter Fragments," 
belonging in book 28 (Vol. II, p. 549). London: Macmillan & Co., 1889. 

Rome, Its Combination of Clemency and Harshness. — In later 
times, the Romans, thirsting after a universal monarchy, in a great 
measure obtained their ends by the force of their arms, but their clem- 
ency toward such as they had conquered, added much to the increase 
and enlargement of their conquests. . . . And therefore, upon the ac- 
count of this extraordinary clemency, kings, cities, and countries, gen- 
erally sheltered themselves under the protection of the Romans. But 
when they were lords almost of the whole world, then they strengthened 
and confirmed themselves in their dominions; by severity, and razing of 



464 ROME, WORLD SOVEREIGNTY 

towns and cities to strike a terror into their enemies. For they utterly 
destroyed Corinth in Achaia, Carthage in Africa, Numantia in Spain, 
and rooted up the kingdom of Macedonia, in the ruin of Perseus, and 
became a terror to many. — Diodorus, " Fragments Collected by Constan- 
tine, 7th Eastern Emperor" book 26, chap. 83 (Vol. II, pp. 12, 13). 
London: Henry Valesius. 

Rome, Always Watching to Advance Imperial Aims. — Ambassa- 
dors were sent to Philip, king of Macedon, to demand the surrender of 
Demetrius of Pharos, who had taken refuge with him after his defeat, 
and another embassy dispatched to the Ligurians to make a formal 
complaint as to the assistance they had given the Carthaginian in men 
and money, and at the same time to get a nearer view of what was 
going on among the Boii and the Insubres. Officials were also sent 
to Pineus, king of Illyria, to demand payment of the tribute which 
was now in arrears, or, if he wished for an extension of time, to 
accept personal securities for its payment. So, though they had an 
immense war on their shoulders, nothing escaped the attention of the 
Romans in any part of the world, however distant. — " The History of 
Rome,'" Livy. translated by Canon W. L. Roberts, book 22, chap. 33. 
Everyman's Library edition, Vol. Ill, p. 96. 

Note. — At this very time the Romans were engaged in a life-and-death 
struggle with Carthage, whose army was in Italy. — Eds. 

Rome, Policy of, in Asia. — From 188 to 133 [b. c], not a Roman 
soldier appeared in Asia; but the commissioners of the Senate were 
always there, keeping watch upon the words and acts of the Asiatic 
princes; intervening with authority in all affairs, with the design of 
degrading the native rulers in the eyes of their subjects; exacting rich 
gifts, in order to keep them always burdened; taking their sons as 
hostages, to send them back like Demetrius [of Macedon], gained over 
to the interests of Rome. — " History of Rome," Victor Duruy, chap. 33 
(Vol. II, p. 218). Boston: C. F. Jewett Pub. Co., 1883. 

Rome, Hostilities with Greece Begun by. — Rome came first into 
hostile relations with Macedonia. During the Second Punic War 
Philip V of that kingdom had entered into an alliance with Hannibal. 
He was now troubling the Greek cities which were under the protection 
of Rome. For these things the Roman Senate resolved to punish him. 

An army under Flamininus was sent into Greece, and on the plains 
of Cynoscephalse [b. c. 196], in Thessaly, the Roman legion demon- 
strated its superiority over the unwieldy Macedonian phalanx by sub- 
jecting Philip to a most disastrous defeat [b. c. 197]. The king was 
forced to give up all his conquests, and the Greek cities that had been 
brought into subjection to Macedonia were declared free. Unfortu- 
nately the Greeks had lost all capacity for self-government, and the 
anarchy into which their affairs soon fell afforded the Romans an excuse 
for extending their rule over all Greece. — " General History" Philip 
Van Ness Myers, pp. 241, 242. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. 

Rome Overthrows Macedonian Power, 168 b. c. — And now Mace- 
donia, under the leadership of Perseus, son of Philip V, was again in 
arms and offering defiance to Rome; but in the year 168 b. c. the Roman 
consul ^Emilius Paulus crushed the Macedonian power forever upon the 
memorable field of Pydna. Twenty-two years later (146 b. c.) the coun- 
try was organized as a Roman province. The short but great part which 
Macedonia as an independent state had played in history was ended. 
She now drops below the historical horizon. — Id., p. 242. 



ROME, CONQUESTS OF 465 

Rome, Succeeds Greece by Conquest of Macedonia (Dan. 8: 9). 
— Thus [by victory over Perseus, king of Macedonia, battle of Pydna, 
June 22, 168 b. c. — Eds.] perished the empire of Alexander the Great, 
which had subdued and Hellenized the East, one hundred and forty- 
four years after his death, [p. 508] . . . 

All the Hellenistic states had thus been completely subjected to the 
protectorate of Rome, and the whole empire of Alexander the Great had 
fallen to the Roman commonwealth, just as if the city had inherited it 
from his heirs. From all sides kings and ambassadors flocked to Rome 
to congratulate her, and they showed that fawning is never more abject 
than when kings are in the antechamber, [p. 519] . . . 

The moment was at least well chosen for such acts of homage. 
Polybius dates from the battle of Pydna the full establishment of the 
universal empire of Rome. It was, in fact, the last battle in which a 
civilized state confronted Rome in the field on a footing of equality with 
her as a great power; all subsequent struggles were rebellions, or wars 
with peoples beyond the pale of the Romano-Greek civilization — the 
barbarians, as they were called. The whole civilized world thenceforth 
recognized in the Roman Senate the supreme tribunal, whose commis- 
sioners decided in the last resort between kings and nations; and to 
acquire its language and manners, foreign princes and youths of quality 
resided in Rome. [pp. 519, 520] — " History of Rome," Theodor Momm- 
sen, translated by Wm. P. Dickson, D. D., LL. D., book 3, chap. 10 (Vol. 
II, pp. 508-520)., New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903. 

Rome, Its Fierce Spirit of Conquest. — The vast host of the enemy 
[the Volscians], relying solely on their numbers and measuring the 
strength of each army merely by their eyes, went recklessly into the 
battle and as recklessly abandoned it. Courageous enough in the battle 
shout, in discharging their weapons, in making the first charge, they 
were unable to stand the foot-to-foot fighting and the looks of their 
opponents, glowing with the ardor of battle. — " The History of Rome," 
Livy, book 6, chap. 13. Everyman's Library edition, Vol. II, p. 15. 

Rome, The Fierce Countenances of Its- Soldiery. — The Romans 
admitted that they had never fought with a more obstinate enemy, and 
when the Samnites were asked what it was that first turned them, with 
all their determination, to flight, they said that the eyes of the Romans 
looked like fire, and their faces and expression like those of madmen; 
it was this more than anything else which filled them with terror. — 
Id., book 7, chap. 33, p. 94. 

Rome, The Romans Described as " Robbers of the World." — Do 
you not know that the Romans, when they found themselves stopped by 
the ocean on the west, turned their arms this way? That to look back 
to their foundation and origin, whatever they have, they have from 
violence, — home, wives, lands, and dominions. A vile herd of every 
kind of vagabonds, without country, without forefathers, they estab- 
lished themselves for the misfortune of the human race. Neither divine 
nor human laws restrain them from betraying and destroying their 
allies and friends, remote nations or neighbors, the weak or the 
powerful. . . . 

It will be for your immortal glory to have supported two great 
kings, and to have conquered and destroyed those robbers of the world. 
This is what I earnestly advise and exhort you to do; that you may 
choose rather to share with us by a salutary alliance, in conquering the 
common enemy, than to suffer the Roman Empire to extend itself uni- 
versally by our ruin. — Letter of Mithridates, king of Pontus, to Arsaces, 
king of the Parthians; cited in Rolliri's "Ancient History," book 22, sec 
3, par. 29 (Vol. IV, p. 368). New York: Nafis and Cornish, 1845. 
30 



466 ROME, SWAY EXTENDED 

Rome, Its Sway Extended East, South, and to the Holy Land 
(Dan. 8: 9; 11: 16). — The career of Pompey in the east had been one 
uninterrupted success. Forty days sufficed for him to clear the sea of 
pirates; he pursued them to their strongholds and destroyed them. Then 
he advanced against Mithridates and his son-in-law and ally, Tigranes of 
Armenia. A victory in 66 b. c. shattered the Pontic power and brought 
peace with Tigranes. The Parthians also allied themselves with Pom- 
pey. Steadily Mithridates was hemmed in, until, in 63 b. c, he fled to 
his dependency, the kingdom of Bosporus, to the north of the Black 
Sea, and there killed himself. His kingdom was made part of the 
Roman province of Bithynia. The kingdom of the Selucidae was brought 
to an end and Syria became a province (64 b. a). The Jewish king 
resisted Pompey, who stormed Jerusalem (63 b. c.) and reduced Judea 
to a Roman dependency ruled by high priests. The Euphrates River 
became the eastern boundary of the Roman state. Cities were founded, 
stable government was restored, and prosperity revived. Two new prov- 
inces, Bithynia-Pontus and Syria, were added to Rome's eastern pos- 
sessions; the province of Cilicia, which had been established in 102 b. o. 
at the time of Rome's first operation against the pirates, was enlarged 
and friendly alliances with the border kings and chiefs were established 
or renewed. An immense sum was paid into the Roman treasury. 
Pompey had amply fulfilled his task, and now returned to Rome, where 
he triumphed, in 61 b. c. — "A History of the Ancient World," George 
Stephen Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 410, 411. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1912. 

Rome, Pompey's Trophies from East and South. — He [Pompey] 
had a great desire and emulation to occupy Syria, and to march through 
Arabia to the Red Sea, that he might thus extend his conquests every 
way to the great ocean that encompasses the habitable earth. . . . [Then, 
describing Pompey's triumph, on his return to Rome:] In the first place 
there were tables carried, inscribed with the names and titles of the 
nations over whom he triumphed, Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphla- 
gonia, Media, Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, and 
Mesopotamia, together with Phoenicia and Palestine, Judsea, Arabia, and 
all power of the pirates subdued by sea and land. — "Plutarch's Lives," 
Vol. TV, "Pompey," pp. 98, 106; translation called Dryden's, collected 
from the Greek and revised by A. H. Clough. Boston: Little, Brown & 
Co., 1859. 

Rome, Cesar Compared with Alexander. — He [Julius Caesar] was 
a man most fortunate in all things, superhuman, of grand designs, and 
fit to be compared with Alexander. Both were men of the greatest 
ambition, both were most skilled in the art of war, most rapid in exe- 
cuting their decisions, and most reckless of danger, least sparing of 
themselves, and relying as much on audacity and luck as on military 
skill. — " The Roman History," Appian of Alexandria, " The Civil Wars" 
translated by Horace White, book 2, chap. 21, par. 149 (Yol. II, p. 203). 
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1899. 

Rome, Caesar's Fall. — [Scene of Caesar's death:] With rage and 
outcries Caesar turned now upon one and now upon another like a wild 
animal, but after receiving the wound from Brutus he despaired and, 
veiling himself with his robe, he fell in a decent position at the foot of 
Pompey's statue. — Id., book 2, chap. 16, par. 117 (Vol. II, pp. 179, 180). 

Rome, In the Augustan Age. — The hundred years of strife 
which ended with the battle of Actium left the Roman Republic, ex- 



ROME, AUGUSTUS 467 

hausted and helpless, in the hands of one [Octavius Augustus] wise 
enough and strong enough to remold its crumbling fragments in such 
a manner that the state, which seemed ready to fall to pieces, might 
prolong its existence for another five hundred years. It was a great 
work thus to create anew, as it were, out of anarchy and chaos, a 
political fabric that should exhibit such elements of perpetuity and 
strength. " The establishment of the Roman Empire," says Meri- 
vale, " was, after all, the greatest political work that any human being 
ever wrought. The achievements of Alexander, of Caesar, of Charle- 
magne, of Napoleon are not to be compared with it for a moment." — 
"General History," Philip Van Ness Myers, p. 274. Boston: Ginn & 
Co., 1906. 

Rome, The Age of the City's Grandeur, — The city, which was not 
built in a manner suitable to the grandeur of the empire, and was liable 
to inundations of the Tiber, as well as to fires, was so much improved 
under his [Augustus Caesar's] administration, that he boasted, not with- 
out reason, that he " found it of brick, but left it of marble." — " The 
Lives of the Twelve Gwsars," G. Suetonius Tranquillus, chap. 29, "Ccesar 
Augustus," translated by Alexander Thomson, M. D., p. 91. London: 
George Bell & Sons, 1887. 

Rome, Augustus as Raiser of Taxes. — [Introduction by Augustus 
of general census and tax system.] History has never, perhaps, suf- 
fered, a greater or more irreparable injury than in the loss of the 
curious register bequeathed by Augustus to the senate, in which that 
experienced prince so accurately balanced the revenues ana expenses 
of the Roman Empire, [par. 43] . . . 

The introduction of customs was followed by the establishment of 
an excise, and the scheme of taxation was completed by an artful 
assessment on the real and personal* property of the Roman citizens, 
who had been exempted from any Kind of contribution above a century 
and a half. [par. 47] . . . 

The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was ex- 
tremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one per cent; 
but it comprehended whatever was sold in the markets or by public 
auction, from the most considerable purchases of lands and houses, to 
those minute objects which can only derive a value from their infinite 
multitude and daily consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body of 
the people, has ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent, [par. 
49] — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" 
Edward Gibbon, chap. 6, pars. 43, 47, 49 (Vol. I, pp. 186-191). New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Note. — It was at this time in the order of the prophecy of Daniel 11, that 
there was to "stand up in his estate a raiser of taxes [one that causes an ex- 
actor to pass over, margin] in the ' glory ' of his power." Verse 20. This 
stands in history as the glorious age of Rome. — Eds. 

Rome, Enrolment in the Days of Augustus. — The oath was ad- 
ministered at the same time, according to the usage of the Roman 
census, in which a return of persons, ages, and properties, was required 
to be made upon oath, under penalty of confiscation of the goods of the 
delinquents, as we learn from Ulpian. And the reason for registering 
ages was, that among the Syrians, males from fourteen years of age, 
and females from twelve, until their sixty-fifth year, were subject to a 
capitation, or poll-tax, by the Roman law. This was two drachmas a 
head, half a stater, or about fifteen pence [thirty cents] of our currency. 
See the case of our Lord and Peter afterward, where " a stater," the 
amount of both, was procured by a miracle. Matt. 17: 24-27. [p. 
49] . . . 



468 ROME, CENSUS OF QUIRINUS 

By the wary policy of Roman jurisprudence, to prevent insurrec- 
tions, and to expedite the business, all were required to repair to their 
own cities. Even in Italy, the consular edict commanded the Latin 
citizens " not to be enrolled at Rome, but all in their own cities." And 
this precaution was still more necessary in turbulent provinces, like 
Judea and Galilee. And the decree was peremptory, and admitted of no 
delay. Joseph therefore was obliged to go with Mary, notwithstanding 
her advanced state of pregnancy, to his family town, Bethlehem, where 
the Saviour of the world was born in a stable and laid in a manger! 

Thus did " the fierceness of man," or the anger of Augustus 
toward Herod, " turn to the praise of God," and to the fulfilment of 
prophecy, that Christ should be born at Bethlehem (Micah 5: 2), so far 
from his mother's residence; and that as Shiloh (the apostle) he should 
come into the world when " the scepter had departed from Judah " 
(Gen. 49: 10), for Judea was made a Roman province by the introduc- 
tion of a Roman enrolment therein. Julian, the apostate, unwittingly 
objected this to Christ's claim: 

" This Jesus, proclaimed by you [Christians] was one of Caesar's 
subjects. If ye disbelieve, I will prove it presently; or rather let it be 
told now; ye say then yourselves that he was enrolled, with his father 
and mother, in the time of Cyrenius." [p. 50] — "A New Analysis of 
Chronology and Geography" Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. Ill, pp. 49, 
50. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Borne, Law Regarding Place of Enrolment. — In connection with 
the census of Quirinius it is stated in Luke 2: 3: "All went to enroll 
themselves, every one to his own city." This has been felt by many 
scholars to be an improbable statement, and has been cited as an evi- 
dence of the unhistorical character of the whole story of the census in 
Luke. In this connection part of a papyrus discovered in Egypt, which 
is dated in the 7th year of the emperor Trajan, 103-104 a. d., is of great 
interest. - This document contains three letters. The third of the letters 
is the one which relates to our subject. It is as follows: 

" Gaius Vibius, chief prefect of Egypt. Because of the approaching 
census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from 
their own homes, should at once prepare to return to their own gov- 
ernments, in order that they may complete the family administration 
of the enrolment, and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging 
to them. Knowing that your city has need of provisions from the 
country, I wish "... (At this point the papyrus becomes too fragmen- 
tary for connected translation.) 

It is perfectly clear that in Egypt the enrolment was done on the 
basis of kinship. The word rendered " family " above [ <rvvf}dr) sunethe] 
means " kindred " in the larger sense. The phrase rendered " belonging 
to " [them, i. e., the tilled lands] also means " kindred." It appears, 
then, that in Egypt the enrolment of each district was intended to 
include all the kinsmen belonging to that district, and that, lest those 
residing elsewhere should forget to return home for the census, procla- 
mations were issued directing them to do so. It is well known that in 
many respects the customs of administration in Syria and Egypt were 
similar. Luke's statement, that Joseph went up from Nazareth to Beth- 
lehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to enroll him- 
self with Mary (Luke 2: 4, 5), turns out to be in exact accord with the 
governmental regulations as we now know them from the papyri. — 
"Archceology and the Bible," George A. Barton, Ph. D., LL. D., p. 435. 
Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union, 1916. 

Rome, Tiberius, Successor of Augustus, a Dissembler. — Tiberius 
was a patrician of good education, but he had a most peculiar nature. 



ROME, TIBERIUS 469 

He never let what he desired appear in his talk, and ahout what he 
said he wished he usually cared nothing at all. Thus his words indi- 
cated just the opposite of his real purpose: he denied any interest in 
what he longed for and urged the claims of what he hated. He would 
exhibit anger over matters that were very far from arousing his rage, 
and made a show of affability where he was most vexed. — " History of 
Rome," Gassius Dio, book 57, under A. D. 14 (Vol.. IV, p. 259). Troy, 
N. Y.: PafraeVs Booh Company, 1905. 

Note. — The prophecy of Daniel had listed next in order of history " a vile 
person," given to " flatteries." Dan. 11 : 21. The word translated " flattery " 
means also " dissimulation." Elliott : " The word has a double sense ; being ap- 
plied both to slipperiness of a path, and the slipperiness or flattering and deceit 
of the tongue." Ps. 35 : 6 ; Prov. 2 : 16. Gesenius : " Arts of dissimulation." — 
Quoted by Elliott, " Horw Apocalypticx," Vol. IV, p. 133. Barnes : " By acts of 
dissembling." — " Notes on Daniel," p. 451. Vileness and dissembling were to be 
the characteristics of this power, which would receive adulation and flattery 
from others. — Eds. 

Rome, Tiberius Described as a Vile Dissembles. — Though he 
made no scruple to assume and exercise immediately the imperial au- 
thority, by giving orders that he should be attended by the guards, who 
were the security and badge of the supreme power; yet he affected, by a 
most impudent piece of acting, to refuse it for a long time, ... by 
ambiguous answers, and a crafty kind of dissimulation. — " The Lives 
of the Twelve Cwsars," G. Suetonius Tranquillus, chap. 24, " Tiberius,'" 
translated by Alexander Thomson, M. D., p. 209. London: George Bell 
& Sons, 1887. 

The vile old lecher. — Id., chap. 45. 

Rome, After Dissembling, Tiberius accepts Sovereignty. — When 
no further news of a revolutionary nature came, but all parts of the 
Roman world began to yield a steady acquiescence to his leadership, he 
no longer practised dissimulation regarding the acceptance of sovereign 
power. — "Roman History," Gassius Dio, book 57, chap. 7 (Vol. IV, p. 
267). Troy, N. Y.: PafraeVs Book Company, 1905. 

Rome, Time of Flattery and Insincerity. — Such was the pesti- 
lential character of those times, so contaminated with adulation. — " The 
Works of Tacitus," book 3, chap. 65 (Vol. I, p. 147). New York: Harper 
& Brothers, 1863. 

As for Tiberius, his body was now wasted and his strength ex- 
hausted, but his dissimulation failed him not. . . . 

At last, when all restraints of shame and fear were removed, and 
he was left to the uncontrolled bent of his genius, he broke out at once 
into acts of atrocious villainy and revolting depravity. — Id., book 6, 

chaps. 50, 51 (Vol. I, pp. 245, 247). 

Rome, The Prince of the Covenant "Broken" (Dan. 11: 22). — 
Christus, the founder of that name, was put to death as a criminal by 
Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the 
pernicious superstition, repressed for a time, broke out again, not only 
through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of 
Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow, from all 
quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged. 
— Id., book 15, chap. 44. 

It was in the midst of the reign of Tiberius that, in a remote prov- 
ince of the Roman Empire, the Saviour was crucified. Animated by an 



470 ROME, DEGENERACY OF 

unparalleled missionary spirit, his followers traversed the length and 
hreadth of the empire, preaching everywhere the " glad tidings." Men's 
loss of faith in the gods of the old mythologies, the softening and lib- 
eralizing influence of Greek culture, the unification of the whole civi- 
lized world under a single government, the widespread suffering and tne 
inexpressible weariness of the oppressed and servile classes, — all these 
things had prepared the soil for the seed of the new doctrines. In less 
than three centuries the pagan empire had become Christian not only 
in name, but also very largely in fact. — " General History" Philip Van 
Ness Myers, p. 282. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. 

Rome, So-called Conversion of. — But the elevation of Christianity 
as the religion of the state presents also an opposite aspect to our con- 
templation. It involved great risk of degeneracy to the church. The 
Roman state, with its laws, institutions, and usages, was still deeply 
rooted in heathenism, and could not be transformed by a magical stroke. 
The Christianizing of the state amounted therefore in great measure to 
a paganizing and secularizing of the church. Tne world overcame the 
church, as much as the church overcame the world; and the temporal 
gain of Christianity was in many respects canceled by spiritual loss. 
The mass of the Roman Empire was baptized only with water, not with 
the spirit and fire of the gospel, and it smuggled heathen manners and 
practices into the sanctuary under a new name. The very combination 
of the cross with the military ensign by Constantine was a most doubt- 
ful omen, portending an unhappy mixture of the temporal and the 
spiritual powers. — " History of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, 
D. D., (7 vol. edition) Vol. Ill, p. 93. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1893. 

Rome, Degeneracy under Later Empire. — The secularization of 
the church appeared most strikingly in the prevalence of mammon wor- 
ship and luxury. . . . Chrysostom addresses a patrician of Antioch: 
" You count so and so many acres of land, ten or twenty palaces, as 
many baths, a thousand or two thousand slaves, carriages plated with 
silver and gold." Gregory Nazianzen, who presided for a time in the sec- 
ond ecumenical council of Constantinople in 381, ^ives us the following 
picture, evidently rhetorically colored, yet drawn from life, of the 
luxury of the degenerate civilization of that period: "We repose in 
splendor on high and sumptuous cushions, upon the most exquisite cov- 
ers, which one is almost afraid to touch, and are vexed if we but hear 
the voice of a moaning pauper; our chamber must breathe the odor of 
flowers, even rare flowers; our table must flow with the most fragrant 
and costly ointment, so that we become perfectly effeminate." — Id., 
p. 127. 

Rome, To Be Displaced by New Nations. — The uncontrollable prog- 
ress of avarice, prodigality, voluptuousness, theater going, intemperance, 
lewdness, in short, of all the heathen vices, which Christianity had come 
to eradicate, still carried the Roman Empire and people with rapid 
strides toward dissolution, and gave it at last into the hands of the 
rude, but simple and morally vigorous barbarians. When the Chris- 
tians were awakened by the crashings of the falling empire, and anx- 
iously asked why God permitted it, Salvian, the Jeremiah of his time, 
answered: "Think of your vileness and your crimes, and see whether 
you are worthy of the divine protection." Nothing but the divine judg- 
ment of destruction upon this nominally Christian but essentially 
heathen world, could open the way for the moral regeneration of society. 
There must be new, fresh nations, if the Christian civilization prepared 
in the old Roman Empire was to take firm root and bear ripe fruit. — 
Id., p. 128. 



ROME, INVASIONS OF 471 



Rome, Invasions of. — The death of Theodosius placed the admin- 
istration of the empire in the hands of his two sons. Arcadius received 
the eastern portion, Honorius the west. Both were young and incapable. 
Meanwhile the flood of Germanic invasion which in the course of the 
following century was to overwhelm the fairest provinces of the West- 
ern Empire, had already begun. The Visigoths (West Goths), fleeing 
before the Huns, who had already conquered the Ostrogoths (East 
Goths) settled for a time in Dacia, but with the consent of the Roman 
officers they crossed the Danube in the reign of Valens [364-378]. Feel- 
ing misused by their hosts, they rose in rebellion, and in the bloody 
battle of Adrianople (378 a. d.) they slew the emperor himself and 
destroyed his army. The best that Theodosius could do was to leave 
them in Mcesia where only his strong arm restrained their further 
movements. Meanwhile, Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, Alamanni, and 
Franks burst into the western provinces. 

The very year of the death of Theodosius (a. d. 395), the Visigoths 
rose under Alaric, their chieftain, and marched into Greece. Seven 
years later they attacked Italy. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, suc- 
cessfully resisted them, until, out of jealousy and fear, he was mui- 
dered by his royal master. Then Alaric was able to overrun Italy and 
even to capture Rome (a. d. 410). 

It was in this crisis that the Roman legions, departed from Britain, 
leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Picts and Scots. The Suevi 
had penetrated into Spain, where they were followed by the Vandals. 
Upon the death of Alaric, the Visigoths left Italy and moved westward 
into Spain, where they set up a kingdom (a. d. 412) which was to last 
for three hundred years. The Vandals retired before them into Africa 
(a. d. 429), where they captured Carthage ten years later, and therein 
established a kingdom under their shrewd and enterprising leader 
Gaiseric [Genseric]. 

As if this were not enough, the cause of this tremendous upheaval of 
the German tribes now appeared on the scene in the advance of the 
Huns, a people of alien race and strange manners, wild, savage warriors, 
rushing down out of the far northeast from their homes in Central Asia. 
Under their king, Attila, they were united and organized into a formid- 
able host, which included also Germans and Slavs. Attila had no less 
a purpose than to overthrow the Roman Empire and set up a new Hun- 
nish state upon its ruins. " Though a barbarian, Attila was by no 
means a savage. He practised the arts of diplomacy, often sent and 
received embassies, and respected the international laws and customs 
which then existed." After ravaging the east as far as the Euphrates, 
he turned to the west, crossed the Rhine, and invaded Gaul. There he 
was met by an imperial army under ^Etius and was defeated and turned 
back in a fierce struggle at the " Catalaunian Fields" (Chalons) in 
a. d. 451, which is justly regarded as one of the decisive battles of his 
tory. The next year he penetrated into Italy, and the destruction of 
Rome seemed imminent, but mysteriously the heathen king stayed his 
advance on the receipt of the message from Pope Leo the Great: "Thus 
far and no farther." In 453 a. d. he died, and with his death his vast 
empire dissolved and the Hunnish peril was over. 

The emperors during this period were weak men and ineffective 
rulers, often set up and always upheld by their armies, which were 
made up almost entirely of Germans and led by men of the same race. 
Stilicho was a Vandal. Ricimer, another imperial general, was a Sue- 
vian. The emperors of the West emphasized still more their importance 
by placing the seat of government at Ravenna, an almost inaccessible 
fortress on the Adriatic Sea. The rest of Italy might suffer from the 
marches and contests of rival armies, while they were secure. Thus 



472 ROME, INVASIONS OF 

they beheld, in a. d. 455, the capture and sack of Rome by Gaiseric, the 
Vandal king of Africa, repeated in a. d. 472 by Ricimer. 

Following Honorius, a succession of nine weaklings kept up a pre- 
tense of imperial rule, until Romulus Augustulus, a mere boy, was set 
upon the throne. His German mercenaries, irritated by a refusal to 
grant them lands on which to settle, took as their leader Odovacar, the 
Rugian, captured the emperor, and forced him to resign his office (a. p. 
476). Then the imperial insignia were sent to the emperor of the East, 
Zeno, who thus became sole emperor and appointed Odovacar governor 
of Italy. In fact the latter ruled Italy as a king, while, as we have seen, 
other parts of the West did not even formally acknowledge the em- 
peror's authority. For this reason the year a. d. 476 is often regarded 
as a turning-point in the history of Rome as marking the fall of the 
Western Empire. — "A History of the Ancient World," George Stephen 
Goodspeed, Ph. D., pp. 502-505. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1912. 

Rome, Early Invasions as Viewed by a Contemporary. — At this 
time [about a. d. 364, 365] the trumpet as it were gave signal for war 
throughout the whole Roman world; and the barbarian tribes on our 
frontier were moved to make incursion on those territories which lay 
nearest to them. The Allemanni laid waste Gaul and Rhaetia at the 
same time. The Sarmatians and Quadi ravaged Pannonia. The Picts, 
Scots, Saxons, and Atacotti harassed the Britons with incessant inva- 
sions; the Austoriani and other Moorish tribes attacked Africa with 
more than usual violence. Predatory bands of the Goths plundered 
Thrace. — " History of the Roman Empire," Ammianus Marcellinus, book 
26, chap. 4, p. 413. London: George Bell & Sons, 1894. 

Rome, Fall of (Western Empire). — Odovacar [or Odoacer] . . . 
had served under Ricimer in 472 against Anthemius; and by 476 he had 
evidently distinguished himself sufficiently to be readily chosen as their 
king by the congeries of Germanic tribes which were cantoned in Italy. 
His action was prompt and decisive. He became king on 23 August: by 
the 28th Orestes had been captured and beheaded at Piacenza, and on 
4 September Paulus, the brother of Orestes, was killed in attempting to 
defend Ravenna. The emperor Romulus Augustulus became the captive 
of the new king, who, however, spared the life of the handsome boy, and 
sent him to live on a pension in a Campanian villa. While Odovacar 
was annexing Italy, Euric was spreading his conquests in Gaul; and 
when he occupied Marseilles, Gaul, like Italy, was lost. 

The success of Odovacar did not, however, mean the erection of 
an absolutely independent Teutonic kingdom in Italy, or the total ex- 
tinction of the Roman Empire in the West; and it does not therefore 
indicate the beginning of a new era, in anything like the same sense as 
the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. It is indeed a new and important 
fact, that after 476 there was no Western Emperor until the year 800, 
and it must be admitted that the absence of any separate emperor of 
the West vitally affected both the history of the Teutonic tribes and the 
development of the Papacy, during those three centuries. — " The Gam- 
bridge Medieval History," J. B. Bury, M. A., Vol. I, pp. 430, 431. New 
York: The Macmillan Company, 1911. 

Rome in Hands of Invaders (about a. d. 500). — I have now ac- 
complished the laborious narrative of the decline and fall of the Roman 
Empire, from the fortunate age of Trajan and the Antonines, to its total 
extinction in the West, about five centuries after the Christian era. At 
that unhappy period, the Saxons fiercely struggled with the natives for 



HOME, INVASIONS OF 473 

the possession of Britain: Gaul and Spain were divided between the pow- 
erful monarchies of the Franks and Visigoths and the dependent king- 
doms of the Suevi and Burgundians: Africa was exposed to the cruel 
persecution of the Vandals, and the savage insults of the Moors: Rome 
and Italy, as far as the banks of the Danube, were afflicted by an army 
of barbarian mercenaries, whose lawless tyranny was succeeded by the 
reign of Theodoric the Ostrogoth. All the subjects of the empire, who, 
by the use of the Latin language, more particularly deserved the name 
and privileges of Romans, were oppressed by the disgrace and ca- 
lamities of foreign conquest; and the victorious nations of Germany 
established a new system of manners and government in the western 
countries of Europe. The majesty of Rome was faintly represented by 
the princes of Constantinople, the feeble and imaginary successors of 
Augustus. Yet they continued to reign over the East, from the Danube 
to the Nile and Tigris; the Gothic and Vandal kingdoms of Italy and 
Africa were subverted by the arms of Justinian; and the history of the 
Greek emperors may still afford a long series of instructive lessons and 
interesting revolutions. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," Gibbon, chap. 38, last par. (Vol. Ill, pp. 631, 632). 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Rome, The Swarm of Invaders Fulfilling the Prophecy of the 
Division of the Empire. — What an imposing sight was that of all these 
barbarians rushing down from the east and from the north in number- 
less multitudes, crossing the Baltic in their boats, issuing from their 
forests on their wild horses, passing over rivers on the ice; and for the 
fulfilment in the Roman Empire of Daniel's prophecy. . . . But where 
were all these Gothic races at the time when Daniel beheld them from 
his bed in Babylon, in the first year of Belshazzar? Where were these 
nations that were to come, 955 years after the prophecy, and throw 
themselves into the last of the four monarchies? — They were living in 
the distant regions of Asia, on the tableland of the Altaic mountains, 
in the high valleys of Hindoo-Cutch of Cashmere, and of the Himalaya. 
The great Odin, who was in aftertime to lead them into Scandinavia, 
and of whom they were to make a god, was not yet even born; and 
nevertheless all their paths were already traced in the councils of the 
Most High, and foretold in his Word. — " The Prophet Daniel Explained," 
Prof. L. Oaussen, Vol. I, p. 211. London. 

Rome, Pagan, the Hindering Power. — It is admitted by both 
Protestant and Roman Catholic interpreters that St. Paul's " man of sin " 
and St. John's " Antichrist " are the same. But the rise of the " man of 
sin " is preceded by the removal of a hindering power which was in 
existence in Paul's own day, and to which he referred in carefully 
guarded language, — a power which the early church recognized as that 
of imperial Rome; and similarly the rise of the anti-Christian persecut- 
ing power in the Apocalypse is preceded by the removal of ruling power 
in the Roman state. The conclusion is that the hindering power re- 
moved in each case is the same. It is a remarkable fact, in relation to 
the " let," or hindrance, to the manifestation of the " man of sin," that 
" we have the consenting testimony of the early Fathers, from Irenseus, 
the disciple of the disciple of St. John, down to Chrysostom and Jerome, 
to the effect that it was understood to be the imperial power ruling and 
residing at Rome." — "Key to the Apocalypse" H. Grattan Guinness. 
D. D., pp. 113, 114. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1899. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Alani. — Alans, Alani, a Sarmatian 
people who inhabited the steppes north of the Caucasus Mountains and 



474 ROME, ALLEMANI 



the Black Sea during the first three centuries of the Christian era. A 
large section of them were subdued and incorporated by the Huns in 370. 
Subsequently they settled in Pannonia, Lusitania (411), and Africa 
(429). — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. I, art. "Alans," p. 126. 

The Suevians and one branch of the Vandals established them- 
selves in the northwestern corner [of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain and 
Portugal], the land of Gallicia. . . . The central lands of Lusitania and 
the province of New Carthage fell to the lot of the Alans. ... Of these 
kingdoms, that of the Suevians was the most abiding. . . . The West- 
Gothic sword, wielded in the name of Rome, before long made short 
work of the rest. — " Western Europe in the Fifth Century" E. A. Free- 
man, pp. 141, 142. London: Macmillan & Co., 1904. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Allemanni. — Alamanni, or Alle- 
manni, a German tribe, first mentioned by Dio Cassius, under the year 
213. They apparently dwelt in the basin of the Maine, to the south of 
the Chatti. According to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that 
they were a conglomeration of various tribes. There can be little doubt, 
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponderating ele- 
ment in the nation. Among the other elements may be mentioned the 
Juthungi, Bucinobantes, Lentienses, and perhaps the Armalausi. From 
the fourth century onward we hear also of the Suebi, or Suabi. The 
Hermunduri had apparently belonged to the Suebi, but it is likely 
enough that re-enforcements from new Suebic tribes had now moved 
westward. In later times the names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be 
synonymous. The tribe was continually engaged in conflicts with the 
Romans, the most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which 
they were defeated by Julian, afterward emperor, in the year 357, 
when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. Early in the fifth 
century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the Rhine and conquered 
and settled Alsace and a large part of Switzerland. Their kingdom 
lasted until the year 495, when they were conquered by Clovis, from 
which time they formed part of the Frankish dominions. The Ala- 
mannic and Swabian dialects are now spoken in German Switzerland, 
the southern parts of Baden and Alsace, Wurttemberg and a small por- 
tion of Bavaria. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. I, art. "Alamanni" 
p. 468, 11th edition. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Anglo-Saxons. — We need not 
doubt that the Angli and the Saxons were different nations originally; 
but from the evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had 
practically coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the inva- 
sion. At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come 
into use on the Continent, where we find it, nearly a century before 
Alfred's time, in the writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon). 
There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish 
the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons on the Conti- 
nent. — Id., Vol. II, art. " Anglo-Saxons," p. 38. 

It was in the middle decade of the fifth century of our era that the 
half-civilized Celtic people of South Britain, left naked by the with- 
drawal of the Roman legions, and hard pressed on the north by the Picts 
and the Scots, adopted the fatal expedient of inviting to their aid the 
barbarians of the Baltic. The tribes thus solicited were the Jutes, the 
Angles, the Saxons, and the Frisians. The first mentioned dwelt in the 
Cimbric Chersonesus, now Jutland, or Denmark. Parts of Schleswig 
and Holstein were also included in their territories. In the latter coun- 



ROME, ANGLO-SAXONS 475 

try the district known as Angeln was the native seat of the Angles. To 
the south of these two regions, spreading from the Weser to the delta 
of the Rhine, lay the country of the Saxons, embracing the states after- 
ward known as Westphalia, Friesland, Holland, and a part of Belgium. 
A glance at the map will show that these tribes occupied a position of 
easy approach by sea to the British Isles. . . . 

It is believed that Hengist and Horsa, the leaders of the barbarian 
host which accepted the call of the Celts, as well as a majority of their 
followers in the first expedition [a. d. 449] were Jutes. With them, how- 
ever, a large body of Angles from Holstein, and Saxons from Friesland, 
was joined in the invasion. So came a mixed host into England. . . . 

The result of the first contest in the island was that all of Kent, the 
ancient Cantium, was seized by the invaders and ruled by Eric, the son 
and successor of Hengist. Thus was established the first Saxon king- 
dom in England. 

Thus far the predominating foreigners were Jutes, mixed with 
Angles. This condition of affairs continued with little change for about 
a quarter of a century. In the year 477 a Saxon leader named Ella and 
his three sons landed a powerful force of their countrymen in what was 
afterward called Sussex, or South Saxony. The first settlement made 
by the immigrant warriors was at Withering, in the island of Selsey. 
Thus far the Celtic populations had measurably held their own, but a 
serious struggle now began for the possession of Britain. The native 
peoples took up arms and made a spirited resistance. A great battle 
was fought in which the Saxons were victorious, and the Celts were 
driven into the forest of Andredswold. Meanwhile new bands of Saxons 
poured into the island and joined their countrymen. The British 
princes established a confederacy, but Ella defeated their army in a 
second battle, and gained possession of nearly the whole of Sussex. 
Such was the founding of the second Saxon kingdom in Britain. 

The coast now in possession of the invaders extended from the 
estuary of the Thames to the river Arun. Near the close of the fifth 
century the Saxon leader, Cerdic, with a second army from the Conti- 
nent, landed in the island and carried the conquest westward over 
Hampshire and the Isle of Wight to the river Avon. Thus was founded 
Wessex, or the kingdom of the West Saxons. West of the Avon the 
country was still held by the Britons, who now fought desperately to 
maintain their frontier against the invaders. 

North of the river Thames the first conquest was made in 527 by 
the Saxon prince Ercenwine, who overran the flat country of Essex, es- 
tablishing here the kingdom of the East Saxons. Subsequent con- 
quests soon extended the Saxon border northward to the Stour, which 
was maintained as the frontier till 547. 

The next descent made by the German tribes from the Baltic was 
on the coast at Flamborough Head. A long space was thus left between 
the frontier of the East Saxons and the scene of the new invasion. 
This time the invaders were Angles. The wild country between the 
Tees and the Tyne, embracing the present county of Durham, was 
overrun, and here was founded the kingdom of Bernicia. The next 
incoming tribe was also of the Angle race. The territory between the 
Tees and the Humber was now occupied, but not without a long and 
bloody contest with the natives. This region became the kingdom of 
Deira. 

Near the close of the sixth century the barbarians came in swarms 
The most populous bands were out of Angeln. — "History of the World." 
John Clark Ridpath, LL. D., book 11, chap. 76 (9 vol. ed.. Vol. IV, pp. 
443-445). Cincinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Co., 1910. 



476 ROME, BAVARIANS 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Bavarians. — The earliest known 
inhabitants of the district afterward called Bavaria were a people, 
probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the Romans just 
before the opening of the Christian era, when colonies were founded 
among them and their land was included in the province of Raetia. 
During the fifth century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, 
after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, 
pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between a. d. 488 
and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and 
origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social 
aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, 
Quadi, and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a 
small intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called 
Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii, or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably 
from Baja or Baya, corruptions of Bojer, and given to them because 
they came from Bojerland, or Bohemia. Another but less probable ex- 
planation derives the name from a combination of the old high German 
word uudra, meaning league, and oai, a Gothic word for both. The 
Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and 
twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swa- 
bians. Their country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main 
boundaries were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech, and the Alps; but its 
complete settlement was a work of time. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 
Vol. Ill, art. " Bavaria," p. 545, 11th edition. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Burgundians. — The Burgundians 
invaded the country with the Vandals, 410 a. d., but were vanquished by 
the Franks in 523 [rather, 523-534. — Eds.], and again became independ- 
ent in the ninth century. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. "Bur- 
gundians,'" p. 389. 

Their dominion [a. d. 500], considerably more extensive than when 
we last viewed it on the eve of Attila's invasion, now included the later 
provinces of Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Dauphine, besides Savoy 
and the greater part of Switzerland — in fact, the whole valley of the 
Saone and the Rhone, save that for the last hundred miles of its course 
the Visigoths barred them from the right bank and the mouths of the 
latter river. — " Italy and Her Invaders," Thomas Hodgkin, Vol. Ill, pp. 
357, 358. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1885. 

Although subject to the Franks [by conquest of 534] and tributary 
to them in men and money, Burgundy continued as a separate part of 
the Frankish kingdom at the side of Neustria and Austrasia. At first 
partitioned, it was, on the death of Clotaire I (561), reunited, with a 
constitution of its own, its own government, and with boundaries mod- 
ified in several respects. The Burgundians lived in the full enjoyment 
of their possessions and of their own laws, participated in the adminis- 
tration, and constituted a special force in war. In respect of the were- 
gild [tribute, or " fine " for offenses], they stood on an equality with the 
other subject peoples — the Alamanni, Friesians, Bavarians, and Sax- 
ons. Repeatedly the old national pride flamed forth, even to open 
revolt, but never succeeded against Frankish predominance." — " His- 
tory of All Nations," Vol. VI, " The Great Migrations," Julius von 
Pflugk-Harttung, p. 403. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co., 1902. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Franks. — Franks, The, a confed- 
eration of tribes who are found about 250 a. d. settled in the lower 
Rhine valley, and grouped shortly afterward as Salian Franks (on the 



ROME, FRANKS 477 

lower Rhine) and Ripuarian Franks (on the middle Rhine). After 
the accession of Clovis, in 481, to the throne of the Salian Franks, the 
dependence upon Rome, which had lasted since the early part of the 
fifth century, came to an end. Clovis, having occupied the Seine valley, 
overthrew (496) the Alemanni, and then became an orthodox Christian. 
This induced the church to throw all its influence on the side of the 
Salian Franks, who by 510 had conquered or absorbed all the other 
Frankish tribes. At that time the kingdom of Clovis included most of 
modern France north of the Loire. . . . The rise of the Carlovingians 
led to the formation of the empire of Charles the Great; but on his 
death quarrels ensued among his descendants, and finally, by the treaty 
of Verdun (843), the empire was dismembered. Three monarchies then 
arose, one of which was that of Germany, another that of France, and 
the third that of Burgundy and Lorraine. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. 
V, art. "Franks," p. 193. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Gepidae. — The native haunts of 
the Gepidse appear to have been on the Vistula, near the Baltic. It is 
from this position that their first movements were directed against the 
civilized states of the South. At the first they were associated with the 
Vandals, and were afterward leagued with the Goths of the Middle 
Danube. At the time of the invasion of Attila they were obliged to 
follow the standard of that imperial savage, but after his death they 
regained their independence. Under their king Adaric, they beat back 
the Huns from their territories on the Lower Danube, and became one 
of the most prosperous states. Twelve years after the downfall of the 
Western Empire, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, defeated the Gepidse 
in a great battle near Sirmium. Afterward, in 566, the nation su£ 
fered a second overthrow at the hands of Alboin, king of the Lombards 
and from that time the remnants of the people were gradually absorbed 
by the dominant populations around them. — "History of the World? 
John Clark Ridpath, LL. D., took 11, chap. 73 (9 vol. ed., Vol. IV, pp 
392-394). Cincinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Co., 1910 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Goths. — Goths, a people of Ger- 
manic race, who are first heard of on the southern shores of the Baltic 
. . . Early in the third century, ... we find the Goths settled on the 
Black Sea, between the Don and the Danube. The eastern portion of 
the nation came to be known as the Ostrogoths, or East Goths, and 
western as the Visigoths, or West Goths. . . . 

Bishop Wulfila, or Ulfilas, labored for forty years among the Goths, 
and saw as the fruits of his labor the conversion of the entire people to 
the Arian branch of Christianity. It is a remarkable fact that the Goths 
were the most tolerant of religionists, and it was not till the Visigoths 
of Spain had become " orthodox " that they developed any persecuting 
tendencies. . . . 

Upon the Ostrogoths [East Goths] in 375 fell the invading army of 
the Huns, who subjugated and absorbed them, so that, at the famous 
battle of Chalons, part of the army of Attila, which the Visigoths helped 
to defeat, was composed of Ostrogoths, who had been servants of the 
Huns till that date (451). During the intervening period the Ostro- 
goths have no history, save as regards that small section which was 
allowed by the Emperor Valens to cross the Danube with the Visigoths 
[West Goths] into Thrace, to escape the Huns. But the injustice of the 
Byzantines provoked them to revenge, and in 378, near the modern 
Adrianople, they defeated and slew the emperor Valens. Under his suc- 
cessor, the emperor Theodosius, the relations of the Goths and Romans 
became peaceful, but when, on his death in 395, the empire was divided 



478 ROME, GOTHS 

between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, trouble began. The 
Goths, under their king, Alaric, ravaged Greece. But Stilicho, ruler of 
the Western empire in the name of Honorius, having intervened, Alaric 
in 402 invaded Italy, but was twice defeated (at Pollentia and Verona), 
and forced to retire by Stilicho. In 408, Stilicho being dead, Alaric 
again invaded Italy, and swept all before him. Rome was three times 
besieged, and the third time it was sacked and plundered (410). Alaric 
died while engaged in the siege of Ravenna, to which Honorius had fled; 
and his successor, Ataulf, induced the Visigoths to turn their arms 
against his enemies in Gaul. As a reward for these services, their king, 
Wullia, was granted (419) Aquitania, the richest province of Gaul. His 
successors increased their territory, till under Euric (466-484) they not 
only held all Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, but sub- 
dued the greater part of the Iberian peninsula. After the battle of 
Voclad, near Poitiers (507), in which they were defeated by Clovis, king 
of the Franks, the Goths finally (about 510) abandoned all their French 
territory except a strip on the Mediterranean. Henceforth they were a 
Spanish power. At length, as a matter of political necessity, their king, 
Reccared (586-600), became a convert to Catholicism, and the Visigoths, 
weary of ecclesiastical isolation, were converted by battalions. The 
clergy, as the price of this political deal, succeeded in making them- 
selves supreme. . . . 

[Ostrogothic Division] The Ostrogoths, released from their servi- 
tude by the defeat of the Huns at Chalons, settled in Pannonia, along 
the middle Danube, and for a time were busy as enemies or allies of the 
empire, till their young king, Theodoric, obtained permission to invade 
Italy, as the agent of the empire, to drive out Odoacer, who had usurped 
the throne of the Western empire. This was with some difficulty ac- 
complished, with the help of certain Visigoths (489-493), p.nd Theodoric, 
in fact, if not in name, became king of Italy. He ruled wisely and well, 
and Italy enjoyed a prosperity she had not known for centuries. After 
the death of Theodoric, the emperor Justinian sent his famous general, 
Belisarius, to subdue Italy. Belisarius got possession of Rome, where 
for a whole year (537-538) he was vainly besieged by Witigis, who had 
been elected (536) king of the Goths. And Belisarius had practically 
subdued the country when he was recalled, through court jealousies, to 
Constantinople. Although sent back to Italy in 544, Belisarius could 
effect nothing against the soldier and ruler of genius whom the Goths 
had made king over them. This was Totila, who rapidly recovered Italy. 
Justinian at last awoke to the seriousness of the task, and intrusted it 
to his aged chamberlain, Narses, who led a huge army to invade Italy 
from the north, and fought a decisive battle at Taginae, now Tadino 
(552), where Totila was killed. Under the newly elected king, Teia, 
the Goths made so desperate a stand at Mons Lactariu a , near Vesuvius 
[554], that the imperial general was glad to grant them a safe-conduct 
out of Italy. Their subsequent history is not known. — Nelson's Ency- 
clopedia, Vol. V, art. " Goths, pp. 508, 509. 

The Ostrogoths had grown to be first in influence among the bar- 
barian states. . . . Theodoric accordingly undertook the conquest of 
Italy. The invasion was in the nature of an emigration of the whole 
Gothic people. The aged, the infirm, the women and children, were all 
borne along with the immense procession of warriors, and the whole 
property was included with the baggage. . . . The Goth fought his way 
through every opposing obstacle, passed the Julian Alps, and made his 
way into Italy. 

Odoacer went boldly forth to meet him. The two hosts met on the 
river Sontius, and a decisive battle was fought, in which the Ostrogoths 



ROME, GOTHS 479 

were successful. The country of the Veneti as far south as Verona 
thus fell into the hands of Theodoric. . . . Thus, in the year a. d. 493, 
the Ostrogothic kingdom was established in Italy. 

Theodoric at once entered upon a reign of thirty-three years' dura- 
tion. In accordance with the rights of conquest, a third of the lands 
was apportioned to his followers, [p. 408] .. . 

It was deemed expedient by Theodoric not to assume the insignia 
of imperial authority. He accepted the title of king — a name more 
congenial than that of emperor to the nations of the North, [p. 409] . . . 

In the year a. d. 500, Theodoric visited Rome, where he was received 
with all the glory that the diminished sun of the old metropolis was 
able to shed on her sovereign. For six months the Gothic king remained 
at the ancient capital of the Caesars, where his manners and morals 
were justly applauded by those who as children had witnessed the 
extinction of the empire. . . . 

In religious faith Theodoric, like his people, was an Arian. This 
fact opened a chasm between the Goths and the Italians, the latter 
accepting the Nicene creed. The king, however, was little disposed to 
trouble or be troubled in matters of faith. He and his Gothic subjects 
pursued their own way, and the orthodox Catholics, theirs. Those of 
the Goths who preferred to apostatize to the Athanasian belief were 
permitted to do so without persecution. The whole career of Theodoric 
[p. 410] was marked with a spirit of tolerance and moderation. The old 
theory of the Roman law that every citizen might choose his own 
religion was adopted as best suited to the condition of the people. . . . 

It appears that the religious toleration introduced into the state by 
Theodoric, though outwardly accepted by the Catholics, was exceedingly 
distasteful to their orthodoxy. Without the power to reverse or resent 
the policy of the king, the Italian zealots turned their animosity upon 
the Jews and made that persecuted race the object of their scorn and 
persecution. Many rich but defenseless Israelites — traders and mer- 
chants living at Rome, Naples, Ravenna, Milan, and Genoa — were de- 
prived of their property and turned adrift as so many paupers. Their 
synagogues were despoiled and then burned, their houses pillaged, and 
their persons outraged. To the credit of Theodoric, he set himself 
against these manifestations of rapacious bigotry, and sopae of the chief 
leaders of the tumult were obliged to make restitution to their victims, 
and were then condemned to be publicly whipped in the streets by the 
executioner. 

Then it was that the Italian Catholics set up a cry against the 
persecution of the church. The clemency and good deeds of the king 
were forgotten by those who were opposed to martyrdom when them- 
selves were the martyrs. . . . 

Certain it is that Justinian, who had now succeeded to power at 
Constantinople, resolved to purge the church of heresy as well in the 
West as in his paternal dominions. An edict was issued from Constan- 
tinople against the Arian Christians in all the Mediterranean states. 
Those who refuced to accept the established creed of the church were 
to suffer the penalty of excommunication. This course was indignantly 
resented by Theodoric, who justly reasoned that the same toleration 
shown by himself to his Catholic subjects in the West should of right be 
extended to the Arian Christians in the empire of the Greeks. Theod- 
oric accordingly ordered the Roman Pontiff and four distinguished sen- 
ators to go on an embassy to Constantinople, and there demand of Jus- 
tinian the rights of religious freedom. They were commanded in their 
instructions to urge upon that monarch that any pretense to a dominion 
over the conscience of man is a usurpation of the divine prerogative, 
that the power of the earthly sovereign is limited to earthly things, and 



480 ROME, GOTHS 

that the most dangerous heresy in a state is that of a ruler who puts 
from himself and his protection a part of his subjects on account of their 
religious faith. The rejection by Justinian of this appeal furnished, so 
far as any act could furnish, to Theodoric good ground for issuing an 
edict that, after a certain day, the orthodox religion should be prohib- 
ited throughout Italy. 

It was in the midst of the bitterness excited by this schismatic broil 
that the virtuous and philosophic Boethius, who had so long been the 
greatest and best of the king's counselors, was accused of treason, im- 
prisoned in the tower of Pavia, and then subjected to an ignominious 
execution, [p. 411] . . . 

Thus in his old age was the life of Theodoric clouded with suspi- 
cion and crime. . . . Especially did the specter of the venerable Sym- 
machus, who had been executed soon after Boethius, frown out of the 
shadows and menace the trembling king, who hobbled into his cham- 
ber, and after three days of remorse died, in August, a. d. 526. [p. 412] . . . 

Now it was [about 535 a. d.] that the emperor Justinian undertook 
to avail himself of the dissensions of the Goths, and thereby recover 
Italy. . . . Abundant excuse was offered to the Byzantine court for pros- 
ecuting its designs against the barbarian kingdoms. The state of the 
Vandals was distracted with civil commotions. Hilderic, the rightful 
sovereign, had been deposed and imprisoned, and the usurping Gelimer 
was seated on the throne. The Catholic party of the West favored the 
restoration of the deposed sovereign, and appealed to Justinian to aid 
in that work. The latter fitted out a powerful expedition, the command 
of which was intrusted to Belisarius. In the year 533, the armament 
proceeded to the African coast. A battle was fought with the Vandals 
a few miles from Carthage, and Belisarius was completely victorious. 
The Eastern army entered the Vandal capital. Gelimer was again de- 
feated and obliged to surrender. Within three months, order was re- 
stored in Africa, and Belisarius returned to Constantinople to be re- 
ceived with distrust by his suspicious sovereign. Such was his popu- 
larity, however, that a great triumph was celebrated in his honor in 
the capital of the East. . . . 

In a. d. 535, Belisarius was again sent out from Constantinople to 
reduce Sicily. That work was accomplished without serious opposition, 
and in the following spring Belisarius crossed over [p. 413] into Italy. 
The whole country south of Campania was speedily reduced. . . . 

The old Roman faction of Italy, thoroughly orthodox and thoroughly 
tired of the supremacy of the Goths, went over to Belisarius, and the 
city of the Caesars was once more rescued from barbarism. The king of 
the Goths, however, collected a formidable army in the North, and in 
the spring of 537 besieged Belisarius in Rome. A line of fortifications 
was drawn around the city. Many of the ancient structures were demol- 
ished and the material rebuilt into the ramparts. The mausoleums of 
the old emperors were converted into citadels. When the Goths swarmed 
around the sepulcher of Hadrian, the immortal marbles of Praxiteles 
and Lysippus were torn from their pedestals and hurled down upon the 
heads of the barbarians in the ditch. Belisarius made one audacious 
sortie after another, hurling back his inveterate assailants. Nearly the 
whole Gothic nation gathered around the Eternal City, but Belisarius 
held out until re-enforcements arrived from the East, and after a siege 
of a year and nine days' duration, Rome was delivered from the clutch 
of her assailants. Vitiges was obliged to burn his tents and retreat 
[538 a. d.] before his pursuing antagonist to Ravenna. . . . 

The king of the Goths now shut himself up in the impregnable 
fortifications of Ravenna. Nothing could tempt him to show himself 
beyond the defenses of the city. Nevertheless the Roman general laid 



HOME, GOTHS 481 

siege to the place, and awaited the results of impending famine. He 
vigilantly guarded the approaches to the city, cut off supplies, fired the 
exposed granaries, and even poisoned the waters of the city. In the 
midst of their distress the Goths, conceiving that Belisarius but for his 
obedience to Justinian would make them a better king than their own, 
offered to surrender the city into his hands and become his subjects, if 
he would renounce his allegiance to the emperor of the East and accept 
the crown of Italy. Belisarius seemed to comply. Ravenna was given 
up by the Goths, and the victor took possession. It was, however, no 
part of the purpose of Belisarius to prove a traitor to the emperor, 
though the conduct of Justinian toward himself furnished an excellent 
excuse for treason. The suspicion of the thing done soon reached Con- 
stantinople, and Justinian made haste to recall the conqueror from the 
West. . . . 

With the departure of Belisarius the courage of the Goths revived. 
They still possessed Pavia, which was defended by a thousand warriors, 
and, what was far more valuable, the unconquerable love of freedom. 
Totila, a nephew of Vitiges, was called to the throne, and intrusted with 
the work of re-establishing the kingdom, [p. 414] . . . 

One of the alleged reasons for the recall of Belisarius had been 
that he might be assigned to the defense of the East against the armies 
of Persia. Having successfully accomplished this duty, he was again 
available as the chief resource of Justinian in sustaining the Greek 
cause in Italy. In the year 545 the veteran general was accordingly 
assigned to the command in the West. . . . Meanwhile Totila laid actual 
siege to Rome, and adopted starvation as his ally. . . . 

When Belisarius landed in Italy, he made an ineffectual attempt to 
raise the siege of the city, and the Romans were then obliged to capit- 
ulate, . . . and the city was given up to indiscriminate pillage. . . . 

The Gothic king next directed his march into southern Italy, where 
he overran Lucania and Apulia, and quickly restored the Gothic su- 
premacy as far as the strait of Messina. Scarcely, however, had Totila 
departed upon his southern expedition when Belisarius, who had estab- 
lished himself in the port of Rome, sallied forth with extraordinary 
daring, and regained possession of the city. ... In 549 they [the Goths] 
again besieged and captured Rome. . . . 

In the meantime Belisarius was finally recalled to Constantinople 
and was forced into an inglorious retirement. ... He was succeeded in 
the command of the Roman army in the West by the eunuch Narses, 
who in a body of contemptible stature concealed the spirit of a warrior. 
The dispatch of Justinian recalling Belisarius had declared that the 
remnant of the Gothic war was no longer worthy of his presence. It 
was this " remnant " that in the year 551 was intrusted to Narses. His 
powers were ample and his genius sufficient even for a greater work. 
On arriving in Italy he made haste to bring matters to the crisis of 
battle. On his way from Ravenna to Rome he became convinced that 
delay would be fatal to success. On every side there were evidences of 
a counter-revolution in favor of the Goths. It was evident that nothing 
but a victory could restore the influence of the Byzantine government in 
the West. 

Advancing rapidly on the capital, he met the Goths in the Flaminian 
Way, a short distance from the city. Here, in July of 552, the fate of 
the kingdom established by Theodoric was yielded to the arbitrament 
of arms. A fierce and obstinate conflict ensued, in which Totila was 
slain and his army scattered to the winds. Narses received the keys of 
Rome in the name of his master, this being the fifth time that the 
Eternal City had been taken during the reign of Justinian. The rem- 
31 



482 ROME, GOTHS 

nants of the Goths [p. 416] retired beyond the Po, where they assembled 
and chose Teias for their king. 

The new monarch at once solicited the aid of the Franks, and then 
marched into Campania to the relief of his brother Aligern, who was 
defending the treasure house of Cumse, in which Totila had deposited a 
large part of the riches of the state. In the year 553 Narses met this 
second army in battle, and again routed the Goths and killed their king. 
Aligern was then besieged in Cumas for more than a year, and was 
obliged to surrender. It was evident that the kingdom of the Goths was 
in the hour and article of death. 

At this juncture, however, an army of seventy-five thousand Ger- 
mans, led by the two dukes of the Alemanni, came down from the 
Rhaetian Alps and threatened to burst like a thunder cloud upon cen- 
tral Italy. The change of climate, however, and the wine-swilling glut- 
tony of the Teutonic warriors combined to bring on contagion and deci- 
mate their ranks. Narses went forth with an army of eighteen thousand 
men and met the foe on the banks of the Vulturnus. Here, in 554, the 
petty eunuch inflicted on the barbarians a defeat so decisive as to refix 
the status of Italy. The greater part of the Gothic army perished 
either by the sword or in attempting to cross the river. The victorious 
army returned laden with the spoils of the Goths, and for the last time 
the Via Sacra was the scene of the spectacle of victory called a triumph. 
It was a vain shadow of the imperial glory of the Caesars. 

Thus, in the year 554, after a period of sixty years' duration, was 
subverted the Ostrogothic throne of Italy. One third of this time had 
been consumed in actual war. The country was devastated — almost 
depopulated — by the conflict. The vast area of the kingdom was re- 
duced to the narrow limits of a province, which, under the name of the 
Exarchate of Ravenna, remained as an appanage of the Eastern Em- 
pire. As for the Goths, they either retired to their native seats beyond 
the mountains or were absorbed by the Italians, [p. 417] — "History of 
the World," John Clark Ridpath, LL. D„ book 11, chap. 74 (9 vol. ed., 
Vol. IV, pp. 408-417). Cincinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing 
Company, 1910. 

So ended the long siege of Rome by Witigis, a siege in which the 
numbers and prowess of the Goths were rendered useless by the utter 
incapacity of their commander. Ignorant how to assault, ignorant how 
to blockade, he allowed even the sword of Hunger to be wrested from 
him and used against his army by Belisarius. He suffered the flower 
of the Gothic nation to perish, not so much by the weapons of the 
Romans as by the deadly dews of the Campagna. With heavy hearts 
the barbarians must have thought, as they turned them northward, 
upon the many graves of gallant men which they were leaving on that 
fatal plain. Some of them must have suspected the melancholy truth 
that they had dug one grave, deeper and wider than all, the grave of 
the Gothic monarchy in Italy. — "Italy and Her Invaders," Thomas 
Hodgkin, Vol. IV, p. 285. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1885. 

The utter failure of the Gothic enterprise against Rome did not, as 
might have been expected, immediately bring about the fall of Ravenna. 
Unskilful as was the strategy of the Ostrogoths, there was yet far more 
power of resistance shown by them than by the Vandals. In three 
months the invasion of Africa had been brought to a triumphant con- 
clusion. The war in Italy had now lasted for three years, two more 
were still to elapse before the fall of the Gothic capital announced even 
its apparent conclusion. — Id., book 5, chap. 10, par. 1 (Vol. IV, p. 



ROME, HERULI 483 

[Visigothic Division] We now return to the history of the Visi- 
goths who had become a Spanish power. After Theodoric's death his 
grandson Amalaric was acknowledged as sovereign of the Visigoths, but 
his direct rule was confined to the Gaulish dominions. Amalaric died 
in 531, and the Visigothic state now became what it had been prior to 
419, a purely elective monarchy. Athanagild, who was placed on the 
throne by a rebellion in which he was aided by an army from Justinian, 
reigned prosperously for fourteen years (554-567); but his Byzantine 
allies (the " Greeks," as they were called) seized several of the Spanish 
cities, and were not completely dislodged until about 625. 

The brilliant reign of Leovigild, who made Toledo the capital of 
the kingdom, was marked by the subjugation of the Suevic kingdom in 
northwestern Spain and Portugal. In 572 Leovigild associated with 
himself in the kingdom his two sons, Brmenegild and Reccared. 

On the death of Leovigild his son Reccared, already a crowned king, 
succeeded without the formality of election. One of his first acts was 
to announce his determination to adopt and to establish the Catholic 
religion. 

The conversion of the Visigoths was a political necessity. The 
secure establishment of their dominion was impossible so long as they 
were divided from the subject people by religious differences, and had 
against them the powerful organization of the Spanish church. They 
were converted in battalions, and the clergy made themselves supreme. 
The efforts of Witica (701-710) to carry out extensive reforms in church 
and state were indeed seconded by the archbishop of Toledo, but were 
virulently opposed by the great body of the clergy. Of his successor, 
Roderic, " the last of the Goths," legend has a great deal to say, but 
history knows only that his defeat on the banks of the Guadalete (Au- 
gust, 711) placed the dominion of Spain in the hands of the Moorish 
invaders. Under the pressure of the Moslem yoke the Christians of the 
Peninsula became united into one nation, and the Goths ceased to exist 
as a separate people. — Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowl- 
Vol. XII, art. "Goths," pp. 293, 294. 



Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Heruli. — Heruli, a Teutonic tribe 
which figures prominently in the history of the migration period. The 
name does not occur in writings of the first two centuries a. d. Where 
the original home of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. 
Jordanes says that they had been expelled from their territories by the 
Danes, from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what 
is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the Jutish 
peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of Gallienus (260- 
268), when we find them together with the Goths ravaging the coasts of 
the Black Sea and the JEgean. Shortly afterward, in a. d. 289, they 
appear in the region about the mouth oi the Rhine. During the fourth 
century they frequently served together with the Batavi in the Roman 
armies. In the fifth century we again hear of piratical incursions by 
the Heruli in the Western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom 
in Central Europe, apparently in or around the basin of the Elbe. 
Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by Theod- 
oric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the sixth century to form an 
alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly 
afterward they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. 
A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the 
Gotar, while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, 
where they are frequently mentioned later in connection with the Gothic 
wars. After the middle of the sixth century, however, their name com- 
pletely disappears. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIII, art. " Her- 
uli" p. 403, 11th edition. 



484 ROME, HERULI 

Heruli, a Teutonic tribe first mentioned in the reign of Gallienus, 
in the latter half of the third century after Christ. We hear of them 
ravaging the coasts of Southeast Europe, along with Goths, and shortly 
afterward (289 a. d.) appearing in the country round the mouth of the 
Rhine. Later, they served frequently under the Romans, and later still 
(fifth century) made piratical expeditions in the Western seas, and had 
a kingdom in the basin of the Elbe. About the beginning of the sixth 
century they joined Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, against Clovis, king of 
the Franks, and soon after suffered defeat at the hands of the Lango- 
bardii. After this their name disappears from history. — Standard Ency- 
clopedia of the World's Knowledge, Vol. XIII, art. " Heruli" p. 834. 

First of kingdoms established by the barbarians in Italy was that 
of the Heruli. This nation was led into the peninsula by the bold chief- 
tain Odoacer. . . . Odoacer at once made himself king of Italy. Rome 
was down, and the residue was ground under the heel of a German 
chieftain out of the North, who, to the one third of the lands of Italy 
which had been demanded by his followers as a recompense for their 
services, added the remaining two thirds to fill up the measure. King 
Odoacer soon showed himself master of the strange situation which 
had supervened in Italy. He wisely adapted his methods of government 
to the condition of the people. ... He accepted the title of king, but 
refused the purple and the diadem, thus conciliating both the German 
princes and the phantom nobility of Italy. . . . The Roman nobility led 
a life of tremulous anxiety, humbly subservient to the master to whom 
they owed their lives and the remnant of their fortunes. Nor did the 
king fail in many instances to interpose between the rapacity of his bar- 
barian and the helplessness of his Roman subjects. The demands of the 
German chiefs were frequently resisted by the king, and several of the 
more insolent were put to death for the attempted robbery of native 
noblemen. In the pursuance of this difficult policy Odoacer consumed 
the fourteen years of his reign. With him rose and fell the Herulian 
kingdom in Italy. His people were neither strong enough nor suffi- 
ciently civilized to found a permanent dominion. Already the great 
nation of the Ostrogoths, under the leadership of the justly celebrated 
Theodoric, whom the discriminating Gibbon has declared to have been 
" a hero alike excellent in the arts of war and of government," was 
ready to sweep down from the North and destroy the brief ascendancy 
of the Heruli in Italy. — " History of the World" John Clark Ridpath. 
LL. D., book 11, chap. 74 (9 vol. ed., Vol. IV, pp. 406-408). Cincinnati, 
Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

Odoacer, or Odovacar (c. 434-493), the first barbarian ruler of Italy 
on the downfall of the Western Empire, was born in the district border- 
ing on the middle Danube about the year 434. In this district the once 
rich and fertile provinces of Noricum and Pannonia were being torn 
piecemeal from the Roman Empire by a crowd of German tribes, among 
whom we discern four, who seem to have hovered over the Danube from 
Passau to Pest, namely, the Rugii, Scyrri, Turcilingi, and Heruli. With 
all of these Odoacer was connected by his subsequent career, and all 
seem, more or less, to have claimed him as belonging to them by birth. 
— The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XX, art. " Odoacer," p. 5, 11th 
edition. 

On the defeat and death of Orestes they [" the barbarian mercena- 
ries in Italy "1 proclaimed their leader, Odoacer the Rugian, king of 
Italy. Romulus Augustulus laid down his imperial dignity, and the 
court at Constantinople was informed that there was no longer an em- 
peror of the West. 



ROME, HUNS 485 

The installation of a barbarian king in Italy was the natural climax 
of the changes which had been taking place in the West throughout the 
fifth century. In Spain, Gaul, and Africa barbarian chieftains were al- 
ready established as kings. In Italy, for the last twenty years, the real 
power had been wielded by a barbarian officer. Odoacer, when he de- 
cided to dispense with the nominal authority of an emperor of the West, 
placed Italy on the same level of independence with the neighboring 
provinces. But the old ties with Rome were not severed. The new king 
of Italy formally recognized the supremacy of the one Roman emperor 
at Constantinople, and was invested in return with the rank of " pa- 
trician," which had been held before him by Aetius and Ricimer. — 
The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XXIII, art. "Rome" p. 658, 11th 
edition. 

Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned in Italy, over a people 
who had once asserted their just superiority above the rest of mankind. 
The disgrace of the Romans still excites our respectful compassion, and 
we fondly sympathize with the imaginary grief and indignation of their 
degenerate posterity. But the calamities of Italy had gradually subdued 
the proud consciousness of freedom and glory. In the age of Roman 
virtue the provinces were subject to the arms, and the citizens to the 
laws, of the republic; till those laws were subverted by civil discord, 
and both the city and the province became the servile property of a 
tyrant. The forms of the constitution, which alleviated or disguised 
their abject slavery, were abolished by time and violence; the Italians 
alternately lamented the presence or the absence of the sovereign, whom 
they detested or despised; and the succession of five centuries inflicted 
the various evils of military license, capricious despotism, and elab- 
orate oppression. During the same period, the barbarians had emerged 
from obscurity and contempt, and the warriors of Germany and Scythia 
were introduced into the provinces, as the servants, the allies, and at 
length the masters, of the Romans, whom they insulted or protected. 
The hatred of the people was suppressed by fear; they respected the 
spirit and splendor of the martial chiefs who were invested with the hon- 
ors of the empire: and the fate of Rome had long depended on the sword 
of those formidable strangers. The stern Ricimer, who trampled on 
the ruins of Italy, had exercised the power, without assuming the title, 
of a king; and the patient Romans were insensibly prepared to acknowl- 
edge the royalty of Odoacer and his barbaric successors. 

The king of Italy was not unworthy of the high station to which 
his valor and fortune had exalted him: his savage manners were pol- 
ished by the habits of conversation; and he respected, though a con- 
queror and a barbarian, the institutions, and even the prejudices, of his 
subjects. . . . Like the rest of the barbarians, he had been instructed 
in the Arian heresy; but he revered the monastic and episcopal char- 
acters; and the silence of the Catholics attests the toleration which they 
enjoyed. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
Edward Gibbon, chap. 36, pars. 32, 33 (Vol. Ill, pp. 515, 516). New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Huns. — Huns, a people of Tartar 
or Ugrian stock, who in the third century b. c. seem to have dominated 
the whole of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains to the Straits of 
Korea; and the famous Great Wall of China was erected at this time to 
check their inroads. . . . 

When the Huns first appeared in Europe remains a matter of con 
jecture; but crossing the Volga, they overthrew the kingdom of the 
.Alans about 374, and pressed on at once to the conquest of the Gothic 
Empire. . . . Supreme between the Danube and the Volga, the Huns 



486 ROME, LOMBARDS 

successfully invaded Persia, terrorized Syria, and threatened Italy; and 
in 446 Attila was in a position to dictate to the Byzantines a treaty by 
which they surrendered a part of their territory, paid an immediate 
indemnity of six thousand pounds' weight of gold, and agreed to pay 
two thousand one hundred annually to the suzerain Attila. . . . 

Although Hungary may owe its name to the early Huns, the present 
Hungarians, the Magyars, are descended from immigrants of the ninth 
century, who came as successful invaders from the East. Whether the 
Huns who ravaged Italy in the ninth and tenth centuries were mainly 
of the old Hun race, or were their Magyar conquerors, is something of 
a problem. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, art. "Huns," p. 300. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Lombards. — Lombards, or Lon- 
gobardi, a German people who, at the beginning of the Christian era, 
settled on the Lower Elbe, and in the fifth century seem to have mi- 
grated to the regions of the Danube, where they became converts to 
Arianism. Throwing off the yoke of the Herulae (490), under whose 
domination they had fallen, they destroyed the Gepidae (566), took pos- 
session of Pannonia, and under Alboin invaded Italy (568). There they 
easily established themselves in the northern half, with Pavia as their 
capital, and were induced by Gregory the Great [Pope 590-604] and their 
queen Theodelinda to accept Roman Catholicism. On the seizure of the 
Pentapolis and Ravenna by the energetic Lombard king Liutprand, the 
Pope, fearful of further aggression, summoned Pepin, king of the 
Franks, who subdued the Lombards [756] and presented the disputed 
territory to the Pope. Charlemagne finally subjugated and made their 
kingdom an imperial province. The Lombards thereafter became merged 
in the general Italian population. — Id., Vol. VII, art. " Lombards," 
p. 395. 

For a period of two hundred years Italy remained under the domin- 
ion of the Lombards. . . . The Lombard monarchy was elective. The 
right of the chiefs to choose their own sovereign, though many times 
waived in deference to heredity and other conditions, was not resisted 
or denied. About ^eighty years after the establishment of the kingdom, 
the laws of the Lombards were reduced to a written code. Nor does 
their legislation compare unfavorably with that of any other barbarian 
state. 

This epoch in history should not be passed over without reference 
to the rapid growth of the Papal Church in the close of the sixth and 
the beginning of the seventh century. Most of all by Gregory the Great, 
whose pontificate extended from 590 to 604, was the supremacy of the 
apostolic see asserted and maintained. Under the triple titles of Bishop 
of Rome, Primate of Italy, and Apostle of the West, he gradually, by 
gentle insinuation or bold assertion, as best suited the circumstances, 
elevated the episcopacy of Rome into a genuine papacy [p. 418] of the 
church. He succeeded in bringing the Arians of Italy and Spain into 
the Catholic fold, and thus secured the solidarity of the Western 
ecclesia. [p. 419] . . . 

It was the growth and encroachment of Catholic power in Italy 
that ultimately led to the overthrow of the Lombard kingdom. As 
the eighth century drew to a close and the kingdom of the Franks 
became more and more predominant beyond the Alps, the popes with 
increasing frequency called upon the Carlovingian princes to relieve 
Italy of the Lombard incubus. As early as the times of Gregory III, 
Charles Martel was solicited to come to the aid of his Catholic brethren 
in the South. The entreaties of Pope Stephen were still more impor- 
tunate, and Pepin, king of the Franks, was induced to lead an army 



ROME, LOMBARDS 487 

across the Alps. Two centuries of comparative peace had somewhat 
abated the warlike valor of the Lombards. They were still brave enough 
to make occasional depredations upon the provinces and sanctuaries of 
the Holy Church, but not brave enough to confront the spears of the 
Franks. Astolphus, the Lombard king, cowered at the approach of 
Pepin, and he and his princes eagerly took an oath to restore to the 
church her captive possessions and henceforth to respect her wishes. 
No sooner, however, had the Prankish sovereign returned beyond 
the mountains than Astolphus broke his faith and renewed his preda- 
tory war on the Catholic diocese. A second time the angered Pepin 
came upon the recreant Lombards, whose country he overran and left 
the kingdom prostrate. For a period of about twenty years the Lombard 
state survived the shock of this invasion, and then returned to its old 
ways. Again the Romans were dispossessed of their property and 
driven from their towns. Pope Adrian I had now come to the papal 
throne, and Charlemagne had succeeded his father Pepin. Vainly did 
the Lombards attempt to guard the passes of the Alps against the great 
Frankish conqueror. By his vigilance he surprised the Lombard out- 
posts and made his way to Pavia. Here, in 773, Desiderius, the last of 
the Lombard princes, made his stand. For fifteen months the city was 
besieged by the Franks. When the rigors of the investment could be 
endured no longer, the city surrendered, and the kingdom of the Lom- 
bards was at an end. The country became a province in the empire of 
Charlemagne, but Lombardy continued for a time under the government 
of native princes. So much was conceded to the original kinship of the 
Lombards and the Franks. — "History of the World," John Clark Rid- 
path, LL. D., book 11, chap. 74 (9 vol. ed., Vol. IV, pp. 418-420). Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

From Rothari (d. 652) to Liutprand (712-744) the Lombard kings, 
succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time, sometimes 
by descent, sometimes by election, sometimes by conspiracy and vio- 
lence, strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries, and contended with 
the aristocracy of dukes inherent in the original organization of the 
nation, an element which, though much weakened, always embarrassed 
the power of the crown, and checked the unity of the nation. Their 
old enemies the Franks on the west, and the Slavs or Huns, ever ready 
to break in on the northeast, and sometimes called in by mutinous and 
traitorous dukes of Friuli and Trent, were constant and serious dangers. 
By the popes, who represented Italian interests, they were always looked 
upon with dislike and jealousy, even when they had become zealous 
Catholics, the founders of churches and monasteries; with the Greek 
Empire there was chronic war. From time to time they made raids into 
the unsubdued parts of Italy, and added a city or two to their domin- 
ions. But there was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of 
Italy till Liutprand, the most powerful of the line. He tried it, and 
failed. He broke up the independence of the great southern duchies, 
Benevento and Spoleto. For a time, in the heat of the dispute about 
images, he won the Pope to his side against the Greeks. For a time, 
but only for a time, he deprived the Greeks of Ravenna. Aistulf, his 
successor, carried on the same policy. He even threatened Rome itself, 
and claimed a capitation tax. But the popes, thoroughly irritated and 
alarmed, and hopeless of aid from the East, turned to the family which 
was rising into power among the Franks of the West, the mayors of 
the palace of Austrasia. Pope Gregory III applied in vain to Charles 
Martel. But with his successors Pippin and Charles the popes were 
more successful. In return for the transfer by the Pope of the Frank 
crown from the decayed line of Clovis to his own, Pippin crossed the 



488 ROME, LOMBARDS 

Alps, defeated Aistulf, and gave to the Pope the lands which Aistulf had 
torn from the empire, Ravenna and the Pentapolis (754-756). But the 
angry quarrels still went on between the popes and the Lombards. The 
Lombards were still to the Italians a " foul and horrid " race. At length, 
invited by Pope Adrian I, Pippin's son Charlemagne once more de- 
scended into Italy. As the Lombard kingdom began, so it ended, with 
a siege of Pavia. Desiderius, the last king, became a prisoner (774), 
and the Lombard power perished. Charlemagne, with the title of king 
of the Franks and Lombards, became master of Italy, and in 800 the 
Pope, who had crowned Pippin king of the Franks, claimed to bestow 
the Roman Empire, and crowned his greater son emperor of the Ro- 
mans. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XVI, art. " Lombards," p. 394, 
11th edition. 

No sooner had he [Alboin, king of the Lombards (565-573)] erected 
his standard, than the native strength of the Lombards was multiplied 
by the adventurous youth of Germany and Scythia. The robust peas- 
antry of Noricum and Pannonia had resumed the manners of barba- 
rians; and the names of the Gepids, Bulgarians, Sarmatians (or Slavs), 
and Bavarians may be distinctly traced in the provinces of Italy. Of 
the Saxons, the old allies of the Lombards, twenty thousand warriors, 
with their wives and children, accepted the invitation of Alboin. Their 
bravery contributed to his success; but the accession or the absence of 
their numbers was not sensibly felt in the magnitude of his host. 
Every mode of religion was freely practised by its respective votaries. 
The king of the Lombards had been educated in the Arian heresy; but 
the Catholics, in their public worship, were allowed to pray for his 
conversion; while the more stubborn barbarians sacrificed a she-goat, 
or perhaps a captive, to the gods of their fathers. — " The Historians' 
History of the World," edited by Henry Smith Williams, LL. D., Vol. 
VII, p. 435. New York: The Outlook Company, 1904. 

The Longobards at the time of the invasion were for the most part 
pagan; a few had imbibed Arianism, and hence their ferocity against 
priests and monks whom they put to death. They destroyed churches 
and monasteries; they hunted and killed many of the faithful who 
would not become pagan; they laid waste their property, and seized 
Catholic places of worship, to hand them over to the Arians. The holy 
pontiff, Gregory the Great, does not cease to lament the desolation 
caused by the Longobard slaughter throughout Italy. Slowly however 
the light of faith made way among them and the church won their 
respect and obedience. This meant protection for the conquered. Grad- 
ually the church's constitution and customs spread among the barba- 
rians the ideas of Roman civilization, until at last, in defense of her 
own liberty and that of the people which the Longobards continued to 
imperil, she was forced to call in the aid of the Franks, and thus change 
the fate of Italy. This occurred only after two centuries of Longo- 
bardic domination. — " The Catholic Encyclopedia," Vol. IX, art. " Lom- 
bardy," p. 338. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Marcomanni. — The name Marco- 
manni signifies Marchmen, or borderers, and was, no doubt, applied to 
several neighboring tribes in the confines of Germany. . . . During the 
third and fourth centuries the cis-Danubian provinces were several 
times overrun by the Marcomanni, but they did not succeed, either 
there or elsewhere, in laying the foundations of a permanent state. — 
" History of the World," John Clark Ridpath, LL. D., book 11, chap. 73 
(9 vol. ed., Vol. IV, pp. 391, 392). Cincinnati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers 
Publishing Company, 1910. 



ROME, SAXONS 489 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders: Quadi. — The Quadi were kinsmen 
of the Suevi, having their original homes in southeastern Germany. . . . 
:During the years a. d. 357-359, the exposed provinces of the empire were 
'dreadfully harassed by this warlike people, who, in alliance with the 
;Sarmatians, captured the frontier posts, and made it necessary for 
'Constantius to exert himself to the utmost to stay their ravages. 
'They were, however, speedily subdued, and the chiefs of the nation, even 
from beyond the Carpathian mountains, were glad to save themselves 
by making their submission and giving hostages to the emperor. The 
nation maintained its independence until near the close of the following 
•century, when they were absorbed by the more powerful Goths, and 
ceased to be a separate people. — "History of the World," John Clark 
Ridpath, LL. D., book 11, chap. 73 (9 vol. ed., Vol. IV, p. 392). Cincin- 
nati, Ohio: The Jones Brothers Publishing Company, 1910. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Saxons. — Saxons, a Teutonic race 
who lived along the banks of the Elbe and on the islands near its 
mouth in the second century. Ptolemy places them in the " Cimbric 
Chersonesus," near the Jutes and Angles; but they afterward occupied 
a much larger extent, from the delta of the Rhine to the Weser. After 
the migration of the Saxons to Britain the name of " Old Saxons " was 
given to the parent stock. One very large body of Saxon population 
occupied the present Westphalia, but the tribes by which Britain was 
invaded appear principally to have come from the country now called 
Friesland — at least, of all the Continental dialects, Frisic is nearest to 
the Anglo-Saxon of our ancestors. It was in the fifth and sixth centu- 
ries that the Saxons crossed to Britain and settled in the south of 
England, where the names Middlesex (Middle Saxons) Sussex (South 
Saxons), and Wessex (West Saxons) still bear witness to their influ- 
ence. Those who remained in German? extended their territory south- 
ward by conquest; and it is this southern and mountainous part of the 
'old kingdom that now bears the name of Saxony. After a long series 
■of sanguinary conflicts they were completely subdued by Charlemagne. 
— Nelson's Encyclopedia, Vol. X, art. " Saxons" p. 607. 

Rome, Its Barbarian Invaders : Suevi.— Suevi, Germanic people or 
confederation. Caesar's Suevi inhabited the modern Baden, while Taci- 
tus places them to the north and east of that region: either they had 
migrated between 50 b. c. and 100 a. d., or Csesar met only a portion 
of the people. After 250 a. d. the name is used of the Germanic people, 
from whom the modern Swabians have derived their name. In later 
history they appear in alliance with the Alemanni and Burgundians, and 
hold the German side of Gaul and Switzerland; and even enter into 
Italy and Spain, in union with the Visigoths. — Id., Vol. XI, art. " Suevi," 
p. 524. 

It is probably from the Alamannic region that those Suebi came 
who joined the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and eventually 
founded a kingdom in northwest Spain. — Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol 
XXVI, art. " Suebi," p. 20, 11th edition. 

Those provinces [of the Iberian peninsula, Spain and Portugal] were 
now occupied or torn in pieces by a crowd of invaders, Suevi, Vandals, 
and Alans. . . . Early in the fifth century they [the Alans] possessed 
a domain in central Spain which stretched from sea to sea. Their 
dominion passed for a few years into the hands of the Suevi, who had 
already formed a settlement in northwestern Spain, and who still kept 
a dominion in that corner long after the greater part of the peninsula 
became Gothic. — "Historical Geography of Eur.pe" E. A. Freeman, 
p. 90. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1882. 



490 RULE OF FAITH 

Borne, Its Baebakian Invaders : Vandals. — Vandals, a Germanic 
tribe, probably closely akin to the Goths. In history they first appear 
about 150 a. d., dwelling on the south coast of the Baltic and on the 
banks of the Oder. ... On the invitation of the Roman Bonifacius, in 
429 they invaded Africa under their king Genseric, or Gaiseric. . . . They 
built a fleet, ravaged Sicily, sacking Palermo, and in June, 455, landed 
at the mouth of the Tiber, and plundered Rome from the 15th to the 
29th of June. . . . For years the Vandals continued to harry the Mediter- 
ranean coasts. They conquered the island of Sardinia, and, repulsing a 
Roman attack in 468, added Sicily to their rule. Their power was at 
its height when Genseric died (477). In his time the Vandals became 
Christians, but they were Arians, and fiercely persecuted orthodox be- 
lievers and other heretics. In 533 the Byzantine general, Belisarius, 
landed in Africa. The Vandals were several times defeated, and Car- 
thage was entered on Sept. 15, 533; and in November of the same year 
they were routed in the decisive battle of Tricamaron. In the next year 
Africa, Sardinia, and Porsica were restored to the Roman Empire. As 
a nation, the Vandals soon ceased to exist. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XII, art. " Vandals," pp. 380ft, 381. 

The Arian heresy [of the Vandals] was proscribed, and the race of 
these remarkable conquerors was in a short time exterminated. A sin- 
gle generation sufficed to confound their women and children in the 
mass of the Roman inhabitants of the province, and their very name 
was soon totally forgotten. There are few instances in history of a 
nation disappearing so rapidly and so completely as the Vandals of 
Africa. — "A History of Greece,'''' George Finlay, Vol. I, p. 232. Oxford: 
The Clarendon Press, 1877. 

It is reckoned that during* the reign of Justinian, Africa lost five 
millions of inhabitants; thus Arianism was extinguished in that region, 
not by any enforcement of conformity, but by the extermination of the 
race which had introduced and professed it. — " History of the Christian 
Church" J. C. Robertson, Vol. I, p. 521. London, 1858. 

Rome, Babylon an Accredited Name for. — Pages 65, 66. 
Rome.— Pages 592-597. 

Rule of Faith, Protestant View of. — The Old Protestant doctrinal 
position was, that the one source and norm of Christian teaching is 
the Word of God, which is contained in the prophetic and apostolical 
books of the Old and New Testaments. These books, therefore, have 
always been looked upon by the church of all lands and ages as canon- 
ical books and as the unequivocal and exclusive record of the revela- 
tions of God. — " Modernism and the Reformation," John Benjamin Rust, 
Ph. D., D. D., pp. 43, 44. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Rule of Faith, Roman Catholic View of. — The Catholic rule of 
faith, as I stated before, is not merely the written Word of God, but 
the whole word of God, both written and unwritten; in other words, 
Scripture and tradition, and these propounded and explained by the 
Catholic Church. This implies that we have a twofold rule or law, 
and that we have an interpreter, or judge, to explain it, and to decide 
upon it in all doubtful points. — " The End of Religious Controversy," 
Rev. J6hn Milner, D. D. (R. C), p. 61. New York: P. J. Kenedy. 

The whole business of the Scriptures belongs to the church. She 
has preserved them, she vpuches for them, and she alone, by confronting 



SABBATH, ORIGIN OF 491 

the several passages with each other, and with tradition, authoritatively 
explains them. Hence it is impossible that the real sense of Scripture 
should ever be against her and her doctrine; and hence, of course, I 
might quash every objection which you can draw from any passage in 
it by this short reply: The church understands the passage differently 
from you: therefore you mistake its meaning. — " The End of Religious 
Controversy," Rev. John Milner, D. D. (R. C), p. 85. New York: P. J. 
Kenedy. 

Rule of Faith.— Pages 89, 144, 146, 147, 430, 605, 606. 

Sabbath, Early Origin of. — The consecration of the Sabbath was 
coeval with the creation. The first Scriptural notice of it, though it is 
not mentioned by name, is to be found in Genesis 2: 3, at the close 
of the record of the six days' creation. There are not wanting indirect 
evidences of its observance, as the intervals between Noah's sending 
forth the birds out of the ark, an act naturally associated with the 
weekly service (Gen. 8: 7-12), and in the week of a wedding celebration 
(Gen. 29: 27, 28) ; but when a special occasion arises, in connection with 
the prohibition against gathering manna on the Sabbath, the institu- 
tion is mentioned as one already known .(Ex. 16: 22-30). And that this 
was especially one of the institutions adopted by Moses from the ancient 
patriarchal usage, is implied in the very words of the law, " Remember 
the Sabbath day, to keep it holy." 

But even if such evidence were wanting, the reason of the insti- 
tution would be a sufficient proof. It was to be a joyful celebration 
of God's completion of his creation. It has indeed been said that 
Moses gives quite a different reason for the institution of the Sabbath, 
as a memorial of the deliverance from Egyptian bondage. Deut. 5: 15. 
The words added in Deuteronomy are a special motive for the joy with 
which the Sabbath should be celebrated, and for the kindness which 
extended its blessings to the slave and the beast of burden as well as 
to the master: "that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as 
well as thou." Deut. 5: 14. 

These attempts to limit the ordinance proceed from an entire mis- 
conception of its spirit, as if it were a season of stern privation rather 
than of special privilege. But, in truth, the prohibition of work is only 
subsidiary to the positive idea of joyful rest and recreation, in com- 
munion with Jehovah, who himself " rested and was refreshed." Ex. 
31: 17; compare 23: 12. It is in Exodus 16: 23-29 that we find the first 
incontrovertible institution of the day, as one given to and to be kept 
by the children of Israel. Shortly afterward it was re-enacted in the 
fourth commandment. — " A Dictionary of the Bible" William Smith, 
LL. D., art. "Sabbath," p. 574, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter 
and Coates, copyright 1884. 

Sabbath, Instituted at Creation and Observed Before Sinai. — ■ 
When the two passages, Genesis 2: 1-3 and Exodus 16, are taken to- 
gether, our argument receives great additional strength. It cannot be 
and never has been questioned that the former, taken in its simple and 
natural meaning as a part of the narrative, at once assigns the reason 
of the Sabbath's sanctification, and dates its commencement; and it is 
not less apparent on the very face of the narrative, that the latter 
assumes the previous sanctification of the day as a thing well known. 
Thus all is easy, harmonious, and consistent; and not the slightest 
constraint is put upon either passage to make it tally with the other; 
whereas, to interpret the former as not a statement of present fact 



492 SABBATH, ORIGIN OF 

(as every reader understands it), but only an allusion to a fact twenty- 
five centuries posterior in date, and to interpret the latter as at all the 
style of legislative enactment, or the first introduction of an unknown 
ordinance, both require a straining such as nothing short of absolute 
necessity can ever justify. And we need not say that no such neces- 
sity exists here save the necessity of a theory. 

The Terms of the Fourth Commandment (Ex. 20: 8-11). — We may 
assume that these terms are familiar to our readers. It will surely not 
be questioned that the words, " Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it 
holy," are words which presuppose its existence. Now we have seen 
that the terms of the former passage — " Tomorrow is the rest of the 
holy Sabbath unto the Lord " — are terms which, on no natural princi- 
ple, can be explained as the first enactment of the Sabbatic rest; but 
that they assume its pre-existence as well as those before us. To what 
previous period of institution, then, can the fourth commandment 
refer? What other is there or can there be but the period of the cre- 
ation? And " the reason annexed " to this commandment, accordingly 
carries us back at once to that time and to that event: "For in six 
days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, 
and rested the seventh day; wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath 
day and hallowed it." This should be enough, but it is not all. It is 
clear as day that in the terms of this " reason annexed " there is a 
reference to the terms of the history. The one is a quotation of the 
other. Moses had himself, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, re- 
corded the early fact; and while, in the words of the commandment, 
" Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy," he assumes its pre-exist- 
ence by citing the terms in which he had himself recorded its origin, 
he shows at once its high antiquity and its primary design. The words 
in Genesis may be justly called " the words of institution." They are 
there, and there alone. There are no such words of institution in Exo- 
dus 16, and in Exodus 20 they are not words of institution; for even the 
miracle of the manna, when the Sabbath is by our opponents supposed 
to have commenced, preceded the giving of the law; they are only a 
quotation of the words of institution. So that, unless the Sabbath was 
instituted at the time when these words were used, there is no formal 
institution of it anywhere to be found. 

That little or no notice of the Sabbath is to be found in the inspired 
account of the antediluvian and patriachal age, may be at once admitted 
to be singular; but that no conclusion can be drawn from a consideration 
purely negative against one which rests on grounds so palpable and 
positive, may be further shown, first, from the circumstance of weeks 
being, throughout the entire preceding history, a recognized division of 
time, corresponding, of course, to the creation week, from which the 
division had its origin, and which consisted of six days of work and 
one of rest; so that every mention of weeks includes mention of the 
Sabbath; and, secondly, from the fact of there being no mention of the 
Sabbath in the subsequent historical books of Scripture (those of 
Joshua and Judges) for a period of at least four hundred years after 
its admitted institution in the wilderness, and of the extremely rare 
and incidental notice of it for even a greater number of centuries 
posterior to the close of the book of Judges; and from the further 
parallel facts, of there being no mention, for a period of 1,500 years — 
from the birth of Seth till the flood — of sacrifice; and for a similar 
period of 1,500 years — from the entrance of the Israelites into Canaan 
till the birth of Christ — of circumcision as an existing rite, unless in 
an occasional and figurative use of the word by the historians and 
prophets. In no one of the cases is such silence conclusive. No person 



SABBATH FOR HUMAN RACE 493 

imagines from it that, during these two latter long periods, there was 
no such observance as sacrifice or circumcision. And in the case of 
the Sabbath, moreover, the objection from the silence before is com- 
pletely neutralized by the silence after. — Rev. Ralph Wardlaw, D. D., 
of Glasgow, in " The Christian Sabbath," by Ministers of Different De- 
nominations, pp. 16-19. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1856. 

Sabbath, Established at Creation, Perpetuated. — -The seventh 
day was hallowed at the close of the creation: its sanctity was after- 
ward marked by the withholding of the manna on that day, and the 
provision of a double supply on the sixth, and that previous to the giv- 
ing of the law from Sinai: it was then made a part of the great epitome 
of religious and moral duty, which God wrote with his own finger on 
tables of stone; it was a part of the public political law of the only 
people to whom almighty God ever made himself a political Head and 
Ruler; its observance is connected throughout the prophetic age with 
the highest promises, its violations with the severest maledictions; it 
was among the Jews in our Lord's time a day of solemn religious as- 
sembling, and was so observed by him. — "A Biblical and Theological 
Dictionary," Richard Watson, art. "Sabbath," p. 829. New York: 
B. Waugh and T. Mason, 1833. 

Sabbath, Made for the Human Race. — If we had no other passage 
than this of Genesis 2: 3, there would be no difficulty in deducing from 
it a precept for the universal observance of a Sabbath, or seventh day, 
to be devoted to God, as holy time, by all of that race for whom the earth 
and its nature were specially prepared. The first men must have known 
it. The words, " He hallowed it," can have no meaning otherwise. They 
would be a blank unless in reference to some who were required to keep 
it holy. — "A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," John Peter Lange, 
D. D., on Gen. 2:3, translated by Philip Schaff, p. 197. New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

Sabbath, Creator's Example and Command. — By this is meant, 
1. The day appointed of God, at the close of creation, to be observed by 
man as a day of rest from all secular employment, because that in it 
God himself had rested from his work. Gen. 2: 1-3. Not that God's 
rest was necessitated by fatigue (Isa. 40: 28); but he rested, that is, 
ceased to work, on the seventh day as an example to man; hence as- 
signed it as a reason why men should rest on that day. Ex. 20: 11; 
31: 17. God's blessing and sanctifying the day, meant that he separated 
it from a common to a religious use, to be a perpetual memorial or 
sign that all who thus observed it would show themselves to be the 
worshipers of that God who made the world in six days and rested on 
the seventh. Ex. 20: 8-11; 31: 16, 17; Isa. 56: 6, 7. 

2. The Sabbath is indispensable to man, being promotive of his 
highest good physically, intellectually, socially, spiritually, and eter- 
nally. Hence its observance is connected with the best of promises, and 
its violation with the severest penalties. Ex. 23: 12; 31: 12-18; Neh. 
13: 15-22; Isa. 56: 2-7; 58: 13, 14; Jer. 17: 21-27; Eze. 20: 12, 13; 22: 
26-31. Its sanctity was very distinctly marked in the gathering of the 
manna. Ex. 16: 22-30. 

3. The original law of the Sabbath was renewed and made a prom- 
inent part of the moral law, or ten commandments, given through Moses 
at Sinai. Ex. 20: 8-11. — "Theological Compend" Rev. Amos Binney, 
pp. 169, 170. Neiv York: The Methodist Book Concern, 1902. 



494 SABBATH, UNIVERSALITY OF 

Sabbath, Set Apart for the Human Race. — " And sanctified it." 
Heb., tip, kadash. It is by this term that positive appointment of 

the Sabbath as a day of rest to man is expressed. God's sanctifying the 
day is equivalent to his commanding men to sanctify it. As at the close 
of creation the seventh day was thus set apart by the Most High for 
such purposes, without limitation to age or country, the observance of 
it is obligatory upon the whole human race, to whom, in the wisdom 
of Providence, it may be communicated. This further appears from 
the reason why God blessed and sanctified it, viz., " because that in it 
he had rested," etc., which is a reason of equal force at all times and 
equally applying to all the posterity of Adam; and if it formed a just 
ground for sanctifying the first day which dawned upon the finished 
system of the universe, it must be equally so for sanctifying every sev- 
enth day to the end of time. The observance of the day is moreover 
enjoined in the decalogue, which was not abolished with the peculiar 
polity of the Jews, but remains unalterably binding upon Christians in 
every age of the world. . . . The sanctification of the seventh day in 
the present case can only be understood of its being set apart to the 
special worship and service of God. — " Notes, Critical and Practical, on 
the Book of Genesis,'" George Bush (Presbyterian), Professor of Hebrew 
and Oriental Literature, New York City University, (2 vol. ed.) Vol. I, 
pp. 48, 49, note on Gen. 2: 3. New York: Mark H. Newman, 1843. 

Sabbath, Universality of the Law of the. — It is objected that 
if we are bound by the law of observance, we must be bound also by 
the law of penalty for its infraction. The obvious answer is, that 
under the Jewish dispensation other moral delinquencies — idolatry, 
for example, and adultery, and blasphemy, and stubborn filial diso- 
bedience — were punishable with death as well as Sabbath breaking. 
Must we, then,' conclude, that we are either under obligation so to 
punish these delinquencies, or under no obligation to keep the precepts 
of which they are violations? If the conclusion is fair as to the Sabbath, 
it must be fair in these other cases too. This, we are aware, is evaded. 
We are bound, it is said, by the moral precepts; but it is not as part 
of the law of Moses — it is not as given to the Jews. 

I have called this an evasion. And such it is. It is, first of all, 
a very plain truism, that no man can be bound by a law as given to 
another than himself; and it is as harmless as it is plain. But when 
God made known divine truths and moral duties to his ancient people, 
it was not truths and duties that belonged only to themselves and in 
which the rest of mankind had no concern. His design was to rescue 
from oblivion what was in danger, through the corruption of human 
nature, of being universally forgotten, and to prepare for its still fuller 
disclosure and more general diffusion at a future period. Now, would 
there not be just about as much wisdom in a man's saying of the truths 
made known to the Jews, " These are, no doubt, important and valu- 
able truths; but it is not as made known to the Jews that we are bound 
to believe them," as there is in his saying respecting the inculcated pre- 
cepts, "These, no doubt, are important moral statutes; but it is not as 
given to the Jews that we are bound to obey them "? The plain state of 
the case is, that the discoveries of his character and of his will made 
to the Israelites were not discoveries of new truths and new duties 
peculiar to themselves, but of what had been truths and duties from 
the beginning, and would continue truths and duties to the end. 

There is no inconsistency in holding ourselves bound by the 
moral precept, although not bound by the particular penalty annexed 
to the violation of it, in regarding the former as of universal obliga- 
tion and the latter as peculiarly Jewish. The laws respecting penalties 



SABBATH AT CREATION 495 

\ 
arose out of that exclusively Jewish system of government, the theoc- 
racy; and no other people can be bound to conformity to the penal sanc- 
tions adhibited to the violation of moral precepts under that system, un- 
less it can make out for itself the existence of a similar relation to God. 
But this does not at all affect the universality of the obligation of the 
commands of the moral law. — Rev. Ralph Wardlaw, D. D., of Glasgow, 
in " The Christian Sabbath" by Ministers of Different Denominations, 
pp. 23, 24. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1856. 

Sabbath, Jewish Histoeian on. — Moses says, that in six days 
the world, and all that is therein, was made; and that the seventh day 
was a rest, and a release from the labor of such operations; whence it 
is that we celebrate a rest from our labors on that day, and call it the 
Sabbath, which word denotes rest in the Hebrew tongue. — Josephus, 
"Antiquities of the Jews," Whiston's translation, book 1, chap. 1, par. 1. 
New York: Do'dd, Mead & Go. 

Sabbath, Set Apart at Creation. — When it is therefore said by the 
inspired historian, that God " sanctified the seventh day," I must under- 
stand him to say, that God set it apart (from the other six days of 
labor), to be religiously employed by man. — " The Obligation of the Sab- 
bath," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 48. Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

God instituted the Sabbath at the creation of man, setting apart 
the seventh day for that purpose, and imposed its observance as a uni- 
versal and perpetual moral obligation upon the race. — " The Day 
Changed and the Sabbath Preserved," Archibald Hodges, D. D. f pp. 

5, 4. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1909. 

Sabbath, Meaning of Sanctify. — j&*ij5 [in piel form], to make holy, 
to sanctify, to hallow. . . . 2. To pronounce holy, to sanctify, e. g., the 
Sabbath (Gen. 2: 3); a people (Lev. 20: 8; 21: 8). Also to institute any 
holy thing, to appoint, e. g., a fast (Joel 1: 14; 2: 15); parallel with 
Nlj? , a festival (2 Kings 20: 20). — Gesenius, "Hebrew and English Lex- 
icon," Edward Robinson, p. 924. London: Wiley and Putnam, 1844. 

Sabbath, Its Observance Began at Close of Creation. — Common 
sense says that any commemorative institution should commence at or 
near the time of the event commemorated; whereas, this supposition of 
a mere prolepsis leaves " a great gulf," a vast oblivious chasm of more 
than two thousand years, between the creation and the Sabbath by 
which it was commemorated. And even then, to crown the climax of 
absurdity, it limits that commemoration of an event in which the whole 
created race are equally interested, to the smallest fraction of that race! 
— " The Obligation of the Sabbath," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 49. Phila- 
delphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

Where is the example in Scripture of any instituted commemoration 
not beginning from the time of its appointment? . . . Did circumcision 
under the Old Testament, or baptism and the Lord's Supper under the 
New, remain in abeyance for centuries before they were acted upon? 
And shall the commemoration of the glories of creation be thought to be 
suspended for more than two thousand years after the occasion on which 
it was appointed had taken place? and especially as the reason for the 
celebration existed from the beginning, related to the whole race of 
mankind more than to the Jews, and was indeed most cogent immedi- 
ately after the creation? — " The Divine Authority and Perpetual Obliga- 
tion of the Lord's Day," Daniel Wilson, pp. 46, 47. New York: J. Leavitt 
1831. 



496 SABBATH, VIEWS ON 



Sabbath, Alexander Campbell, on the Rest Day. — -The right- 
eous always remembered the weeks, and regarded the conclusion of the 
week as holy to the Lord. Hence, even after the apostasy, which issued 
in the neglect of family worship, in consequence of the sons of God 
intermarrying with the daughters of men, and which brought a flood 
of water upon the world of the ungodly — we find Noah religiously 
counting his weeks, even while incarcerated in the ark. In the Wilder- 
ness of Sin, before the giving of the law, we also find the Jews observing 
the Sabbath. — " The Christian System" Alexander Campbell, p. 135. 
Pittsburgh: Forrester and Campbell, 1839. 

Sabbath, Memorial of Creation. — As a memorial of that fact [the 
creation of the world], he" set apart the Sabbath, kept it, sanctified 
and blessed it, for the benefit of all. . . . Thus the keeping of the Sab- 
bath makes God known, gives efficacy to his moral government. . . . 
It commemorates the work of God as Creator, Preserver, Benefactor, 
and Redeemer. — " The Sabbath Manual," Rev. Justin Edwards, D. D., 
pp. 16, 19, 22. New York: American Tract Society. 

Sabbath, Luther on Edenic Origin of. — Seeing the Scriptures men- 
tion the Sabbath before Adam, was not he then commanded to work 
six days and rest on the seventh? Doubtless so, for we hear that he 
should labor in Eden, and have dominion over the fishes, birds, and 
beasts. — " Sermons on Genesis" Martin Luther, (Erlanger ed.J Vol. 
XXXIII, p. 67; quoted in " History of the Sabbath," Andrews and 
Conradi, p. 27, edition 1912. 

Sabbath, Lange on Cavil About Patriarchal Observance of. — To 
object that the Bible, in its few brief memoranda of their lives [of patri- 
archs after Noah], says nothing about their Sabbath keeping, any more 
than it tells us of their forms of prayer and modes of worship, is a 
worthless argument. The Holy Scripture never anticipates cavils; it 
never shows distrust of its own truthfulness by providing against ob- 
jections — objections we may say that it could have avoided, and most 
certainly would have avoided, had it been an untruthful book made 
either by earlier or later compilers. — " A Commentary on the Holy 
Scriptures," John Peter Lange, D. D., on Gen. 2:3, translated by Philip 
S chaff, p. 197. Neio York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

Sabbath, Alexander Campbell on. — The seventh day was observed 
from Abraham's time, nay, from creation. The Jews identified their 
own history with the institution of the Sabbath day. They loved and 
venerated it as a patriarchal usage. — " The Evidences of Christianity, a 
Debate Between Robert Given and Alexander Campbell" p. 302. St. 
Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1906. 

Sabbath, Historical Evidences of Universality of. — The division 
of time into seven days is moreover very common among all ancient 
nations. This seems to indicate that they all received this institution 
from the same source, although the religious observance of it had been 
gradually neglected. 

From these facts I think we may conclude that the Sabbath was 
originally given to the whole human race, and that it was observed by 
the Hebrews previously to the giving of the law; and that, in early 
ages, this observance was probably universal. — " Elements of Moral 
Science," Francis Wayland, p. 91. Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1873. 

Sabbath, Prize Essay on Universality of. — The Sabbath was 
made for all men, and was designed to be a universal and perpetual bless- 



SABBATH BEFORE SINAI 497 

ing. It was not made for any particular class or race of men, but for 
man, the generic man, the whole human family. — " The Lord's Day," A. E. 
Waffle, p. 163. Philadelphia: The American Sunday School Union, 1885. 

Sabbath, Not " One Day in Seven " Only. — It is not true that the 
Sabbath law " fixes only the proportion of time " for rest. In every 
variety, and on every occasion of its enunciation, the law pertina- 
ciously requires a particular day for its observance; and by whatever 
means " the date of reckoning " and the identity of this period may be 
discovered, it is obvious that, if once ascertained, it becomes the ex- 
clusive object of the law's consideration, and engrosses its entire au- 
thority. It is not true that any or " every seventh day for devotional 
rest " will meet its requirements. Wherever the Sabbath is enjoined, 
with a remarkable reiteration it uniformly and expressly limits it to 
" the seventh day." The command leaves no crevice for evasion. — " Ob- 
ligation of the Sabbath," W. B. Taylor, pp. 20, 21. Philadelphia, 1853. 

Sabbath, And Days of Creation Week. — Now let it be carefully 
noted that, according to the Scriptures, those " days " had only two 
divisions; viz., darkness and light, divided only by evening and morn- 
ing; i. e., the part that was called " day " was all light, and that part 
which was called " night " was all darkness. There is no escape from 
this. So that, according to the most recent of all these estimates, each 
" day " must have consisted of about five million years of unbroken 
darkness, followed by about five million years of unbroken light! 

Now, seeing that the trees and shrubs and grass were made on 
the third day, and the fowls and other living creatures on the fifth day, 
one naturally asks what became of these things after they were created? 
for it is certain that no vegetable creation could possibly live — much 
less animal life — through five million years of unbroken light, any 
more than it could survive a similar period of unbroken darkness. 
And yet if we accept the period theory, this is what we should have to 
believe took place! — "All About the Bible" Sidney Collett, pp. 266, 
267, 9th edition. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Sabbath, Marked the Week. — " In process of time it came to pass 
that Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto the Lord. 
And Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and of the fat 
thereof." It is to be observed that what is here rendered " in process of 
time," is, in the Hebrew, " at the end of days; " and the inquiry is not 
without pertinency; at what "end of days" were those evidently cus- 
tomary offerings brought unto the Lord? On what occasion would these 
first-born of the human race be so likely to present these their reli- 
gious services unto God, as on that day which God himself had so re- 
cently blessed and sanctified, — the Sabbath, the end of the week? Such 
an allusion to the Sabbath and to the division of time into weeks is at 
least natural, and as much as should be expected in a historic sketch, 
which, for brevity, is wholly unparalleled among the writings of men. — 
" The Divine Rest, or Scriptural Views of the Sabbath," John S. Stone, 
D. D., pp. 32, 33. New York: Anson D. F. Randolph, 1867. 

Sabbath, Not Newly Ordained at Sinai. — The use of " remember," 
in connection with the fourth commandment, " implies that the weekly 
rest day was not a new institution." It was observed before Sinai was 
reached. " The Sabbath was a recognized institution long before the 
days of Moses. Traces of its strict observance in the ancestral home of 
Abraham are disclosed in the Assyrian records unearthed in these later 
days " (H. Clay Trumbull).— Henry T. Scholl, D. D., in New York Chris- 
tian Observer (Presbyterian), Dec. 24, 1913. 
32 



498 SABBATH BEFORE SINAI 

Sabbath, " Remember." — As this was the most ancient institution, 
God calls them to remember it; as if he had said, Do not forget that 
when I had finished my creation I instituted the Sabbath, and remember 
why I did so, and for what purposes. — "A Commentary and Critical 
Notes," Adam Clarke, LL. D., on Ex. 20:8. New York: Lane and Scott, 
1850. 

Sabbath, From Creation to Sinai. — The consecration of the Sab- 
bath was coeval with the creation. The first Scriptural notice of it, 
though it is not mentioned by name, is to be found in Gen. 2: 3, at the 
close of the record of the six days' creation. It has been maintained 
by some that this is only, an anticipatory reference to the fourth com- 
mandment, because there is no record of the observance of the Sabbath 
between the creation and the exodus. But this is just in accordance 
with the plan of the Scripture narrative, in which regular and ordinary 
events are unnoticed. There are not wanting indirect evidences of its 
observance, as the intervals between Noah's sending forth the birds 
out of the ark, an act naturally associated with the weekly service 
(Gen. 8: 7-12), and in the week of a wedding celebration (Gen. 29: 
27, 28); but when a special occasion arises, in connection with the 
prohibition against gathering manna on the Sabbath, the institution 
is mentioned as one already known (Ex. 16: 22-30). — "A Dictionary of 
the Bible,'" edited by William Smith, LL. D., art. " Sabbath," p. 590 (1 
vol. ed.J. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

Sabbath, Did Not Originate in Wilderness. — As Ezekiel speaks of 
statutes and judgments given to the Israelites in the wilderness, some 
of which were certainly old statutes and judgments repeated and en- 
forced, so when he says that the Sabbaths were given to the Israelites 
in the wilderness, he cannot be fairly accounted to assert that the Sab- 
baths had never been given till then. The fact indeed probably was, 
that they had been neglected and half forgotten during the long bond- 
age in Egypt (slavery being unfavorable to morals), and that the observ- 
ance of them was reasserted and renewed at the time of the promulga- 
tion of the law in the desert. In this sense, therefore, the prophet might 
well declare that on that occasion God gave the Israelites his Sab- 
baths. — " Undesigned Coincidences in the Old and New Testaments," 
John J. Blunt, p. 27. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 

Sabbath, Fourth Commandment Part of Moral Code. — Inasmuch 
as, 1st, this precept belongs to the law of the ten commandments, of 
which all the others are considered universally obligatory: 2d, as the 
reasons given are the same as those for its original institution; and 3d, 
as we find it frequently referred to in the prophets as one of the moral 
laws of God, we conclude that it is of unchangeable obligation. — " Ele 
ments of Moral Science" Francis Wayland, pp. 92, 93. Boston: Gould 
and Lincoln, 1873. 

Sabbath, Fundamental Morality of. — We claim that the com- 
mand to keep the Sabbath is a part of the moral law, because it is 
placed in direct connection with other commands that are obviously 
moral. It is true that moral and positive precepts are sometimes spoken 
of in the same connection. This occurs in one or two condensed sum- 
maries of the commands which God had laid upon the Hebrew people. 
But the passage containing the decalogue is plainly not one of this 
kind. It is universally admitted that it is a summary of the moral 
law.— " The Lord's Day," A. E. Waffle, p. 142. Philadelphia: The 
American Sunday-School Union, 1885. 



SABBATH NOT ABROGATED 499 

Sabbath, The Fourth Precept Not Misplaced. — Every other com- 
mand in the decalogue is acknowledged to be of a moral nature. How 
happens it that the fourth should be an exception? It is not an excep- 
tion. So far from being " strictly ceremonial," it is eminently moral. 
— " The Obligation of the Sa&fca£7i," Rev. J. Newton Brown, p. 14. 
Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1853. 

Sabbath, Not Abrogated. — The law of the Sabbath — through all 
times and dispensations identical in principle and invariable in force — 
is the proper statute of religion. It would be difficult to find another, 
certainly any so direct. Only man could be thus addressed. Thus ad- 
dressed, he is marked out for the duty of piety and worship. Given 
to the new-made Adam, it expounded his nature, unfolded his capacity, 
and publicly stamped him a religious being. The frame of nature, the 
different orders of sentient life, might benefit from it: he alone could 
rise to the elevation and sanctity of its idea. 

It was briefly announced, but it is full of inferential meaning. It 
is prophetic and germinant. Doubtless much accompanied, interpreted, 
and enforced it, which it fell not within the province of the historian 
to record. 

It was adapted to the circumstances of innocence. We do not, 
therefore, read in it any restriction upon labor, any injunction of 
bodily rest. How could it contain that clause which in the future became 
so invaluable? Spontaneously and lavishly did the earth yield its 
increase. Man, soon as Eden was planted, was " put into it to dress it 
and keep it." But he knew no harassing toils. To train the flower, 
to prop the fruit, to prune luxuriant excess, to separate tangled redun- 
dance, were his only arts of husbandry and tasks of labor. Not then 
did he need the weekly rest. Otherwise it revolved to him unwearied 
and unspent. From his everyday occupation, simple and untiring, he 
would indeed abstain. It was still the season of rest. His body craved 
it not. It was the rather addicted to that mental activity of love and 
adoration which is the true repose of holy minds. To him it could only 
be the interval of a more intense and festal devotion. He had but with 
deeper solemnity to summon himself: "Return unto thy rest, O my 
soul! " He was a temple of the living God, in which was perpetual 
sacrifice: always holy, this was the most prepared offering, this was the 
most intimate visitation, of the God. 

But when the " ground was cursed for man's sake," when he was 
sentenced to " eat of it in sorrow all the days of his life," when it 
" brought forth thorns and thistles to him," when he must " in the 
sweat of his face eat bread till he returned to the dust," — »then did the 
statute of religion require the weekly suspension of muscular labor, 
to secure the opportunity of the spiritual rest. It gave relief to the 
body, — a merciful relaxation of the doom of labor; but the Sabbath 
thus established its own protection and safeguard. It was the same 
it always was ; but by its blessed expansiveness it adapts itself to fallen 
man, and to all the conditions of his fall. 

It can be construed to all circumstances. The change is not in 
itself, but in the altered case. Touch not its life, impair not its sanc- 
tity, but leave it to its divine generosity. Having been granted for 
the holy rest of man ere he transgressed and bore a daily burden, it 
being perpetually binding on him whatever might be his moral rela- 
tions, it demanded for its due regulation, that labor should be inter- 
mitted. Now, He who exacted this punishment of sin, was pleased 
to mitigate it upon his own day. 

We consequently find — when this statute is specifically connected 
with Judaism, though laid upon a moral basis which confirms it to all 



500 SABBATH, FROM SUNSET TO SUNSET 

mankind — that this mitigation is made a part and test of it. This 
is necessary to its consistency. It must have been always so from the 
period of the malediction of the ground: it must be always so while man 
goeth forth to his labor. The spirit and observance of the Sabbath 
would be incompatible with quotidian life: they who treated days in- 
differently would fail of all its profit. This accommodation of it is in 
vain pleaded against its real uniformity. In vain is it contended that 
we have two different commands. For the statute of religion maintains 
its primordial character, when incorporated with the code of Sinai. The 
mechanical rest, though made necessarily prominent, is not the end. It 
is but an incident. It is the precaution and guide to something better. 
Such abstinence from " any manner of work " would not of itself be 
to " keep holy the Sabbath day." It is but a means to an end. 

Now where, throughout this code, is the statute of religion, if it 
.be not in its fourth precept? Where else is it written, " Thou shalt love 
the Lord thy God with all thy heart "? Not in those which precede it: 
they are only interdicts upon polytheism, idol worship, and profanity. 
Not in those which follow; for they only regard the ethics of man, and 
of man in the present state. But " on those two commandments," or 
summaries and heads of commandments, " hang all the law and the 
prophets." Here is it to be found, if found at all. Therefore, the law 
of the Sabbath, as to the statute of religion, must always survive, and 
always oblige, as long as man remains what he is. He never can be 
so considered that it shall not be his duty to love God. Its principle 
requires, with an indefeasible right, this expression of religion from 
him: it demands, for its respect and hallowing, the laying aside of every 
business and care which would interfere with it. Sabbath is holy 
rest; it only involves, by condition and consequence, animal rest. That 
is its vitality and essence: this is but corresponding facility and form. 

Who, then, can conceive of its repeal? It is an everlasting ordi- 
nance. The thought of its abrogation has no place in Scripture. It 
travels with every age; it coalesces with every economy. Whatever is 
wanting, whatever is superseded, it endures. It renews itself as the 
bow in the cloud, it completes itself like the horns of the crescent 
moon, it journeys with the circuit of the sun. The things of earth no 
more affect it than they can the wonders of the sky. It. is established 
in the foundations of immutable morality and religion. — Richard Win- 
ter Hamilton, LL. D., D. D., in " The Christian Sabbath," by Ministers 
of Different Denominations, pp. 316-319. London: The Religious Tract 
Society, 1856. 

Sabbath, Commencement and Close of. — The Sabbath commenced 
at sunset, and closed at the same time on the following day. Matt. 8: 16; 
Mark 1: 32. Whatever was necessary was prepared on the latter part of 
the preceding day, that is, of our Friday: hence, the day preceding the 
Sabbath (irpoad^arov [prosabbaton]) is in the New Testament termed 
the preparation ( irapaaKevq [paraskeue~\) , in Matt. 27: 62; Mark 15: 42; 
Luke 23: 54; and John 19: 14, 31, 42. — "An Introduction to the Critical 
Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures," Thomas Hartwell Home, 
B. D., Vol. Ill, pp. 301, 302. London: T. Cadell, 1839. 

Sabbath, Observance of. — Formally, the Sabbath commenced at 
sunset on Friday, the day being reckoned by the Hebrews from sunset to 
sunset. As no special hour for this was fixed, it must, of course, have 
varied not only at different seasons, but in different localities. Thus, 
the rabbis mention that the inhabitants of a low-lying city, like Tibe- 
rias, commenced the observance of the Sabbath half an hour earlier, 
while those who lived on an eminence, such as at Sepphoris, continued 



SABBATH NOT CEREMONIAL 501 

it half an hour later than their brethren. If the sun were not visible, 
sunset was to be reckoned from when the fowls went to roost. But 
long before that the preparations for the Sabbath had commenced. Ac- 
cordingly, Friday is called by the rabbis " the eve of the Sabbath," and 
in the Gospels " the preparation." No fresh business was then under- 
taken; no journey of any distance commenced; but everything pur- 
chased and made ready against the feast, the victuals being placed in a 
heated oven, and surrounded by dry substances to keep them warm. 

Early on Friday afternoon, the new " course " of priests, of Levites, 
and of the " stationary men," who were to be the representatives of all 
Israel, arrived in Jerusalem, and having prepared themselves for the 
festive season, went up to the temple. The approach of the Sabbath, 
and then its actual commencement, were announced by threefold blasts 
from the priests' trumpets. The first three blasts were drawn when 
" one third of the evening sacrifice service was over; " or, as we gather 
from the decree by which the emperor Augustus set the Jews free 
from attendance in courts of law, about the ninth hour; that is, about 
3 p. m. on Friday. This, as we remember, was the hour when Jesus 
gave up the ghost. When the priests for the first time sounded their 
trumpets, all business was to cease, and every kind of work to be 
stopped. Next, the Sabbath lamp, of which even heathen writers knew, 
was lit, and the festive garments put on. A second time the priests 
drew a threefold blast to indicate that the Sabbath had actually begun. — 
" The Temple, Its Ministry and Services, as They Were at the Time of 
Jesus Christ," Rev. Dr. Edersheim, pp. 150, 151. Boston: Ira Bradley & 
Co., copyright 1881. 

Sabbath, Cannot Be Ceremonial. — Of the law thus impressively 
given, the fourth commandment forms a part. Amid the same cloud of 
glory, the same thunders and lightnings, uttered by the same dread 
voice of the Infinite One, and graven by his finger, came forth these 
words as well: "Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy." It is im- 
possible, in view of these facts, to class the Sabbath with the ceremonial 
institutions of Israel. By the sacred seal of the divine lip and finger, 
it has been raised far above those perishing rites. — " The Abiding Sab- 
bath" Rev. George Elliott, p. 118 ; quoted by George Frazier Miller in 
"Adventism Answered" p. 159. Brooklyn: Guide Printing and Publish- 
ing Company, 1905. 

Sabbath, Not in Ceremonial Law. — Turning to the twentieth chap- 
ter of Exodus and onward, we find that two distinct codes were written 
out and given to the people of Israel at Mt. Sinai. The first was written 
by God himself, on tables of stone; and the other was taken down from 
his mouth, and recorded by Moses. One is called the moral law; and 
the other, the ceremonial, or Levitical law. The latter, it is agreed on 
all hands, has " vanished away." But the fourth commandment ... is 
one of the ten, which were written on stone by the finger of God. The 
other nine are indisputably of universal and perpetual obligation. They 
are as strongly binding upon us as they were upon the men who beheld 
the fires and felt the quakings of Sinai. And how is it with the fourth, 
which enjoins the sanctification of the Sabbath? " If it is not equally 
obligatory upon all men, why was it engraved by the same divine hand, 
and on the same enduring tables?" — "Essays on the Sabbath," Reman 
Humphrey, pp. 25, 26. New York: Jonathan Leavitt, 1829. 

Sabbath, No Part of Ceremonial System. — The weekly Sabbath is 
a very early institution. It was appointed and observed the very first 
week of time. It is no part of the law of ceremonies, which law was 



502 SABBATH NOT CEREMONIAL 

occasioned by the entrance of sin; for the Sabbath was established be- 
fore sin had entered, and would have been obligatory on Adam and his 
offspring if sin had not been known among them. — " Discourses on the 
Sabbath," Seth Williston, pp. 11, 12. Paris, Ky.: John Lyle, 1818. 

Sabbath, Not Ceremonial. — To rob the decalogue of one of its 
brightest and most precious gems, to abase the fourth commandment 
from its lofty position as one of the great and immutable laws of God, 
and to treat the divine statute, " Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify 
it," as a mere ceremonial or ritual appointment, the observance of 
which has passed into desuetude with the types and shadows of the 
Mosaic dispensation, — this has long been the device of " the wise and 
prudent " in their own eyes, whose religious sensibilities, not being 
sufficiently spiritual to discern the true excellency of the design of the 
Sabbath, and its sanctifying influence wherever faithfully understood 
and used, have thus encouraged them to lower and dishonor God's holy 
day, and by aiding the worldly and the dissolute with their false but 
specious arguments, have thereby " given great occasion to the enemies 
of the Lord to blaspheme." 

The plea upon which it has been attempted to found and build up 
this argument, pretends that there are no primitive traces and indi- 
cations of the Sabbath to be discovered in the earliest records of 
mankind; that, therefore, it had no existence until it was appointed by 
the law of Sinai; and that, consequently, the institution thus appointed 
was part of the ceremonial law connected with the Jewish economy, 
and has terminated with it. The whole of this argumentation is pro- 
lific of error, as a few observations will serve to make clear. . . . 

Lest, however, it should be inferred from the kind of evidence we 
are about to produce, that the divine institution of the Sabbath is 
deficient in positive proof of its original, we would premise that, long 
antecedent to the time of Moses, in the very earliest ages of the world, 
and at its very creation, did our divine Maker ordain and appoint the 
Sabbath as a hallowed day, sanctified by himself, and to be sanctified 
by his creatures: "On the seventh day God ended his work which 
he had made, and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which 
he had made. And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it; be- 
cause that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and 
made." He who questions this original, may, with equal justice, ques- 
tion the truth of any of the acts recorded as having been done on the six 
preceding days. The act of the seventh is as much and as certain a 
fact as that of the first, and if the calling the world out of darkness into 
light is a thing credible and, true, and one in the blessing of which we 
daily have occasion to rejoice, no less is it credible and true that God 
separated the seventh day from worldly use, shed upon it the light of 
sanctification, and made it a day of blessing and of joy to all who will 
accept and use it as he has appointed. 

The holy Sabbath thus instituted in the time of man's innocency, 
was, says our divine Lord, "made for man; " that is, if words have 
meaning, made because it is necessary and profitable for man. But if 
necessary and profitable in man's first state, while yet free from sin 
in Paradise, as most assuredly it was, how much more so now that he 
has fallen into sin; for if it was needful to him in that his pure and 
holy state, and needful, no doubt, to maintain him in that state, how 
much more so is it now to recover him from his corrupt condition, and 
to aid in restoring him to his primeval excellency! O that men were 
wise, that they understood these things, and could rightly discern the 
loving-kindness of the Lord, and his purpose of mercy in giving them 
the Sabbath to sanctify it! Then would they with faithfulness remem- 



SABBATH NOT A SHADOW 503 

ber this holy day to sanctify it; then would they thereby "sanctify the 
Lord God in their hearts; " then would they themselves become "sanc- 
tified by the word of God and by prayer; " then would " they be turned 
from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto God, and so 
receive forgiveness of sins, and inheritance among them which are 
sanctified by faith that is in Jesus Christ." 

Meanwhile, however, and until so glorious a consummation be 
obtained, it is ours to contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to 
the saints. Of the things so delivered, the sanctity of the Sabbath is 
one that, in our day, needs much to be contended for. — Rev. John Jor- 
dan, Vicar of Enstone, in " The Christian Sabbath" by Ministers of 
Different Denominations, pp. 39-42. London: The Religious Tract So- 
ciety, 1856. 

Sabbath, Distinct from Ceremonial Days. — Those ceremonial days 
were not to be observed until Israel should be settled in Canaan. The 
weekly Sabbath they were then bound to observe. They were called 
solemn feasts, set feasts; all of which were typical, and to be done 
away when Christ should finish the work of redemption. Then, Jew, 
and Gentile, when this partition wall should be broken down, must look 
to the moral law and the gospel of Jesus Christ as their guide, and 
keep only the Sabbath given to man in Eden. They were no longer to 
offer up sacrifices for sin, but accept of the sacrifice Christ offered once 
for all. — •' The Sabbath," Harmon Kingsbury, p. 205. New York: Robert 
Garter, 1840. 

Sabbath, Never Associated with New Moons and Feasts. — The 
Sabbath appears to be regularly distinguished from sabbaths; and as 
sabbaths are regularly joined with new moons and other holidays of the 
Jews, which the Sabbath never is, it is clear to me that the Sabbath is 
not alluded to in any of these instances. — President Timothy Dwight; 
quoted by Harmon Kingsbury in " The Sabbath," p. 195. New York: 
Robert Carter, 1840. 

Sabbath, Weekly, Not "a Shadow of the Things to Come." — The 
Sabbath, we have seen, was a part of the moral law. There it not only 
had a place, but it gave a meaning and motive to it. With that Chris- 
tianity cannot interfere. " Yea, we establish the law." Never is it 
represented to be a part of the ceremonial economy. It is not a type 
of anything but itself. It is archetype and antitype. With nothing can 
it exchange. Circumcision may pass into baptism. The Passover may 
be translated into the Lord's Supper. But the Sabbath is the Sabbath, 
and nothing but the Sabbath can it be. It owed a particular construc- 
tion to Judaism; it owes a specific application to Christianity. But to 
no dispensation owes it existence, or authority, or right. It is from 
the beginning. It is the parent of dispensations. It is the root of 
religions. " Its tabernacle is in the sun." 

We are aware that Scripture has been quoted to render the ques- 
tion of its observance indifferent, to expose it rather in the light of a 
burden than of a blessing. It would be strange, could this be estab- 
lished. Laxity is abhorrent to the spirit of revelation. The statement 
upon which this doctrine of indifference is founded, proceeds from 
Paul (Rom. 14:5): "One man esteem eth one day above another: 
another esteemeth every day." Our translators have added " alike," 
which has no pretext of place in the original Greek. This must refer 
to the Jewish feasts. He who had been educated beneath their associa- 
tions, would feel much scrupulousness in renouncing them. If he " re- 
garded it unto the Lord," he was not to be " judged " by them who " re- 



504 SABBATH, CHRIST'S ATTITUDE TOWARD 

garded it not unto the Lord." Also, in the warning of the same writer : 
" Let no man judge you in meat or in drink, or in respect of a holy day, 
or of the new moon, or of the sabbaths," — we trace the same rule of 
interpretation. These are all confessedly " shadows of good things to 
come." They rise in a gradation. They first respect offerings, then 
religious times. We have previously remarked, that Sabbath not only 
is used in Levitical language to denote, as it properly does, that of the 
week, but that of years, the seventh and the forty-ninth. The holy day 
was an addition to the Sabbath, the new moon was a feast of blowing of 
trumpets, and sabbaths of years must be impracticable, apart from the 
miracles of the soil with which formerly they had been attended. To 
these no adherence could be obligatory. Apart from a spiritual appro- 
priation, they were always disavowed and denounced: " The new moons 
and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, I cannot away with; it is iniq- 
uity, even the solemn meeting." Here certainly the weekly Sabbath 
cannot be understood. The ceremonial, when abused, may be slighted 
and revoked; the moral, however perverted, must be retained in honor 
and force. But we can feel no sympathy with them who would draw 
from these and similar passages an oblique attempt to invalidate the 
Sabbath's holy rest. — Richard Winter Hamilton, LL. D., D. D., in " The 
Christian Sabbath" by Ministers of Different Denominations, pp. 339, 
340. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1856. 

Sabbath, Not Jewish. — In every one of these respects [opportunity 
for rest, commemoration of creation, opportunity of increasing holiness 
before the fall, means of grace after the fall. — Eds.], the Sabbath is 
equally important and necessary to every child of Adam. It was no 
more necessary to a Jew to rest after the labor of six days was ended, 
than to any other man. It was no more necessary to a Jew to com- 
memorate the perfections of God, displayed in the works of creation; it 
was no more necessary to a Jew to obtain holiness, or to increase in it; 
it is no more necessary to a Jew to seek or to obtain salvation. What- 
ever makes either of these things interesting to a Jew in any degree, 
makes them in the same degree interesting to any other man. The 
nature of the command, therefore, teaches as plainly as the nature of 
a command can teach, that it is of universal application to mankind. 
It has, then, this great criterion of a moral precept, viz., universality of 
application. — " Theology Explained and Defended" a Beries of Sermons 
by Timothy Dwight, (4 vols.) Vol. Ill, Sermon 105, p. 225, 6th edition. 
New York: G. <& C. & H. Garvill, 1829. 

Sabbath, Christ's Attitude Toward. — Much has been made of the 
attitude of Christ in speech and deed toward the Sabbath. Some have 
imagined that by words he uttered and by deeds he did he relaxed 
the binding nature of the old command. This view, however, is to 
absolutely misunderstand and misinterpret the doing and the teaching 
of Jesus. — " The Ten Commandments," G. Campbell Morgan, p. 50. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1901. 

Sabbath, Not Abrogated by Christ. — The Great Teacher never 
intimated that the Sabbath was a ceremonial ordinance to cease with 
the Mosaic ritual. It was instituted when our first parents were in 
Paradise; and the precept enjoining its remembrance, being a portion 
of the decalogue, is of perpetual obligation. Hence, instead of regarding 
it as a merely Jewish institution, Christ declares that it " was made for 
man," or, in other words, that it was designed for the benefit of the 
whole human family. Instead of anticipating its extinction along 
with the ceremonial law, he speaks of its existence after the downfall 



SABBATH FOR CHRISTIANS 505 

of Jerusalem. [See Matt. 24: 20.] When he announces the calamities 
connected with the ruin of the noly city, he instructs his followers to 
pray that the urgency of the catastrophe may not deprive them of the 
comfort of the ordinances of the sacred rest. " Pray ye," said he, " that 
your flight he not in the winter, neither on the Sabbath day." — " The 
Ancient Church" William D. Killen, D. D., pp. 188, 189. New York: 
Anson D. F. Randolph & Co., 1883. 

Sabbath, Christ as Lord of. — It seems as if some cannot think of 
power in connection with the Sabbath unless as exercised in abrogation. 
If it be placed in Christ's charge, they take it for granted that more 
or less extinction must be the consequence. They speak as if Christ's 
scepter were an ax, and the only question were how much it would 
hew down and devastate. We maintain, on the contrary, that Christ 
would not be the Lord of the Sabbath to be its destroyer. — " Cyclopedia 
of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature," McClintock and 
Strong, art. " Sabbath, Christian," p. 196. 

Sabbath, For Christians. — The Sabbath was appointed at the crea- 
tion of the world, and sanctified, or set apart for holy purposes, " for 
man," for all men, and therefore for Christians; since there was never 
any repeal of the original institution. To this we add, that if the moral 
law be the law of Christians, then is the Sabbath as explicitly enjoined 
upon them as upon the Jews. — "A Biblical and Theological Dictionary," 
Richard Watson, art. "Sabbath," pp. 829, 830. New York: B. Waugh 
and T. Mason, 1833. 

Sabbath, Jewish Perversion of. — The puerility of extreme rab- 
binical legalism is seen in such restrictions as these: "None should 
eat an egg that is laid on the Sabbath, as the hen violated the fourth 
commandment in doing work on the Sabbath." When Christ with his 
disciples passed through the cornfields, the third rule was violated in 
plucking corn, as it was equivalent to threshing. Walking on the grass 
was also prohibited for a like reason. Even having nails in one's 
shoes while walking was considered equivalent to carrying a burden. 
One could mark down one letter of the alphabet, without violating the 
conception of the law, but it was wrong to mark down two letters. The 
Jews were not allowed to carry a mouthful of food two steps on the 
Sabbath day, as it would be bearing a burden. — " Scientific Basis of Sab- 
bath and Sunday," Robert John Floody, p. 118. Boston: Cupples and 
Shoenhof, 1901. 

They [the Pharisees] watched Christ, that they might discover some 
act for which they might condemn him as a transgressor. No crime 
did they oftener allege against him than that of violating the law of 
the Sabbath. When accused of this, he in no instance intimated that 
the law of the Sabbath is not of perpetual obligation. He performed no 
works on the Sabbath, but necessary works of mercy. These the law 
always admitted. Hence, in every instance in which the Pharisees ac- 
cused him of this crime, he effectually silenced them by appealing to 
the law itself; by reminding them of their own practical interpretation 
of the law; or by referring them to the conduct of some one who per- 
formed necessary works of mercy on the Sabbath, but whom they never 
thought of accusing as a transgressor. — Zephaniah Swift Moore, D. D., 
in a Sermon before the Legislature of Massachusetts, 1818, p. 3. Printed 
by Russell, Cutler & Co., for Benjamin Russell, Printer for the State, 
1818. 

Sabbath, Observance of, in Early Centuries. — Down even to the 
fifth century the observance of the Jewish Sabbath was continued in 



506 SABBATH IN EARLY CENTtTBlES 

the Christian church, but with a rigor and solemnity gradually dimin- 
ishing until it was wholly discontinued. — " Ancient Christianity Exem- 
plified" Lyman Coleman, chap. 26, sec. 2, p. 527. Philadelphia: Lippin- 
cott, Grambo & Co., 1852. 

It is certain (and little do you know of the ancient condition of the 
church if you know it not) that the ancient Sabbath did remain and 
was observed (together with the celebration of the Lord's day) by the 
Christians of the East Church, above three hundred years after our 
Saviour's death. — "A Learned Treatise of the Sabbath," Edward Brere- 
wood, p. 77, London, 1630; cited in " A Critical History of the Sabbath 
and the Sunday," A. H. Lewis, D. D., pp. 130, 131. Alfred Center (N. Y.J: 
The American Sabbath Tract Society, 1886. 

The seventh-day Sabbath was . . . solemnized by Christ, the apos- 
tles, and primitive Christians, till the Laodicean Council did in a manner 
quite abolish the observation of it. . . . The Council of Laodicea [about 
a. d. 364] . . . first settled the observation of the Lord's day, and pro- 
hibited . . . the keeping of the Jewish Sabbath under an anathema. — 
"Dissertation on the Lord's Day," William Prynne (1633), pp. 33, 34, 
44; cited in " History of the Sabbath," J. N. Andrews, p. 362, 3d edition. 
Battle Creek, Mich.: Review and Herald, 1887. 

Sabbath, In Rome, Seventh Century. — It has come to my ears 
that certain men of perverse spirit have sown among you some things 
that are wrong and opposed to the holy faith, so as to forbid any work 
being done on the Sabbath day. What else can I call these but preachers 
of Antichrist? — "Epistles of St. Gregory the Great," book 13, epistle 1; 
" Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. XIII, p. 92. New York: Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1905. 

Sabbath, Observed by Celtic Church, Scotland, Eleventh Cen- 
tury. — They worked on Sunday, but kept Saturday in a sabbatical man- 
ner. — "A History of Scotland," Andrew Lang, Vol. I, p. 96. Edinburgh: 
William Blackwood & Sons, 1900. 

Sabbath. In Scotland. — They seem to have followed a custom of 
which we find traces in the early monastic church of Ireland, by which 
they held Saturday to be the Sabbath, on which they rested from all 
their labors. — " Celtic Scotland," William F. Skene, book 2, chap. 8 (Vol. 
II, p. 349). Edinburgh: David Douglas. 1877. 

Note. — When the Catholic Queen Margaret, of England, married Malcolm 
of Scotland, 1069, she set herself to turn the Celtic Church from Sabbath keep- 
ing, succeeding too well, as told by her confessor and biographer, Turgot. — Eds. 

It was another custom of theirs to neglect the reverence due to 
the Lord's day, by devoting themselves to every kind of worldly busi- 
ness upon it, just as they did upon other days. That this was contrary 
to the law, she [Queen Margaret] proved to them as well by reason as 
by authority. " Let us venerate the Lord's day," said she, " because of 
the resurrection of our Lord, which happened upon that day, and let us 
no longer do servile works upon it; bearing in mind that upon this 
day we were redeemed from the slavery of the devil. The blessed Pope 
Gregory affirms the same." — " Life of Saint Margaret," Turgot, p. 49, sec. 
20. Edinburgh: David Douglas, 1896. (British Museum Library.) 

Sabbath, In the Early Centuries. — He [Grotius] refers to Eu- 
sebius for proof that Constantine, besides issuing his well-known 
edict that labor should be suspended on Sunday, enacted that the people 
should not be brought before the law courts on the seventh day of the 



SABBATH IN ABYSSINIA 507 

week, which also, he adds, was long observed by the primitive Chris- 
tians as a day for religious meetings. And this, says he, " refutes 
those who think that the Lord's day was substituted for the Sabbath — 
a thing nowhere mentioned either by Christ or his apostles." — Hugo 
Grotius (d. 1645), "Opera Omnia Theologica," London: 1679; cited in 
" The Literature of the Sabbath Question," Robert Cox, Vol. I, p. 223. 
Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1865. 

In our received text of Eusebius it is stated that he [Constantine] 
enjoined for Saturday the same cessation of business. But the state- 
ments of both Sozomon and Eusebius are viewed with doubt by the more 
careful critics, not only because the text of both is corrupt, but also 
because no such law concerning Friday or Saturday is found either in 
the Justinian or the Theodosian code. — Franklin Johnson, D. D., in 
" Sabbath Essays," p. 241; cited in " The Sabbath for Man" Rev. Wilbur 
F. Grafts, A. M., p. 555. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1885. 

The account of their practising circumcision is undoubtedly a slan- 
derous story forged by their enemies, and probably arose in this way: 
because they observed the seventh day, they were called by way of 
derision, Jews, as the Sabbatarians are frequently at this day; and if 
they were Jews, it followed of course that they either did, or ought to, 
circumcise their followers. — " History of the Baptist Denomination," 
Erbkam, Vol. II, p. 414; cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews 
and Conradi, p. 551, edition 1912. 

Sabbath, In Abyssinia. — Because God, after he had finished the 
creation of the world, rested thereon; which day, as God would have it 
called the holy of holies; so the not celebrating thereof with great honor 
and devotion seems to be plainly contrary to God's will and precept, 
who will suffer heaven and earth to pass away sooner than his word; 
and that, especially, since Christ came not to dissolve the law, but to 
fulfil it. It is not, therefore, in imitation of the Jews, but in obedience 
to Christ and his holy apostles, that we observe that day. . . . We do 
observe the Lord's day after the manner of all other Christians in 
memory of Christ's resurrection. — Reason for keeping Sabbath, given by 
the Abyssinian legate at the court of Lisbon (1534); in " Ghurch His- 
tory of Ethiopia," Michael Geddes, pp. 87, 88. London: R. Ghiswell, 1696. 

Note. — The Abyssinians received the Eastern form of doctrine, supposedly, 
by missionaries from Alexandria in the fourth century. The Sabbath had not 
then been discarded as the day of rest, though the Sunday festival was observed. 
In the seventh century the rise of the Saracen power cut Abyssinia off from the 
knowledge of the world. Gibbon says : " Encompassed on all sides by the enemies 
of their religion, the Ethiopians slept near a thousand years, forgetful of the 
world, by whom they were forgotten." — Chap. If!, par. 37. And when discovered 
by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, they were found making the seventh 
day the day of rest, not having known of its being set fully aside in the course of 
apostasy. The Jesuit priests never rested until they persuaded the Abyssinian 
king (a. d. 1604) to submit to the Pope, and to prohibit Sabbath observance. 
— Eds. 

Sabbath, In Pre-Reformatton Norway. — The clergy from Nidaros, 
Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, and Hamar, assembled with us in Bergen at 
this provincial council, are fully united in deciding in harmony with 
the laws of the holy church that Saturday keeping must under no cir- 
cumstances be permitted hereafter further than the church canon com- 
mands. Therefore, we counsel all the friends of God throughout all 
Norway who want to be obedient toward the holy church, to let this 



508 SABBATH IN REFORMATION TIMES 

evil of Saturday keeping alone; and the rest we forbid under penalty 
of severe church punishment to keep Saturday holy. — From minutes of 
the Catholic Provincial Council, Bergen, A. D. 1435, in " Dipl. Norveg.," 
7, 397; cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews and Conradi, p. 673, 
edition 1912. 

Sabbath, In Reformation Times in Sweden and Finland. — We find 
traces of these Jewish doctrines throughout the entire Swedish kingdom, 
from Finland, northern Sweden, Dalarne, Westmanland, and Neriko, 
down to Westergotland and Smaaland. Even King Gustavus I was 
obliged to issue a special letter of warning against the error so general 
among the laity of Finland. — " The Swedish Church after the Reforma- 
tion^ Norlin, Vol. I, p. 357 ; cited in " History of the Sabbath" Andrews 
and Conradi, p. 679, edition 1912. 

Sabbath, In Eueope in Reformation Times. — The church at Nikols- 
burg was also divided. The followers of Philipp Jaeger and Jacob Wide- 
man were called " Kleinhaufler " [the small body] or " Stabler " [staff- 
men], and the followers of Hans Spittelmaier [in Moravia, about 1529] 
received the name of " Schwertler " [sword-bearers] and Sabbatarians. 
Leonhard Lichtenstein [one of the princes of Lichtenstein] held to the 
latter party. — " Geschichte der bohmischen Bruder," Vol. I, p. 212;. cited 
in " History of the Sabbath," Andrews and Conradi, p. 641, edition 1912. 

Notes. — This " History of the Sabbath " adds : " Even most prominent men, 
as the princes of Lichtenstein, held to the observance of the true Sabbath. When 
persecution finally scattered them, the seeds of truth must have been sown by 
them in the different portions of the Continent which they visited. . . . We have 
found them [Sabbath keepers] in Bohemia. They were also known in Silesia and 
Poland. Likewise they were in Holland and northern Germany. . . . There were 
at this time Sabbath keepers in France, . . . ' among whom were M. de la Roque, 
who wrote in defense of the Sabbath against Bossuet, Catholic bishop of Meaux.' 
That Sabbatarians again appeared in England by the time of the Reformation, 
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth (a. d. 1533-1603), Dr. Chambers testifies in 
his Encyclopedia [art. "Sabbath"]-" — Pages 6lfi, 650. 

In 1618 John Traske and his wife, of London, were condemned for the Sab- 
bath of the Lord, the man being whipped, and both imprisoned. He recanted 
under the pressure, after a year, but Mrs. Traske, a gifted school-teacher, was 
given grace to hold out for sixteen years, dying in prison for the word of the 
Lord. 

By 1661 Sabbath keepers in London had further increased. In that year 
John James was minister to a considerable congregation, meeting in East London, 
off the Whitechapel Road. As part of proceedings against dissenting sects after 
the restoration of the monarchy, he was arrested and condemned to death on 
" Tyburn Tree." His wife knelt at the feet of King Charles II and pleaded for 
her husband's life ; but the king scornfully rejected the plea, and said that the 
man should hang. Bogue says : 

" For once the king remembered his promise, and Mr. James was sent to 
join the noble army of martyrs." — '• History of Dissenters/' Vol. I, p. 155. 

In 1683 Francis Bamfield — formerly an influential minister of the Church 
of England, but later pastor of a Sabbath-keeping congregation meeting in the 
Pinner's Hall, London — died of hardships in Newgate prison, for the Sabbath 
of the Lord. An old writer says that his body was followed to burial by " a very 
great company of factious and schismatical people," in other words, dissenters 
from the state church. 

" Sabbatarian Baptists," these English witnesses to God's Sabbath were 
first called in those times, and then Seventh Day Baptists. In 1664 Stephen 
Mumford, of one of these London congregations, was sent over to New England. 
He settled in Rhode Island, where the Baptist pioneer of religious liberty, Roger 
Williams, had founded his colony. In 1671 the first Sabbatarian church in 
America was formed in Rhode Island. Evidently this movement created a stir ; 
for the report went over to England that the Rhode Island colony did not keep 
the Sabbath — meaning Sunday. Roger Williams wrote to his friends in Eng- 
land denying the report, but calling attention to the fact that there was no 
Scripture for " abolishing the seventh day," and adding : " You know yourselves 
do not keep the Sabbath, that is the seventh day." — " Letters of Roger Williams/' 
Vol. VI j p. 3J { 6. Narragansett Club Publications, — Eds. 



SABBATH, MATTHEW 28:1 509 

Sabbath, Commanded, but no Command for Sunday. — Every one 
who has been brought up, as most of us have been, in the unsuspecting 
belief that our Sunday Sabbath is an institution enjoined by divine 
authority, and who may, nevertheless, become desirous of satisfying 
himself, by inquiry, as to the sufficiency of the evidence in support of 
that belief, will in the very outset of his inquiry be forcibly struck by 
one remarkable fact; and that is, the advantage which the Jew pos- 
sesses over the Christian with regard to the evidence in favor of their 
respective Sabbaths. Why should this be if the Christian as well as the 
Jewish Sabbath be an ordinance of God? Why should the Jew be en- 
abled to refer to his Scriptures as the authority for his Saturday Sab- 
bath, and to point to an express command to keep it holy, while the 
Christian, for a command to keep a Sunday Sabbath, searches his 
Scriptures in vain? — "The Sabbath," Sir William Domville, pp. 1, 2. 
London: Chapman and Hall, 1849. 



Sabbath, On a Round World. — 

And now to trace you round this rolling world, 
An eastern and a western route you've twirled, 
And made out nothing by the spacious travel, 
But what I call a wretched, foolish cavil. 
And now to make you clearly understand 
That Sabbath day may be in every land, 
At least those parts where mortal men reside 
(And nowhere else can precepts be applied), 
There was a place where first the orb of light 
Appeared to rise, and westward took its flight; 
That moment, in that place the day began, 
And as he in his circuit westward ran, 
Or rather, as the earth did eastward spin, 
To parts more westward daylight did begin. 
And thus at different times, from place to place, 
The day began — this clearly was the case. 
And I should think a man must be a dunce 
To think that day began all round at once, 
So that in foreign lands it doth appear, 
There was a first day there as well as here. 
And if there was a first, the earth around, 
As sure as fate the seventh can be found. 
And thus you see it matters not a whit, 
On which meridian of earth we get, 
Since each distinctly had its dawn of light, 
And ever since, successive day and night; 
Thus while our antipodes in darkness sleep, 
We here the true, primeval Sabbath keep. 
— William Stillman, 1810, quoted in Review and Herald, Feb. 3, 1852. 

Sabbath, Meaning of Matthew 28: 1. — The phrases in Matthew 
28: 1 are a literal reproduction, in Greek words, of Jewish idiomatic 
terms for divisions of time, and to understand them we must go back to 
the language of the Palestinian tradition of the gospel. John Lightfoot, 
in a brief note on the verse, rightly connected 6\pt aapparcav [opse sab- 
baton, "late on the Sabbath day"], with the Hebrew pi^Kl^S, the 
ordinary expressions for the time following the close of the Sabbath at 
sunset on Saturday; and added that 6\f/4 [opse~\, as the equivalent of 
these expressions, included the whole of Saturday night. The phrase 



510 SABBATH, CHANGE OF 

TO© *N351tt2 is of very common occurrence. ... It always denotes a time 
after the end of the Sabbath, sometimes immediately after, e. g., in 
connection with the habdalah; sometimes it signifies Saturday night 
in general; and there are instances in which it refers to the whole of 
Sunday, [pp. 324, 325] . . . 

The phrase, ry i-mcpwaKoiJo-r) els fitav crafipdruv \te epifoskouse eis mian 
Sabbaton, "As it began to dawn toward the first day of the week"], 
also is to be explained by Jewish idiom, [p. 326] . . . 

Luke 23: 54, Kcti ijfxe'pa fjv irapacrKevT)s. kclI ad^^arov tiricpuxTKev \_Kai he- 
mera an paraskeues kai sabbaton epefosken. " and it was the day of 
the preparation, and the Sabbath drew on"], is another example of the 
same idiom which we have recognized in Matthew 28: 1. Lightfoot 
. . . renders, ingruebat nox Sabbati [the night of the Sabbath was 
coming on]. Perhaps the sense is rather, "and the next day was the 
Sabbath." [p. 328] — Prof. George F. Moore (Professor in Harvard Uni- 
versity), in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XXVI, 
1905, pp. 324-328. 

Sabbath, First Day of the Week Not the Sabbath. — The Sabbath 
has never been changed. The " first day of the week " is not the Sab- 
bath. The mixing up of Sabbath and the first day of the week and 
calling it the " Christian Sabbath " has no foundation in Scripture, and 
is but a part of the awful admixture of law and grace of this day. 
There is but one name in Scripture for the day which Christians keep 
in memory of their risen Lord, and that is " the first day of the week." 
— P. B. Fitzwater, in the Gospel Messenger (Dunkard), Feb. 3, 1906. 

Sabbath.— Pages 23-25, 105, 106, 191, 606. 
Sabbath, Babylonian. — Page 107. 

Sabbath, Change of, Neander on Sunday Festival. — Opposition 
to Judaism introduced the particular festival of Sunday very early, 
indeed, into the place of the Sabbath. . . . The festival of Sunday, like 
all other festivals, was always only a human ordinance, and it was far 
from the intentions of the apostles to establish a divine command in 
this respect, far from them, and from the early apostolic church, to 
transfer the laws of the Sabbath to Sunday. Perhaps, at the end of the 
second century a false application of this kind had begun to take place; 
for men appear by that time to have considered laboring on Sunday as 
a sin. — " The History of the Christian Religion and Church," Neander, 
p. 186, translated by Henry John Rose, B. D. Philadelphia: James M. 
Campbell & Co., 1843. 

Note. — This quotation is the correct translation from Neander's first Ger- 
man edition, Hamburg, 1826, Vol. I, part 2, p. 339. Neander has in his second 
edition, 1842, omitted the sentence in which he expressly stated that Sunday 
was only a human ordinance, but he has added nothing to the contrary. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, Gladstone on the Sabbath "Deposed." — The 
seventh day of the week has been deposed from its title to obligatory 
religious observance, and its prerogative has been carried over to the 
first, under no direct precept of Scripture, but yet with a Biblical record 
of facts, all supplied by St. John, which go very far indeed toward 
showing that among the apostles themselves, and therefore from apos- 
tolic times, the practice of divine worship on the Lord's day has been 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF 511 

continuously and firmly established. The Christian community took 
upon itself to alter the form of the Jewish ordinance, but this was with 
a view to giving larger effect to its spiritual purpose. — " Later Glean- 
ings" William E. Gladstone, p. 342. London. 

Sabbath, Change of, King Charles II on Authority for. — I con- 
ceive the celebration of this feast [Easter] was instituted by the same 
authority which changed the Jewish Sabbath into the Lord's day or 
Sunday, for it will not be found in Scripture where Saturday is dis- 
charged to be kept, or turned into the Sunday; wherefore it must be 
the church's authority that changed the one and instituted the other; 
therefore my opinion is, that those who will not keep this feast [Easter] 
may as well return to the observation of Saturday, and refuse the weekly 
Sunday. — Extract from the Query to the Parliament Commissioners by 
King Charles II, April 23, 1647 ; cited in " Sabbath Law\s and Sabbath 
Duties" Robert Cox, p. 333. Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1853. 

Sabbath, Change of, How the Sunday Institution Crept In. — 
The Christian church made no formal, but a gradual and almost uncon- 
scious transference of the one day to the other. — " The Voice from 
Sinai" Archdeacon F. W. Farrar, p. 167. London: Isbister & Co., 1892. 



Sabbath, Change of, Eusebius on Transfer by Ecclesiastical 
Authority. — All things whatsoever that it was duty to do on the Sab- 
bath, these we have transferred to the Lord's day. — " Commentary on 
the Psalms" Eusebius; cited in "A Commentary on the Apocalypse," 
Moses Stuart, Vol. II, p. 40. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell. 
1845. 

Sabbath, Change of, Action of Council of Laodicea on (about 
a. d. 364). — Christians shall not Judaize and be idle on Saturday 
[Sabbath, original], but shall work on that day; but the Lord's day 
they shall especially honor, and, as being Christians, shall, if possible, 
do no work on that day. If, however, they are found Judaizing, they 
shall be shut out from Christ. — "A History of the Church Councils," 
Rev. Charles Joseph Hefele, D. D. (R. C), from 326 to 429 (Vol. II, p. 
316). Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1896. 

Notes. — The translator has used the word " Saturday." The original has, 
of course, " Sabbath," as the seventh day was always called in ecclesiastical law, 
until modern times. 

Touching the authority of the Council, or as some prefer to call it, the Synod, 
of Laodicea, it may be remarked that while its ecumenical character is challenged 
in some quarters, its acts have never been called in question, and the sixty-four 
articles adopted by it are today practically a part of the canon law of the Roman 
Catholic Church.— Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, The West Leads the Way in Setting Aside 
Recognition of Sabbath. — The people of Constantinople, and of sev- 
eral other cities, assemble together on the Sabbath, as well as on the 
next day; which custom is never observed at Rome, or at Alexandria. 
— "Ecclesiastical History," Sozomen, from A. D. 324-440, book 7, chap. 
19, p. 355. London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1846. 

Almost all churches throughout the world celebrate the sacred mys- 
teries on the Sabbath of every week, yet the Christians of Alexandria 



512 SABBATH, CHANGE OF 

and at Rome, on account of some ancient tradition, refuse to do this. — 
" Ecclesiastical History," Socrates (from 306 to 445), book 5, chap. 22, 
p. 404. London: Samuel Bagster & Sons, 1844. 

Sabbath, Change of, Spread of Sun Worship in the Third Cen- 
tury. — Sun worship, however, became increasingly popular at Rome 
in the second and third centuries a. d. The sun-god of Bmesa in Syria 
— Deus Sol invictus Elagabalus — was exalted above the older gods of 
Rome by the Emperor [Macrinus, a. d. 217, taking the name Elagabalus] 
who, as his priest, was identified with the object of his worship; and 
in spite of the disgust inspired by the excesses of the boy-priest, an 
impulse was given to the spread of a kind of " solar pantheism," which 
embraced by a process of syncretism the various Oriental religions and 
was made the chief worship of the state by Aurelian. — " Companion to 
Roman History," H. Stuart Jones, p. 302. 

It was openly asserted that the worship of the sun, under his name 
of Elagabalus, was to supersede all other worship. — " The History of 
Christianity," Henry Hart Milman, D. D., book 2, chap 8 (Vol. II, p. 178). 
New York: A. C. Armstrong & Son. 

Sabbath, Change of, Church Adopts Pagan Festivals. — It is 
not necessary to go into a subject which the diligence of Protestant 
writers has made familiar to most of us. The use of temples, and these 
dedicated to particular saints; . . . holy water; asylums; holy days and 
seasons, use of calendars, processions, . . . are all of pagan origin, and 
sanctified by their adoption into the church. — " Development of Chris- 
tian Doctrine" John Henry Cardinal Newman, p. 373. London: Long- 
mans, Green, & Co., 1906. 

In her work of Christianizing the world the [Roman Catholic] 
Church adapts herself as far as possible to her surroundings. She 
does not reject completely the customs and institutions of a people 
into whose land she carries the good tidings, but endeavors to bring 
these institutions into harmony with her own doctrines. ... So it 
comes that we find the early writers of the church retaining in sub- 
stance many of the old heathen myths and legends, changing them only 
to invest them with a Christian atmosphere. — Lawrence N. Leinheuser, 
M. A., in " Legend of the Phoenix," The Catholic Education Review 
(Washington,- D. C), March, 1921. 

Sabbath, Change of, The Accusation of a Fourth Century Non- 
Christian. — You celebrate the solemn festivals of the Gentiles, their 
calends and their solstices; and as to their manners, those you have 
retained without any alteration. Nothing distinguishes you from the 
pagans except that you hold your assemblies apart from them. — Faustus 
to St. Augustine (4th century); cited in "History of the Intellectual 
Development of Europe," John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, 
p. 310. New York: Harper & Brothers, copyright 1876. 

Sabbath, Change of, Influence of Surrounding Paganism. — The 
early Christians had at first adopted the Jewish seven-day week, 
with its numbered week days, but by the close of the third century a. d. 
this began to give way to the planetary week; and in the fourth and 
fifth centuries the pagan designations became generally accepted in the 
western half of Christendom. The use of the planetary names by Chris- 
tians attests the growing influence of astrological speculations intro- 
duced by converts from paganism. . . . During these same centuries the 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF 513 

spread of Oriental solar worship, especially that of Mithra, in the Roman 
world, had already led to the substitution by pagans of dies Soils for dies 
Saturni, as the first day of the planetary week. . . . Thus gradually a 
pagan institution was ingrafted on Christianity. — "Rest Days," Prof. 
Hutton Webster, Ph. D., pp. 220, 221. New York: Macmillan & Co., 1916. 

Sabbath, Change of, Mingling of Pagan and Cheistian Ideas in 
Promotion of Sunday. — Sunday (dies solis, of the Roman calendar " day 
of the sun," because dedicated to the sun), the first day of the week, was 
adopted by the early Christians as a day of worship. The " sun " of 
Latin adoration they interpreted as the " Sun of Righteousness." . . . 
No regulations for its observance are laid down in the New Testament, 
nor, indeed, is its observance even enjoined. — Schaff-Herzog Encyclo- 
pedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IV, art. " Sunday," p. 2259, 3d edi- 
tion, 1891. 

If we may believe the biographies in the Augustan history, a more 
ambitious scheme of a universal religion had dawned upon the mind of 
the emperor [Elagabalus (201-222), son of the senator Varius MarcellusL 
The Jewish, the Samaritan, even the Christian, were to be fused and 
recast into one great system, of which the sun was to be the central 
object of adoration. — " The History of Christianity" Henry Hart Mil- 
man, D. D., book 2, chap. 8 (Vol. II, p. 179). Neiv York: A. C. Armstrong 
iC- Son. 

The devotion of Constantine was more peculiarly directed to the 
genius of the sun, the Apollo of Greek and Roman mythology; and he 
was pleased to be represented with the symbols of the god of light and 
poetry. . . . The altars of Apollo were crowned with the votive offerings 
of Constantine; and the credulous multitude were taught to believe that 
the emperor was permitted to behold with mortal eyes the visible 
majesty of their tutelar deity. . . . The sun was universally celebrated 
as the invincible guide and protector of Constantine. — " The History of 
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 20, 
par. 3 (Vol. II, p. 251). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Sabbath, Change of, The Ancient Sun Festival Substituted. — 
The first day of the week, named after the sun, and therefore an evi- 
dent relic of sun worship. In French it is Dimanche, in Italian Do- 
minica, both from Dominus, " the Lord." Christians, with the exception 
of the Seventh-day Adventists, have substituted it as a day of rest and 
prayer in lieu of the Jewish Sabbath. — " Curiosities of Popular Cus- 
toms." Wm. S. Walsh, art. " Sunday," p. 901. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- 
pincott Company, 1898. 

Sabbath, Change of, Dr. Hiscox's Solemn Question and Decla- 
ration. — There was and is a commandment to keep holy the Sabbath 
day, but that Sabbath day was not Sunday. It will be said, however, 
and with some show of triumph, that the Sabbath was transferred from 
the seventh to the first day of the week, with all its duties, privileges, 
and sanctions. Earnestly desiring information on this subject, which I 
have studied for many years, I ask, Where can the record of such a 
transaction be found? Not in the New Testament, absolutely not. 
There is no Scriptural evidence of the change of the Sabbath institution 
from the seventh to the first day of the week. 

I wish to say that this Sabbath question, in this aspect of it, is the 
gravest and most perplexing question connected with Christian insti- 
tutions which at present claims attention from Christian people; and 
33 



514 SABBATH, CHANGE OP 

the only reason that it is not a more disturbing element in Christian 
thought and in religious discussions, is because the Christian world has 
settled down content on the conviction that somehow a transference 
has taken place at the beginning of Christian history. . . . 

To me it seems unaccountable that Jesus, during three years' inter- 
course with his disciples, often conversing with them upon the Sabbath 
question, discussing it in some of its various aspects, freeing it from its 
false glosses, never alluded to any transference of the day; also, that 
during forty days of his resurrection life, no such thing was intimated. 
Nor, so far as we know, did the Spirit, which was given to bring to 
their remembrance all things whatsoever that he had said unto them, 
deal with this question. Nor yet did the inspired apostles, in preaching 
the gospel, founding churches, counseling and instructing those founded, 
discuss or approach this subject. 

Of course, I quite well know that Sunday did come into use in early 
Christian history as a religious day, as we learn from the Christian 
Fathers and other sources. But what a pity that it comes branded with 
the mark of paganism, and christened with the name of the sun god, 
when adopted and sanctioned by the papal apostasy, and bequeathed as 
a sacred legacy to Protestantism! — Dr. Edward T. Hiscox, author of 
" The Baptist Manual," in a paper read before a New York Ministers' 
Conference, held Nov. 13, 1893. From a copy of the paper furnished by 
Br. Hiscox. 

Note. — The New York Examiner (Baptist) of Nov. 16, 1893, tells of the 
interest in discussing this paper, but does not print it. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, Prophecy of Attempt (Dan. 7: 25). — "And 
think to change times and laws." Verse 25. The word rendered 
think (^5P) means more properly to hope; and the idea here is that 
he quod possit mutare tempora [shall think that he may be able to 
change times], etc. The state of mind here referred to would be that 
of one who would desire to produce changes in regard to the times and 
laws referred to, and who would hope that he would be able to effect 
it. If there was a strong wish to do this, and if there was a belief that 
in any way he could bring it about, it would meet what is implied in the 
use of the word here. There would be the exercise of some kind of 
authority in regard to existing times for festivals, or other occasions, 
and to existing laws, and there would be a purpose so to change them 
as to accomplish his own ends. 

The word " times " ( P3PJ ) would seem to refer properly to some 
stated or designated time — as times appointed for festivals, etc. Gese- 
nius, "time, specially an appointed time, season." Eccl. 3:1; Neh. 2: 6; 
Esther 9:27, 31. Lengerke renders the word Fest-Zeiten, — "festival 
times,"- — and explains it as meaning the holy times, festival days, 
Lev. 23: 2, 4, 37, 44. The allusion is, undoubtedly, to such periods set 
apart as festivals or fasts — seasons consecrated to the services of re- 
ligion; and the kind of jurisdiction which the power here referred to 
would hope and desire to set up, would be to have control of these pe- 
riods, and so to change and alter them as to accomplish his own pur- 
poses, either by abolishing those in existence, or by substituting others 
in their place. At all times these seasons have had a direct connection 
with the state and progress of religion, and he who has power over them, 
either to abolish existing festivals, or to substitute others in their 
places, or to appoint new festivals, has an important control over the 
whole subject of religion, and over a nation. 

The word rendered laivs here ( ^V), while it might refer to any 
law, would more properly designate laws pertaining to religion. See 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF 515 

Dan. 6: 6, 9, 13 [5, 8, 12]; Ezra 7: 12, 21. So Lengerke explains it as 
referring to the laws of religion, or to religion. The kind of jurisdiction, 
therefore, referred to in this place, would be that which would pertain 
to the laws and institutions of religion; it would be a purpose to obtain 
the control of these; it would be a claim of right to abolish such as 
existed, and to institute new ones; it would be a determination to exert 
this power in such a way as to promote its own ends. — " Commentary" 
Rev. Albert Barnes, on the Book of Daniel, pp. 313, 314. New York: 
Leavitt and Allen, 1859. 

Sabbath, Change of, Melanchthon on the Prophecy of Dan. 7: 
25. — He changeth the tymes and lawes that any of the sixe worke 
dayes commanded of God will make them unholy and idle dayes when 
he lyste, or of their owne holy dayes abolished make worke dayes agen, 
or when they changed ye Saterday into Sondaye. . . . They have 
changed God's lawes and turned them into their owne tradicions to be 
kept above God's precepts. — " Exposicion of Daniel the Prophete," Gath- 
ered out of Philipp Melanchthon, Johan Ecolampadius, etc., by George 
Joye, 1545, p. 119. (British Museum Library.) 

Sabbath, Change of, Roman Catholic Catechisms on. — 

Ques. — Which is the Sabbath day? 

Ans. — Saturday is the Sabbath day. 

Ques. — Why do we observe Sunday instead of Saturday? 

Ans. — We observe Sunday instead of Saturday because the Catholic 
Church, in the Council of Laodicea (a. d. 336), transferred the solem- 
nity from Saturday to Sunday. — " The Convert's Catechism of Catholic 
Doctrine,''' Rev. Peter Geiermann, C. 88. R., p. 50, 2d edition, 1910. 

Notes. — This work received the " apostolic blessing " of Pope Pius X, Jan. 
25, 1910.— Eds. 

The precise year of the holding of the Council of Laodicea is a matter of 
considerable doubt. Some writers place it before the Council of Nica?a (325), 
while the Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that it was probably subsequent to the 
Council of Constantinople (381). Many old writers use a. d. 364. — Eds. 

Ques. — Have you any other way of proving that the church has 
power to institute festivals of precept? 

Ans. — Had she not such power, she could not have done that in 
which all modern religionists agree with her, — she could not have sub- 
stituted the observance of Sunday the first day of the week, for the 
observance of Saturday the seventh day, a change for which there is no 
Scriptural authority. — "A Doctrinal Catechism," Rev. Stephen Keenan; 
approved by the Most Reverend John Hughes, D. D., Archbishop of Neiv 
York, p. 174. Neiv York: Edward Dunigan & Brother, 1851. 

Ques. — By whom was it [the Sabbath] changed? . 

Ans. — By the governors of the church, the apostles, who also kept 
it; for St. John was in the Spirit on the Lord's day (which was Sunday). 
Apoc. 1: 10. 

Ques. — How prove you that the church hath power to command 
feasts and holy days? 

Ans. — By the very act of changing the Sabbath into Sunday, which 
Protestants allow of; and therefore they fondly contradict themselves, 
by keeping Sunday strictly, and breaking most other feasts commanded 
by the same church. 

Ques. — How prove you that? 

Ans. — Because by keeping Sunday, they acknowledge the church'? 
power to ordain feasts, and to command them under sin; and by not 



516 SABBATH, CHANGE OF 

keeping the rest [of the feasts] by her commanded, they again deny, 
in fact, the same power. — "An Abridgment of the Christian Doctrine " 
(R. C), Rev. Henry Tuberville, D. D., p. 58. New York: Edward Duni- 
gan and Brothers, approved 1833. 

Note. — What Roman Catholic authorities mean, when they say the Catholic 
Church changed the day of worship, is that the hierarchy, " the rulers of the 
church," beginning with the apostles and continuing on by councils and popes, 
established the Sunday festival. They freely admit that it is not by authority 
of the Scriptures ; for the Catholic doctrine gives to the hierarchy the power to 
command and appoint in place of Christ. In this claim is involved the whole 
issue of the gospel and of Protestantism vs. Catholicism. The record presented 
(see Apostasy; Sabbath; Sunday) shows how the multiplication of rites and cer- 
emonies began immediately after apostolic days, the spirit of the papal apostasy 
being already at work even in the time of the apostles. 2 Thess. 2 : 7. Thus 
when it is said that the Papacy or the Roman Catholic Church changed the day 
of worship, according to the prophecy, the change of necessity includes the earliest 
working of the spirit of lawlessness which was the beginning of the Papacy, and 
which later, in decrees of councils and by action of popes — when the church of 
the "falling away " was fully developed into the Roman Papacy — fully set aside 
the Sabbath of the Lord, and has ever maintained the Sunday festival as supreme, 
and as an institution solely of ecclesiastical authority. The prophecy of Dan. 
7 : 25 describes the rise of an ecclesiastical power that would " think " to do it. 
The fact attested by history is that the change has come about. — Eds. 

Q. What is the third commandment? 

A. The third commandment is: Remember thou keep holy the 
Sabbath day. 

Q. What are we commanded by the third commandment? 

A. By the third commandment we are commanded to keep holy 
the Lord's day and the holydays of obligation, on which we are to give 
our time to the service and worship of God. 

Q. How are we to worship God on Sundays and holydays of obli- 
gation? 

A. We are to worship God on Sundays and holydays of obligation 
by hearing mass, by prayer, and by other good works. 

Q. Are the Sabbath day and the Sunday the same? 

A. The Sabbath day and the Sunday are not the same. The Sab- 
bath is the seventh day of the week, and is the day which was kept holy 
in the old law; the Sunday is the first day of the week, and is the day 
which is kept holy in the new law. 

Q. Why does the church command us to keep the Sunday holy 
instead of the Sabbath? 

A. The church commands us to keep the Sunday holy instead of 
the Sabbath because on Sunday Christ rose from the dead, and on Sun- 
day he sent the Holy Ghost upon the apostles. — "A Catechism of Chris- 
tian Doctrine" "Prepared and Enjoined by Order of the Third Plenary 
Council of Baltimore, pp. 61, 62. New York: Benziger Brothers, Print- 
ers to the Holy 1 Apostolic See, copyright 1885. 

Sabbath, Change of, " Rome's Challenge." — The Catholic Church 
for over one thousand years before the existence of a Protestant, 
by virtue of her divine mission, changed the day from Saturday to 
Sunday. We say by virtue of her divine mission, because he who called 
himself the " Lord of the Sabbath," endowed her with his own power to 
teach, "he that heareth you, heareth me; " commanded all who believe 
in him to hear her, under penalty of being placed with the " heathen 
and publican; " and promised to be with her to the end of the world. 
She holds her charter as teacher from him — a charter as infallible as 
perpetual. The Protestant world at its birth [in the Reformation of the 
sixteenth century] found the Christian Sabbath too strongly intrenched 
to run counter to its existence; it was therefore placed under the neces- 
sity of acquiescing in the arrangement, thus implying the church's right 



SABBATH, CHANGE OF 517 

to change the day, for over three hundred years. The Christian Sabbath 
is therefore to this day the acknowledged offspring of the Catholic 
Church as spouse of the Holy Ghost, without a word of remonstrance 
from the Protestant world. — The Catholic Mirror (Baltimore), Sept. 23, 
1893. 

Note. — The Mirror was the official organ of Cardinal Gibbons, and the 
article from which this is taken was one of a series of four, printed Sept. 2, 9, 
16, and 23, 1893, under the general heading: "The Christian Sabbath: the Gen- 
nine Offspring of the Union of the Holy Spirit and the Catholic Church His 
Spouse. The Claims of Protestantism to Any Part Therein Proved to be Ground- 
less, Self-contradictory, and Suicidal." These articles were subsequently printed 
by the Mirror as a tract. The Mirror was discontinued in 1908, and five years 
later was succeeded by the Catholic Review, which is now the organ of the 
archdiocese of Baltimore. — Eds. 

Sabbath, Change of, Claims of Power to Change God's Com- 
mandment. — You will tell me that Saturday was the Jewish Sabbath, 
but that the Christian Sabbath has been changed to Sunday. Changed! 
but by whom? Who has authority to change an express commandment 
of Almighty God? When God has spoken and said, Thou shalt keep 
holy the seventh day, who shall dare to say, Nay, thou mayest work 
and do all manner of worldly business on the seventh day; but thou 
shalt keep holy the first day in its stead? This is a most important 
question, which I know not how you can answer. 

You are a Protestant, and you profess to go by the Bible and the 
Bible only; and yet in so important a matter as the observance of one 
day in seven as a holy day, you go against the plain letter of the Bible, 
and put another day in the place of that day which the Bible has com- 
manded. . The command to keep holy the seventh day is one of the ten 
commandments; you believe that the other nine are still binding; who 
gave you authority to tamper with the fourth? If you are consistent 
with your own principles, if you really follow the Bible and the Bible 
only, you ought to be able to produce some portion of the New Testa- 
ment in which this fourth commandment is expressly altered. — " Li- 
brary of Christian Doctrine: Why Don't You Keep Holy the Sabbath 
Day? " pp. 3, 4. London: Burns and Oates (R. C). 

Sabbath, Change of, Used as Mark of Church Authority. — If, 
however, the church has had power to change the Sabbath of the 
Bible into Sunday and to command Sunday keeping, why should it not 
have also this power concerning other days, many of which are based 
on the Scriptures — such as Christmas, circumcision of the heart, three 
kings, etc. If you omit the latter, and turn from the church to the 
Scriptures alone, then you must keep the Sabbath with the Jews, which 
has been kept from the beginning of the world. — " Enchiridion'' Dr. 
Eck (Disputant against Luther), 1533, p. 79; cited in "History of 
the Sabbath" Andrews and Conradi, p. 587, edition 1912. 

Sabbath, Change of, The Change the Badge of Authority of 
Tradition Above Scripture. — The Council [of Trent] agreed fully with 
Ambrosius Pelargus, that under no condition should the Protestants be 
allowed to triumph by saying that the council had condemned the doc- 
trine of the ancient church. But this practice caused untold tribulation 
without serving as a safeguard. For this business, to be sure, " almost 
divine prudence" was requisite — which was indeed awarded to the 
council on the sixteenth of March, 1562, by the Spanish ambassador. 
Really they could scarcely find their way in the many labyrinthian 
passages of an older and a newer comprehension of tradition, which 
were constantly crossing and recrossing each other. But even in this 
they were destined to succeed. Finally, at the last opening on the eight- 



518 SACRIFICES, FORMS OF 

eenth of January, 1563, their last scruple was set aside; the archbishop 
of Rheggio made a speech in which he openly declared that tradition 
stood above Scripture. The authority of the church could therefore not 
be bound to the authority of the Scriptures, because the church had 
changed Sabbath into Sunday, not by the command of Christ, but by 
its own authority. With this, to be sure, the last illusion was destroyed, 
and it was declared that tradition does not signify antiquity, but con- 
tinual inspiration. — " Canon and Tradition," Dr. J. H. Holtzman, p. 263 ; 
cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews and Conradi, p. 589, edition 
1912. 

Sabbath, Change of, Sunday Observance Held Forth as Hom- 
age to Papal Authority. — It was the Catholic Church which, by the 
authority of Jesus Christ, has transferred this rest to the Sunday in 
remembrance of the resurrection of our Lord. Thus the observance of 
Sunday by the Protestants is an homage they pay, in spite of themselves, 
to the authority of the [Catholic] church. — " Plain Talk About the Prot- 
estantism of Today," by Mgr. Segur, p. 213. Boston: Thomas B. Noonan 
& Co., 1868. Imprimatur, Joannes Josephus. 

Sabbath, Change of, Corruption of Doctrine and Practice in 
Early Centuries. — Pages 35, 36. 

Sabbath, Change of, Uniting of Pagan and Christian. — Pages 
572, 580. 

Sabbath, Change of, Tradition the Only Authority for. — Pages 
603, 604, 605. 

Sacrifices, Various Forms of. — The Sacrifices of the Mosaic Period. 
— These are inaugurated by the offering of the Passover and the sacri- 
fice of Exodus 24. The Passover indeed is unique in its character; but 
it is clear that the idea of salvation from death by means of sacrifice 
is brought out in it with a distinctness before unknown. The law of 
Leviticus now unfolds distinctly the various forms of sacrifice: (a) The 
burnt offering: Self-dedicatory. (6) The meat offering (unbloody); 
the peace offering (bloody) : Eucharistic. (c) The sin offering; the 
trespass offering: Expiatory. To these may be added, (d) The incense 
offered after sacrifice in the holy place, and (on the day of atonement) 
in the holy of holies, the symbol of the intercession of the priest (as a 
type of the great High Priest), accompanying and making efficacious 
the prayer of the people. In the consecration of Aaron and his sons 
(Leviticus 8), we find these offered in what became ever afterward their 
appointed order. First came the sin offering, to prepare access to God; 
next the burnt offering, to mark their dedication to his service; and 
third the meat offering of thanksgiving. Henceforth the sacrificial sys- 
tem was fixed in all its parts until He should come whom it typified. 

Post-Mosaic Sacrifices. — It will not be necessary to pursue, in de- 
tail, the history of the post-Mosaic sacrifice, for its main principles were 
now fixed forever. The regular sacrifices in the temple service were: 
(a) Burnt Offerings: (1) the daily burnt offerings (Ex. 29: 38-42); (2) 
the double burnt offerings on the Sabbath (Num. 28: 9, 10); (3) the 
burnt offerings at the great festivals (Num. 28: 11 to 29: 39). (b) 
Meat Offerings: (1) the daily meat offerings accompanying the daily 
burnt offerings (Ex. 29: 40, 41) ; (2) the showbread, renewed every Sab- 
bath (Lev. 24: 5, 9); (3) the special meat offerings at the Sabbath and 
the great festivals (Num. 28, 29); (4) the first fruits, at the Passover 
(Lev. 23: 10-14), at Pentecost (Lev. 23: 17-20), the first fruits of the 



SAINTS AND IMAGES 519 

dough and threshing-floor at the harvest time (Num. 15: 20, 21; Deut. 
26: 1-11. (c) Sin Offerings: (1) sin offering each new moon (Num. 28: 
15) ; (2) sin offerings at the Passover, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets and 
Tabernacles (Num. 28: 22, 30; 29: 5, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 38); (3) 
the offering of the two goats for the people and of the bullock for the 
priest himself, on the great day of atonement (Leviticus 16). (d) In- 
cense: (1) the morning and evening incense (Ex. 30:7, 8); (2) the 
incense on the great day of atonement (Lev. 16: 12). Besides these 
public sacrifices, there were offerings of the people for themselves indi- 
vidually. — "A Dictionary of the Bible" William Smith, LL. D., art. 
"Sacrifice" pp. 577, 578, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: Porter and 
Coates, copyright 1884. 

Saints and Images, Decree of Trent Concerning. — The Holy 
Synod enjoins on all bishops and others who sustain the office and 
charge of teaching that, agreeably to the usage of the Catholic and Apos- 
tolic Church, received from the primitive times of the Christian reli- 
gion, and agreeably to the consent of the holy Fathers, and to the 
decrees of sacred councils, they especially instruct the faithful diligently 
concerning the intercession and invocation of saints; the honor (paid) 
to relics; and the legitimate use of images; teaching them that the 
saints, who reign together with Christ, offer up their own prayers to 
God for men; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them, 
and to have recourse to their prayers, aid, and help for obtaining bene- 
fits from God, through his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord, who is our alone 
Redeemer and Saviour. . . . Also that the holy bodies of holy martyrs, 
and of others now living with Christ, which bodies were the living 
members of Christ and the temple of the Holy Ghost, and which are by 
him to be raised unto eternal life and to be glorified, are to be vener- 
ated by the faithful, through which (bodies) many benefits are bestowed 
by God on men. . . . Moreover, that the images of Christ, of the 
Virgin Mother of God, and of the other saints are to be had and to 
be retained particularly in temples, and that due honor and veneration 
are to be given them; not that any divinity or virtue is believed to 
be in them, on account of which they are to be worshiped; or that 
anything is to be asked of them; or that trust is to be reposed in 
images, as was of old done by the Gentiles who placed their hope in 
idols; but because the honor which is shown them is referred to the 
prototypes which those images represent; in such wise that by the 
images which we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and pros- 
trate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints whose 
similitude they bear; as, by the decrees of councils, and especially the 
second Synod of Nicsea, has been defined against the opponents of 
images. — "Dogmatic Canons and Decrees" pp. 167-169. New York: The 
Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Saints, Worship of. — By the rod of persecution the Christians 
were in some degree kept in the right path: but in the times of Con- 
stantine, when public persecution had ceased, worldliness and super- 
stition openly took the lead. The effusion of the Spirit was small, and 
the standard of piety became proportionally low. Then priestly power 
and monkery asserted their sway, and Mariolatry began to come into 
prominence. And, while glorying in the faith of their martyred prede- 
cessors, the early Christians soon passed from venerating their mem- 
ories to worshiping their bones. Then, as Jortin remarks: "Itinerant 
monks, as peddlers, hawked their relics about the country, and their 
graves became the haunts of superstition. The Fathers of those times 
— Athanasius, Gregory Nazienzen, and others, but particularly Chrysos- 



520 SAINTS, WORSHIP OF 

torn with his popular eloquence — contributed to the utmost of their 
power to encourage the superstitious invocation of saints, the love of 
monkery, and the belief in miracles wrought by monks and relics. 
Some of these Fathers were valuable men; but this was the disease of 
their age, and they were not free from it. In the fourth century they 
usually introduced an irregular worship of saints on the following 
plea: 'Why should not we Christians show the same regard to our 
saints as the pagans do to their heroes? ' The transition from lawful 
to unlawful veneration was easily made. As the pagans from honoring 
their heroes went on to deify them, so it was easy to see that, unless 
restrained, the Christians would conduct themselves in much the same 
manner toward their saints. And the Fathers gave the evil encour- 
agement by their many indiscretions. Praying at the tombs of the 
martyrs was one of those fooleries which the Fathers should have re- 
strained. What an idea did it give of the Almighty to weak Chris- 
tians! As if he would show more favor to their petition because it 
was offered at a place where a good man lay buried! " — "Remarks on 
Ecclesiastical History" Vol. Ill, pp. 7-17 ; quoted, in "Rome: Pagan and 
Papal" Mourant Brock, M. A., pp. 15, 16. London: Hodder and Stough- 
ton, 1883. 

Saints, Worship of, a Modern Teaching. — It may be just re- 
marked here, as showing how modern this sort of thing is, that the 
most popular of all devotions to the Blessed Virgin, the Angelus, does 
not appear to have been used at all till Pope John XXII instituted it 
in 1316; while its latter clause, " Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us 
sinners now and in the hour of our death," cannot be found earlier than 
1507, and was first sanctioned for general use by a bull of Pius V, July 
7, 1568; while the use of the Ave Maria before sermons is due to St. 
Vincent Ferrer (1419). — "Plain Reasons Against Joining the Church of 
Rome," Richard Frederick Littledale, LL. D., D. C. L., p. 33. London: 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1905. 

Saints, Worship of, Refused. — We have only four examples in the 
New Testament of acts of reverence being done to saints, and all in these 
cases they were promptly rejected and forbidden, showing that they 
were offensive to the saints, as savoring of disloyalty to that God whom 
they love and serve. 

" And as Peter was coming in, Cornelius met him, and fell down at 
his feet, and worshiped him. But Peter took him up, saying, Stand up; 
I myself also am a man." Acts 10: 25, 26. 

" Then the priest of Jupiter . . . would have done sacrifice with the 
people; which when the apostles, Barnabas and Paul, heard of, they 
rent their clothes, and ran in among the people, crying out, and saying, 
Sirs, why do ye these things? We also are men of like passions with 
you, and preach unto you that ye should turn from these vanities to 
serve the living God." Acts 14: 13-15. 

" And I [John] fell at his [the angel's] feet to worship him. And 
he said unto me, See thou do it not; I am thy fellow servant, and 
of thy brethren that have the testimony of Jesus: worship God." 
Rev. 19: 10. 

" I fell down to worship before the feet of the angel which showed 
me these things. Then saith he unto me, See thou do it not, for I am 
thy fellow servant: . . . worship God." Rev. 22: 8, 9. — Id., p. 29. 

Saints, Worship of, a Profane Spectacle. — If, in the beginning of 
the fifth century, Tertullian or Lactantius had been suddenly raised 
from the dead, to assist at the festival of some popular saint or martyr, 



SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS 521 



they would have gazed with astonishment and indignation on the pro- 
fane spectacle which had succeeded to the pure and spiritual worship 
of a Christian congregation. As soon as the doors of the church were 
thrown open, they must have been offended with the smoke of incense, 
the perfume of flowers, and the glare of lamps and tapers, which dif- 
fused, at noonday, a gaudy, superfluous, and, in their opinion, a sacri- 
legious light. If they had approached the balustrade of the altar, they 
would have had to make their way through the prostrate crowd, con- 
sisting for the most part of strangers and pilgrims, who resorted to the 
city on the vigil of the feast; and who already felt the strong intoxica- 
tion of fanaticism, and perhaps of wine. Their devout kisses were im- 
printed on the walls and pavement of the sacred edifice; and their fer- 
vent prayers were directed, whatever might be the language of their 
church, to the bones, the blood, or the ashes of the saint. . . . When- 
ever they undertook any distant or dangerous journey, they requested 
that the holy martyrs would be their guides and protectors on the road; 
and if they returned without having experienced any misfortune, they 
again hastened to the tombs of the martyrs to celebrate, with grateful 
thanksgivings, their obligations to the memory and relics of those 
heavenly patrons. The walls were hung round with symbols of the 
favors they had received: eyes, and hands, and feet of gold and silver; 
and edifying pictures, which could not long escape the abuse of indis- 
creet or idolatrous devotion, represented the image, the attributes, and 
the miracles of the tutelar saint. — "Rome: Pagan and Papal,'" Mourant 
Brock,. M. A., p. 21. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1883. 

Saints, Effect of Worship of. — That the exclusive worship of 
saints, under the guidance of an artful, though illiterate priesthood, de- 
graded the understanding and begot a stupid credulity and fanaticism, 
is sufficiently evident. But it was also so managed as to loosen the 
bonds of religion and pervert the standard of morality. . . . This mon- 
strous superstition grew to its height in the twelfth century. — " History 
of Europe During the Middle Ages," Henry Hallam, Vol. Ill, pp. 31, 32. 
New York: The Colonial Press, 1900. 

St. Bartholomew.— Pages 319, 323, 390, 405. 

Sanctuary, Removal of Sin. — Many passages will recur which man- 
ifest how the Old Testament removal of sin was shown in the law itself 
to have been complete indeed, so far as the individual was concerned, 
but not really and in reference to God, till He came to whom as the 
reality these types pointed, and who " now once at the end of the world 
hath been manifested to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself." And 
thus did the types themselves prove their own inadequacy and insuffi- 
ciency, showing that they had only " a shadow of the good things to 
come, and not the very image of the things themselves." With this also 
agree the terms by which in the Old Testament atonement is designated 
as a " covering up " by a substitute, and the mercy-seat as " the place of 
covering over." — " The Temple, Its Ministry and Services, as They Were 
at the Time of Jesus Christ," Rev. Dr. Edersheim, pp. 282, 283. Boston: 
Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

Seventh-day Adventists, Evangelical in All Cardinal Doctrines. 
— There are no fundamental grounds of disagreement between the or- 
ganized church of Jesus Christ and the Seventh-day Adventists. 

On all cardinal doctrines of the Bible — the miraculous conception, 
the virgin birth, the crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, the deity 



522 SEVEN CHURCHES 

of Christ, the atonement of Christ, the second coming, the personality of 
the Holy Spirit, and the infallible Bible — the Seventh-day Adventist 
rings as true as steel. 

He may disagree, profoundly so, on a great many different angles 
of these different lines of teaching, but in the essential parts, he stands 
with the organized church of Jesus Christ. — " The Cult Kingdom" John 
Edward Brown, President of the International Federation of Christian 
Workers; cited in Review and Herald, Aug. 22, 1918. 

Seventh-day Adventists — Pages 23-25, 513, 600. 

Seven Churches, Christ the Only Priest. — Nor was it of unim- 
portant use to note the representation of Jesus Christ here given [Rev. 
1: 12-20], as the priest of the churches, and the designation of their 
ecclesiastical presidents or bishops simply as angels, a term borrowed 
not from the temple, but the synagogue: in token, thus early, that the 
offices of the Levitical priests were to be regarded as fulfilled by 
Christ; and that the functions of the Christian bishop, or minister in 
the church, were those of leading the devotions, and directing and ani- 
mating the faith of the flock; not functions sacrificial or mediatorial, 
as with the Levitical priests of old. — " Horce Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. 
Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, Introduction, pp. 75, 76, 3d edition. London? 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Churches, Successive Periods. — Under this emblematical 
representation of the seven churches of Asia, the Holy Spirit has de- 
lineated seven different states of the Christian church, which would 
appear in succession, extending to the coming of our Lord, and the 
consummation of all things. — Vitringa, in commentary published in 
1705; cited in " The Comprehensive Commentary of the Holy Bible," 
edited by Rev. William Jenks, D. D., on Rev. 2:1. Brattleboro, Vt.: 
Fessenden & Co., 1835. 

Seven Churches, Letters to, Have a Historical Application. — 
The seven epistles are by no means episcopal letters designed as an 
introduction to the Apocalypse; they are prophetic letters, constituting 
the first part of the Apocalypse itself, and forming a foundation for the 
whole. 

Hence, the life-pictures of the seven churches are not merely his- 
torical portraits of the apostolic church (issued through an episcopal 
medium, but of prophetic depth and form) ; they are also prophetic 
types of churchly conditions, which shall hold good until the end of the 
world. — "A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures: The Revelation of 
John," John Peter Lange, D. D., translated by Philip Schaff, D. D., Vol. 
X, p. 139. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, copyright 1874. 

Seven Churches, Historical Application of. — The epistles to the 
seven churches, besides describing what is undoubtedly historical, have 
so many allusions which are evidently figurative and mystical that 
there is the strongest reason for accepting the view advanced by Mede, 
one of the earliest Protestant apocalyptic commentators, and received 
by many later expositors, that it was intended " that these seven 
churches should prophetically sample unto us a sevenfold temper and 
constitution of the whole church according to the several ages thereof, 
answering the pattern of the churches named here." — " Ecce Venit " 
(Behold, He Cometh), A. J. Gordon, D. D., pp. 66, 67, note. New York: 
Fleming H. Revell Company, copyright 1889. 



SEVEN CHURCHES 523 

Seven Churches, Early View of. — Let us proceed to that [the 
system] of Cocceius [1603-69]. 

According to this later author, the church of Ephesus is the apos- 
tolical church, i. e., that wherein the apostles preached. So that this 
period must be extended to the death of St. John. . . . 

The church of Smyrna signifies the church suffering in all places, 
and especially that of the three first ages. The persecution of ten days, 
according to this, must signify the ten persecutions which the church 
suffered during those three ages under the pagan emperors. This doth 
not fall out ill; but I fear it was chance that made this hit. . . . 

The epistle to the church of Pergamus is the third, and according 
to Cocceius, 'tis the church from Constantine's time to the birth of 
Antichrist. . . . 

The church of Thyatira is the fourth, and signifies, according to 
Cocceius, the church under the reign of Antichrist. Jezebel that appears 
in this epistle is the anti-Christian church. They that suffer Jezebel the 
prophetess are the elect mingled among the anti-Christian idolaters. 
... This falls out pretty well, but 'tis by mere chance; for how can 
that magnificent eulogy be applied to this period of the anti-Christian 
church, " I know thy works, and thy charity, and thy patience, and that 
thy last works are more than the first"? Never was the church so 
void of saints and of good works as in this sad period. 

Sardis is the fifth church and the fifth period, and according to 
Cocceius as well as according to Forbes 'tis the reformed church. But 
I say hereto as I said before on occasion of Forbes, why should we say 
of our Reformation, " Thou hast a name to live, and behold thou art 
dead; strengthen the things which remain and are ready to die"? 

Philadelphia signifies brotherly love; this is the sixth church which 
carries in its name the character of a church yet to come, wherein love 
and charity shall reign, but among a very small number of people. . . . 

Laodicea signifies the church that shall immediately precede the 
time wherein God shall pass that judgment spoken of in the eleventh 
chapter, verse 18, i. e., when the reign of Jesus Christ shall come to 
be established on the earth. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture 
Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, part 1, chap. 1, pp. 11-14. London, 1687. 

Commencing this most important revelation by describing the 
things " which are," appears to be done for the purpose of holding up 
a glass or mirror for the church to view itself to the end of time. 
In the seven addresses, therefore, which follow, are described the va- 
rious states in which, at one time or other, in one place or other, 
the church has ever appeared from that time to this. — ''An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John" Matthew 
Habershon, pp. 7, 8. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Note. — The seven churches cover the entire time between the first and the 
second advent of our Lord. Conditions in the actual church at Ephesus, where 
Paul labored and tradition says John lived, were representative of the apostolic 
age, say to about 100 a. d. : Smyrna, the time of the pagan persecution, to about 
312 to 323, the times of the emperor Constantine, who professed Christianity ; 
Pergamos, the time of the " conversion " of the empire, to the establishing of 
the Papacy, in the days of 533 to 538 ; Thyatira, the; time of papal supremacy, 
during the long Dark Ages, and to a limited extent to the end ; Sardis, the 
period following the papal supremacy, 1798 to 1833, although as a result of the 
Reformation the reformed churches had sprung up long before, and writers of far 
earlier time began to recognize the Sardian condition coming in as^ the reformed 
churches failed to go forward in the light ; Philadelphia, from the rise of the 
advent movement to 1844 ; and Laodicea, from the opening of the judgment hour 
in 1844 to the end. These conditions do not always begin and end abruptly by 
definite dates ; they telescope or overlap, one blending into another. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Fibst Period, Character of Early Church. — The 
Christians are not separated from other men by earthly abode, by Ian- 



524 SEVEN CHURCHES, SMYRNA 

guage, or by customs. They dwell nowhere in cities by themselves; 
they do not use a different language, or affect a singular mode of life. 
They dwell in the cities of the Greeks,, and of the barbarians, each as 
his lot has been cast; and while they conform to the usages of the 
country, in respect to dress, food, and other things pertaining to the 
outward life, they yet show a peculiarity of conduct wonderful and 
striking to all. They obey the existing laws, and conquer the laws 
by their own living. — " Letter to Dagonet " (George* R. Sims), early 
second century; cited in " General History of the Christian Religion 
and Church" Neander, Vol. I, sec. 1, p. 69, translated by Joseph Torrey. 
Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

The distinguished virtues of the Christians must have shone forth 
the more brightly, as contrasted with the prevailing vices; their se- 
verity of morals, sometimes even carried to excess, as opposed to the 
general deprivation of the age; their hearty fraternal love, in con- 
trast with that predominant selfishness which separated man from man, 
and rendered each distrustful of the other, insomuch that men could 
not comprehend the nature of Christian fellowship, nor sufficiently 
wonder at its fruits. " See," was the common remark, " how they love 
one another." — Id., Vol. I, sec. 1, p. 76. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; The Period of Early Persecution. — 
During the apostolic period, indeed, it would seem as if the providence 
of God interposed to preserve the church from a general persecution, 
in order that its foundations might be well laid throughout the world, 
before the violence of the heathen Roman Empire should be let loose 
against it. . . . But with the new period of the history of the church, 
commenced a new era in its tribulations. — " Seven Ages of the Church," 
Rev. Henry Cotterill, A. M., pp. 56, 57. London, 1849. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; The "Ten Days" (303-313 a. d.), by 
a Contemporary. — During the whole ten years of the persecution, there 
was no cessation of plots and civil wars among the persecutors them- 
selves. . . . Such was the state of things throughout the whole period 
of the persecution. This, by the goodness of God, had entirely ceased 
in the tenth year, although it had already begun to relax after the 
eighth. . . . But this was not done by any mere human agency, nor 
was it, as might perhaps be supposed, by the compassion or the humanity 
of our rulers. For, so far from this, they were daily devising more and 
severer measures against us from the beginning of the persecution 
until then, constantly inventing new tortures from time to time by 
an increasing variety of machinery and instruments for this purpose. 
But the evident superintendence of divine Providence, on the one hand, 
being reconciled to his people, and on the other, assailing the author 
of these miseries [Galerius], exhibited his anger against him as the 
ringleader in the horrors of the whole persecution. . . . Hence he was 
visited by a judgment sent from God, which beginning in his flesh pro- 
ceeded to his very soul. — "An Ecclesiastical History," Eusebius, book 8, 
chaps. 15, 16 (Vol. II, pp. 325, 326), translated by Rev. C. F. Cruse. Lon- 
don: George Bell & Sons, 1889. 

It was not till a. d. 311, eight years after the commencement of the 
general persecution, ten years after the first measure against the Chris- 
tians, that the Eastern persecution ceased. Galerius, the arch-enemy of 
the Christians, was struck down by a fearful disease. His body became 
a mass of loathsome, mortifying, and fetid sores — a living corpse, 
devoured by countless worms, and exhaling the odor of the charnel- 



SEVEN CHURCHES, SMYRNA 525 

house. He who had shed so much innocent blood, shrank himself from 
a Roman death. In his extreme anguish he appealed in turn to physi- 
cian after physician, and to temple after temple. At last he relented 
toward the Christians. He issued a proclamation restoring them to 
liberty, permitting them to rebuild their churches, and asking their 
prayers for his recovery. — "History of European Morals," William Ed- 
ward Hartpole Lecky, M. A., chap. 3, 3d par. from end (Vol. I, p. 491). 
London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1869. 

Note. — The exact dates for the beginning and the ending of the ten years 
of persecution, depend somewhat upon the viewpoint. It seems reasonable to 
accept the Edict of Milan as the closing date, thus establishing 303-313 as the 
period. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Extract from Galerius's Edict. — When a decree 
of this kind was issued by us, that they [Christians] should return 
again to the established usages of their forefathers, vast numbers were 
subjected to danger, many, when threatened, endured various kinds of 
death. But though we saw the great mass still persevering in their 
folly, and that they neither gave the honor that was due to the im- 
mortal gods, nor heeded that of the Christians, still having a regard 
to our clemency and our invariable practice, according to which we are 
wont to grant pardon to all, we most cheerfully have resolved to ex- 
tend our indulgence in this matter also: that there, may be Christians 
again, and that they may restore their houses in which they are ac- 
customed to assemble, so that nothing be done by them contrary to 
their profession. In another epistle we shall point out to the judges 
what they will be required to observe, whence, according to this con- 
descension of ours, they are obligated to implore their God for our 
safety, as well as that of the people and their own. — Decree of Galerius, 
in "Ecclesiastical History" Eusebius, book 8, chap. 17, p. $28 (trans- 
lation by Rev. G. F. Gruse). London: George Bell and Sons, 1889. 

Seven Churches, Smyrna; A Catholic Writer on. — Smyrna stands 
for the second, or martyrs' age of the church, which extended from 
Nero's persecution to the edict of Milan, a. d. 313. — " The Apocalypse of 
St. John," J. J. L. Ratton, p. 145. London: Washbourne, 1912. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Satan's Seat as to Peeiod: Of Com- 
promise with Paganism. — Such was the tendency of the times [fourth 
century] to adulterate Christianity with the spirit of paganism, partly 
to conciliate the prejudices of worldly converts, partly in the hope of 
securing its more rapid spread. There is a solemnity in the truthful 
accusation which Faustus makes to Augustine: "You have substituted 
your agapae for the sacrifices of the pagans; for their idols your mar- 
tyrs, whom you serve with the very same honors. You appease the 
shades of the dead with wine and feasts; you celebrate the solemn fes- 
tivals of the Gentiles, their calends and their solstices; and as to their 
manners, those you have retained without any alteration. Nothing 
distinguishes you from the pagans, except that you hold your assemblies 
apart from them." — "History of the Intellectual Development of Eu- 
rope," John William Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, pp. 309, 310. New 
York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos ; Gibbon on Corruption of Christianity. 
— The sublime and simple theology of the primitive Christians was 
gradually corrupted; and the monarchy of heaven, already clouded by 
metaphysical subtleties, was degraded by the introduction of a popular 
mythology, which tended to restore the reign of polytheism. . . . 



526 SEVEN CHURCHES, PERGAMOS 

The Christians frequented the tombs of the martyrs, in the hope of 
obtaining, from their powerful intercession, every sort of spiritual, 
but more especially of temporal, blessings. . . . Edifying pictures, which 
could not long escape the abuse of indiscreet or idolatrcus devotion, 
represented the image, the attributes, and the miracles of the tutelar 
saint. . . . The most respectable bishops had persuaded themselves that 
the ignorant rustics would more cheerfully renounce the superstitions 
of paganism if they found some resemblance, some compensation, 
in the bosom of Christianity. The religion of Constantine achieved, in 
less than a century, the final conquest of the Roman Empire: but the 
victors themselves were insensibly subdued by the arts of their van- 
quished rivals. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire" Edivard Gibbon, chap. 28, pars. 3, 4 (Vol. HI, pp. 161-163). 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Repeating Israel's Sin. — Paganism 
could not overcome the church as an enemy: the danger now arises 
from its friendship. The experiment is now tried, whether, by an al- 
liance with Christianity, under the plea of attachment to Christian 
doctrines and practices, and of a desire to conciliate the heathen world, 
this new Israel, which cannot be crushed, may be gradually corrupted. 
The successful result of this attempt may be seen to the present day, 
in the virtual paganism of a large majority of the professedly Christian 
world, in which every abomination which the early church resisted 
unto blood, may be found disguised under Christian titles. . . . The 
martyr worship of the Nicene church was in all respects the counter- 
part of the " offerings of the dead " in the worship of Baalpeor. — " Seven 
Ages of the Church" Rev. Henry Gotterill, A. M., pp. 89-91. London, 
1849. 

Note. — Balaam's counsel to Balak was that Israel should be persuaded to 
join in the idolatrous practices ; and so was Israel corrupted by the surrounding 
heathenism. Numbers 22 to 25 ; 31 : 13-16. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Appropriateness of City as Repre- 
senting Satan's Seat. — And this [in Crete] is a shrine of Asclepius, 
and just as the whole of Asia flocks to Pergamum, so the whole of 
Crete flocked to this shrine. — "Life of Apollonius," Philostratus, book 

4, chap. 34; LoeVs Classical Library, Vol. I, p. 429. 

Another form of the sun divinity, or Teitan, at Rome, was the Epi- 
daurian snake, worshiped under the name of JEsculapius [Asclepius], 
that is, " the man-instructing serpent." Here, then, in Rome was Teitan, 
or Satan, identified with the "serpent that taught mankind," that opened 
their eyes (when, of course, they were blind), and gave them " the knowl- 
edge of good and evil." In Pergamos, and in all Asia Minor, from 
which directly Rome derived its knowledge of the Mysteries, the case 
was the same. In Pergamos, especially, where pre-eminently " Satan's 
seat was," the sun divinity, as is well known, was worshiped under the 
form of a serpent and under the name of JEsculapius, "the man-instruct- 
ing serpent." According to the fundamental doctrine of the Mysteries, 
as brought from Pergamos to Rome, the sun was the one only god. — 
" The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, pp. 278, 279. London: 

5. W. Partridge & Co., 1907. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; Catholic Writer on. — The third stage 
of the church, called Pergamos, extended from the edict of Milan, 



SEVEN CHURCHES, THYATIRA 527 

a. d. 313, to the fall of the Roman Empire in the beginning of the sixth 
century. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," J. J. L. Ratton, p. 149. Lon- 
don: Washbourne, 1912. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos; City Itself a Center of Idolatry and 
Intolerance. — Since the deified Augustus had not opposed the founding 
at Pergamos of a temple to himself and the city of Rome; I, with whom 
all his actions and sayings have the force of laws, have followed an 
example already approved. — Tiberius (accepting proposition of Spain to 
erect a temple to himself) ; quoted in " The Works of Tacitus," book 4, 
chap. 37 (Vol. I, p. 179). New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863. 

Note. — Pergamos was the originator in the West of the deification and 
worship of the emperor. It was refusal of the demand that they offer incense 
before the statue of the emperor that had sent many Christians to death. And, 
let us recall that this Pergamos period of the church was also the age that saw 
the exaltation of the Bishop of Rome, who sat on the seat of the Caesars, to be 
supreme in the professed church, sitting as God in the temple of God. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Pergamos. — Page 72. 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; Early English Expositor on. — This 
state of the corruption of the church of Christ, by the popish doctrines 
of the Church of Rome, and the Pope's tyrannizing over the consciences 
of men, most plainly mark this era of the church, which began at the 
time when the Pope was declared supreme over all other bishops, and 
lasted till his power and reign met with a check at the Reformation, 
when began the Sardian church-state, which still continues. — " Letter 
upon the Downfall of Antichrist," Rev. A. Maddock. London, 1779. 
(Bound with "Fleming's Tracts," British Museum Library.) 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; A Catholic Writer on. — Thyatira, the 
fourth age of the church, began when the downfall of pagan Rome was 
accomplished and the devil was chained up for a thousand years. . . . 
The body of the church, freed from the tonic of persecution, fell away 
from its high calling and embraced luxury. This message reveals the 
interior condition of the church of the Middle Ages, which extended 
from the sixth to the sixteenth century, [p. 155] . . . 

If we apply this letter to the fourth, or millennial, age of the 
church, which lasted about a thousand years, it may be said to coincide 
with it from the historic point of view in a remarkable manner. This 
period has been called by the church " the age of faith," and by the 
world " the Dark Ages." What the world calls " dark " from a spiritual 
point of view, generally means " light." But both the church and the 
world speak of this period as " the Middle Ages." In this it may be that 
we have built better than we knew: for Thyatira is the middle church 
of the seven, and consequently stands as the symbol of the church of 
" the Middle Ages." [p. 158] . . . 

The material prosperity of the church culminated in the Middle 
Ages. Its revenues from lands and property of all kinds, from endow- 
ments and bequests, increased enormously. It became one of the richest 
institutions of the world. In the train of wealth came luxury, and in 
the lap of luxury lay vice. " Then the concupiscence of the flesh, and 
of the eyes, and the pride of life, extended to the clergy of the church. 
These, secure of the indulgence of a corrupt age and thinking it safe to 
do so, gave themselves up to voluptuous living, and fell into presump- 
tion, as ordinarily happens in such cases. But these were the vices of 
Jezebel, the wife of Achab." (Holzhauser, Vol. I, p. 145.) 



528 SEVEN CHURCHES, SAKDIS 

Many of the popes struggled in vain against the evils which afflicted 
the church. . . . The church makes no claim to impeccability, or sin- 
lessness, either as to its head, the Pope, or as to its members individ- 
ually. It is in this book revealed that many of the hierarchy would 
fall into gross sins in the Middle Ages. History tells us that they did 
so. — " The Apocalypse of St. John" J. J. L. Ratton, pp. 155-159. ("Im- 
primatur Edm. Can. Surmont Vicarius Gen") London: Washbourne. 
1912. 

N(<te. — How true it is. as Wylie says : " The noon of the Papacy was the 
midnight of the world." — " The History of Protestantism," chap. If 

This Catholic author ( Ratton ) fails lo note Lhat this epistle was not ad- 
dressed to the great ruling body represented by Jezebel and her ways, but to 
the church of believers suffering under this period — " the rest in Thyatira," the 
remnant who kept the light of faith burning through the Dark Ages. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Thyatira; Age of Papal Supremacy and Perse- 
cution.— Pages 366-369, 373, 382, 404-406, 440, 441. 

Seven Churches, Sardis ; Reformation Times and Later. — This 
fifth great scene in the Christian drama has been faithfully exhibited 
on the stage of time; and it will be readily identified, in what is em- 
phatically called the Reformation, and the consequences that flowed 
from it in that and the succeeding ages. — "An Historical Exposition of 
the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John" Matthew Habershon, p. 79. 
London: James Nisbet <& Co., 1841. 

Seven Churches, Sardis; Post- Reformation to be Continuous. — I 
charge you, before God and his blessed angels, that you follow me no 
farther than you have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ. The 
Lord has more 'truth yet to break forth out of his Holy Word. I cannot 
sufficiently bewail the condition of the reformed churches, who are 
come to a period in religion, and will go at present no farther than the 
instruments of their reformation. Luther and Calvin were great and 
shining lights in their times, yet they penetrated not into the whole 
counsel of God. I beseech you, remember it — 'tis an article of your 
church covenant — that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be 
made known to you from the written Word of God. — John Robinson, 
pastor at Ley den, Holland, in Farewell to Pilgrims sailing for New 
World, July, 1620; cited in "History of the United States," George 
Bancroft, part 1, chap. 12 (Vol. I, p. 205). New York: D. Appleton 
& Co., 1888. 

Although the Reformation began well and threatened to sweep Ro- 
manism to the sea, winning seemingly the favor and overwatching prov- 
idence of the Lord, it came, nevertheless, to a sudden and mysterious 
halt, failing to complete its work in the very countries where it began. 
Some of the " things which remain " in Protestantism " are ready to 
die," and the exhortation to Sardis to be " watchful and strengthen " 
them was never more pertinent and appropriate than now. 

The forecast of Sardis and the history of Protestantism fit each 
other like hand and glove. With the page of history closed and the facts 
of Protestantism ignored, the prophecy remains as the declaration of 
the continued failure and departure of the professing church. — " The 
Coming of Christ, P re-Millennial and Imminent," I. M. Haldeman (Bap- 
tist), p. 101. New York: Charles C. Cook, 1906. 

Seven Churches, Sardis ; A Catholic Writer on. — As a symbol of 
the fifth age of the church, it [Sardis] extended from the Council of 



SEVEN CHURCHES, PHILADELPHIA 529 

Trent to the first half of the nineteenth century, a period of about 280 
years. During the greater part of this time the church suffered persecu- 
tion in one direction or another. 

The Sardian age is commonly known as the Reformation period. — 
''The Apocalypse of St. John," J. J. L. Ratton, p. 166. London: Wash- 
bourne, 1912. 

Seven Churches, Saedis; Condition Recognized in Peeiod Itself. — 
If it should be asked, What time it is with us now? whereabout we are? 
and what is yet to come out of the night? as a faithful watchman, 1 will 
give you the best account I can. I take it, we are in the Sardian 
church state, in the last part of it, which brought on the Reformation, 
and represents that. We are in the decline of that state, and there are 
many things said of that church which agree with us, as that we have 
a name that we live, and are dead, etc. It is a sort of twilight with us, 
between clear and dark, between day and night. — Sermon by Dr. Thomas 
H. Gill, 1748, " Second Advent Library," No. 1, p. 209, Jan. 1, 1842. 

The epistle to the church of Sardis is so strongly characteristic of 
the reformed churches at this day, that little more need be done than 
to read that epistle to see our own likeness. [Rev. 3:1.]... We have the 
name of a purely reformed church, who protests against the errors of 
popery, doctrinal and practical; but are we not dead as to faith and 
good works? ... As the downfall of the Pope and the Turk is an event 
wherein all Christians are greatly interested, so it is what all earnestly 
desire should' be speedily accomplished. The near approach of that 
happy time is a pleasing prospect. It cannot be far off. . . . 

Before the fall of Antichrist there will be, it is reasonable to believe, 
. . . a removing of our candlestick toward the close of the Sardian 
church-state; a setting of it up, in all probability, in America, which 
will form the commencement of the Philadelphia church-state. These 
events will be brought about gradually; therefore will, in all proba- 
bility, take up some years to complete them. — " Letter upon the Down- 
fall of Antichrist," Rev. A. Maddock, of Creaton, Guilsborough, North- 
amptonshire, England, Oct. 4, 1777, to the Rev. Mr. M. Browne. London, 
1779. (Bound ivith " Fleming's Tracts," British Museum Library.) 

Note. — As the end of the long period of papal supremacy was drawing near, 
the dead formalism of that time was stirred by the great revival of the eighteenth 
century, under Wesley and his Methodist associates, and Whitefleld and others, 
growing into the general evangelical and missionary awakening as the time of the 
end came, with the revival of interest in prophetic study that prepared the 
way for the advent movement. (See Increase of Knowledge; Advent Move- 
ment of 1844.) Britain and Europe were the scenes of this wonderful rebirth of 
missionary activity : but as the flame caught in the West, the New World, with its 
mixture of all nations and tongues, was evidently to be the providential base for 
the development of the definite advent movement, for which the great awaken- 
ing of the time of the end was a preparation. This forecast, of 1777, from a view 
of the prophecies, seems a remarkable one, and shows how truly the book of 
prophecy was being unsealed as the time referred to in Daniel 12 : 4 came. — Eds. 

Seven Churches, Philadelphia; As Seen Shaping by Obsebveb in 

Beitain, 1777. — A general stupor and carelessness concerning the things 
of God, the great and foundation truths of the gospel, and our own souls, 
have seized upon Protestants in general; we have lately fallen in love 
with, or, at least, have ceased to hate, popish tenets. . . . These signs 
declare the times. They show the Sardinian church-state to be draw- 
ing toward its period. The light of our candlestick is extinguishing, 
and America seems to be the happy land where God will set it up 
chiefly in the next church-state. This was the opinion of the divine 
34 



530 SEVEN CHURCHES, LAODICEA 

Herbert, among others, who about one hundred and fifty years ago, 
could sing, in his " Church Militant," 

" Religion stands on tiptoe in our land, 
Ready to pass to the American strand." 

It was our Lord's command that the gospel should be first preached 
at Jerusalem. From thence it spread; and the sound thereof went out 
into all parts of the known world, but especially westward of Jerusalem 
churches were established, as all the particular epistles of the New Tes- 
tament testify, the churches to which they were written all lying to the 
west. The course of the gospel was from Jerusalem to Greece, from 
thence to Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, and all over Europe; 
Egypt, Abyssinia, and if not all, yet the greatest part of Africa, have 
heard the joyful sound. It therefore seems to be very probable at the 
least, and the present appearance of things corroborates the opinion, that 
from Great Britain the gospel will proceed to America, and the candle- 
stick of the Philadelphian church be set up and spread there. ... It is 
very probable, the gospel continuing his course still further toward the 
west, . . . that the candlestick of the next church-state will be set up, 
and the chief seat of the Philadelphian church, be in that country, as 
the chief seat of the Sardinian church is in Britain. — " Letter upon the 
Downfall of Antichrist," Rev. A. Maddock, of Greaton, Guilsborough, 
Northamptonshire, England, Oct. 4, 1777, to the Rev. Mr. M. Browne. 
London, 1779. (Bound with " Fleming's Tracts" British Museum Li- 
brary.) 

Seven Churches, Philadelphia. — Pages 17-22. 

Seven Churches, Laodicea. — Laodicea: The outwardly prosperous, 
but lukewarm church. Has not this period already begun? That this 
is a day of unequaled outward prosperity for the church is acknowl- 
edged by all. Is it not also a period of lukewarmness even in Protes- 
tant lands? It is true that this is a time in which, as compared with 
the absolute works of former days, great schemes of Christian benefi- 
cence are in operation. Spiritual warmth, however, is to be estimated, 
not by the absolute amount of work performed, but by the proportion 
which that amount bears to ability. The existing schemes of benefi- 
cence are sustained and operated by only a portion of the nominal 
church; and still further, they bear a scarce appreciable proportion to 
the ability even of the portion nominally engaged in them. In point 
of fact, are not these schemes the work of the Philadelphia which, still 
preserved, is embosomed within the increasing Laodicea? — "A Commen* 
tary on the Holy Scriptures" John Peter Lange, D. D., translated by 
Philip Schaff, D. D., on the Revelation. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, copyright 1874. 

Seven Seals, First Period, The Apostolic Age. — The commence- 
ment of the time occupied by this seal, may be dated from our Saviour's 
ascension, when he gave his final commission to the disciples to go forth 
with his doctrines and heavenly proclamation to the world. The dura- 
tion of this period cannot be so precisely ascertained, because the change 
in the church, from original purity to corrupt doctrine, worship, and 
morals, was gradual. — "Annotations on the Apocalypse" J. C. Wood- 
house, D. D., p. 125. London: J. Batchard & Son, 1828. 

Note. — The seven seals naturally suggest a line of prophecy covering the 
same general period as that of the seven churches, bringing out a different phase 
of history. The series of the seven churches gives a view of the church of Christ 
in the midst of apostasy and through the experiences of the centuries, to the end. 



SEVEN SEALS, SECOND PERIOD 531 

The series of the seven seals gives a view of the falling away, and the history of 
the apostate church in alliance with the world, to the close of papal supremacy, 
while the sixth in the series of the seven churches brings us to the advent move- 
ment of 1843-44. The sixth seal deals with the signs of the second advent and 
the scenes of the end. Thus there is a distinct parallel in the idea of the 
approaching advent in the sixth period of each series, while the seventh in each 
touches eternity. — Eds. 

The white color of the horse indicates that the conquests of his 
rider are holy and pure, and are therefore such as cannot be attributed 
to any earthly warrior. White is everywhere used as a symbol of holi- 
ness. Thus in Daniel 11: 35, "to purge and make white," and in Reve- 
lation 3: 4, "they shall walk with me in white, for they are worthy." 
The rider on the white horse has a bow, the well-known instrument for 
discharging arrows; and from Psalms 45: 5 we learn that wounds inflicted 
by arrows are emblematical of the conquests of Messiah. The crown 
(rrecparos [Stephanos], also, with which this rider is invested, is nowhere 
in this book used as the hieroglyphical mark of kingly authority upon 
earth, but uniformly the diadem, SidSij/xa [diadema], [p. 3] . . . 

The rider on the white horse being therefore without the diadem, 
is certainly not what many have supposed him to be, an emperor of 
Rome; and being invested with the crown, is no less certainly the sym- 
bol of a spiritual or heavenly warrior, and the whole complex hiero- 
glyphic denotes the host of the lord, i. e., his church militant, shining 
with its primitive purity and going forth in a career of victory, [p. 4] — 
"A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse'"' William 
Guninghame, pp. 3, 4, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 1848. 

Seven Seals, Second Period, Age of Apostasy. — When the Roman 
Empire became Christian; when a Christian emperor bore the sword 
[a. d. 323 onward], (with which, in the imagery of this seal, the Chris- 
tian power seems invested); when, relieved from the terrors of pagan 
persecution, the Christians became possessed of civil influence, their ani- 
mosities increased. Worldly prosperity is corruptive; and instead of 
those halcyon days of peace and happiness which the church promised 
to itself from the acquisition of power, a period succeeded from which 
history is seen to date its degeneracy and corruption. This degeneracy 
was at this time manifested in the mutual enmities and feuds of Chris- 
tians, which were so notorious in the fourth century. ... It is a change 
powerfully expressed by fire color succeeding to white. — "Annotations 
on the Apocalypse," J. C. Woodhouse, D. D., pp. 128, 129. London: J. 
Hatchard & Son, 1828. 

Note. — It will be noted that writers often use the terms " church " and 
" Christian " without discriminating between profession and possession. The 
seven seals give the history of the church of the apostasy ; while we should re- 
member that all along there were genuine believers maintaining the continuity 
of the church of Christ. — Eds. 

The fiery color of the second horse (the symbol of the body of the 
visible church), when joined to the description of the office of his rider 
(denoting the rulers of the church), and of the dreadful weapon with 
which he was armed, indicate to us that, after the first and purest 
age of Christianity, the spirit of love and peace should recede from the 
visible church, and be succeeded by a spirit of discord, of dissension 
and controversy, a fierce and fiery zeal, instigating Christians to de- 
stroy one another. The ecclesiastical history of the fourth and fifth 
centuries, sufficiently evinces that such a change did take place. — " A 
Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," William 
Guninghame, p. 5, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Second Period, as Gibbon Records It. — The simple 
narrative of the intestine divisions which distracted the peace and dis- 



532 SEVEN SEALS, THIRD PERIOD 

honored the triumph of the church, will confirm the remark of a pagan 
historian, and justify the complaint of a venerable bishop. The ex- 
perience of Ammianus had convinced him that the enmity of the Chris- 
tians toward each other, surpassed the fury of savage beasts against 
man; and Gregory Nazianzen most pathetically laments that the king- 
dom of heaven was converted, by discord, into the image of chaos, of 
a nocturnal tempest, and of hell itself. — " The History of the Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 21, par. 40; 
(Vol. II, p. 363). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Seals, Second Period. — Pages 35, 36. 

Seven Seals, Third Period, to Time of Papal Supremacy. — As the 
stream of Christianity flowed further from its pure fountain, it became 
more and more corrupt; as centuries advanced, ignorance and super- 
stition increased; and unauthorized mortifications and penances, rigor- 
ous fastings, vows of celibacy, monkish retirement and austerities, 
stylitism, the jargon and repetition of prayers not understood, tales of 
purgatory, pious frauds and the worship of saints, relics, and images, 
took the place of pure and simple Christianity: till at length, the book 
of God being laid aside for legendary tales and " the traditions of 
men," all these corruptions were collected into a regular system of 
superstitious oppression, well known by the name of the papal yoke. — 
"Annotations on the Apocalypse,'" J. C. Woodhouse, D. D., p. 133. 
London: J. Hatchard & Son, 



Note. — Archdeacon Woodhouse instead of "balance" (Rev. 6:5) prefers 
" yoke," the primary meaning of the word " zugon," as used of servitude under 
rules in 1 Tim. 6:1; Acts 15 : 10 ; Gal. 5 : 1. When the word is used for " bal- 
ance," he argues, this secondary meaning is shown by some expression joined. 
Other writers, however, consider the reference to the measures of wheat and 
barley as being such a joined expression, and prefer giving to the word here its 
secondary sense of " balance." — Eds. 

The black color of the horse, the yoke with which his rider was 
armed, the proclamation from the midst of the living creatures, that 
a chcenix of wheat should be sold for a penny, and three chcenices of 
barley for a penny, and the command not to hurt the oil and wine, 
unite in pointing out to us a period when the grossest darkness and 
ignorance should overspread the visible church; when a burthensome 
yoke of rites and ceremonies, and likewise of unscriptural articles of 
faith, should be imposed upon the necks and consciences of men; when 
there should be a great want and a famine of the preaching of the true 
gospel in the church: but when, notwithstanding this complicated train 
of evils, the consolations of the Spirit, his enlightening influences com- 
pared to oil, and his gladdening and comforting influences likened to 
wine, should not be withheld from those who, in the midst of surround- 
ing darkness and superstition, truly set their hearts to seek God. 

This prophecy was accomplished in the rise and prevalence of the 
papal power. Even as early as the fifth century, ignorance and super- 
stition had made much progress in obscuring the pure light of the 
gospel; and these evils gradually increased till they ended in almost 
banishing that light from the Christian world. — " A Dissertation on the 
Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," William Cuninghame, pp. 8, 
9, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Fourth Period, of Papal Supremacy. — The Christian 
religion, which had begun its benign progress in white array, and undei 
the guidance of apostolical teachers, is now not only so changed in 
color and appearance as to be scarcely discernible as the same, but is 
under the direction of deadly and infernal agents, who delight to destroy 



SEVEN SEALS, FOURTH PERIOD 533 

in her all that remains of primitive purity. . . . Ignorance became blind 
submission, and priestcraft advanced into civil tyranny. Thus, under 
the fourth seal, " the mystery of iniquity " was completed. It was 
then that the harsh usurpation, which we call the papal tyranny, was 
extended over the lives and consciences of Christians. To profess reli- 
gion in its purity became a crime. Bloody tribunals were erected, and 
severe and deathly laws enacted against those who departed from the 
standard of doctrine established by the corrupt rulers. Armies were 
raised to enforce obedience to their orders; and entire nations of Chris- 
tians, under the imputed name of heretics, were subjugated, or extir- 
pated by the sword. — "Annotations on the Apocalypse," J. G. Wood- 
house, D. D., pp. 140-142. London: J. Hatchard & Son, 1828. 

The pale livid green color of this horse is emblematical of a state 
of things even more dreadful than that of the preceding seal. The 
character of his rider corresponds with this idea; his name is called 
Death, the king of terrors. He is followed by Hell. . . . 

The whole assemblage of figures constitutes an hieroglyphical rep- 
resentation, of the most horrible and terrific nature, and points out to 
us a period when the rulers of the visible church should seem to lose 
the character of men, and to asume that of malignant demons and 
savage beasts, and of Death himself; and should extirpate, by fire and 
sword, all who dared to prefer death to the sacrifice of a good con- 
science. This seal evidently represents the state of the church during 
those ages when the flames of persecution were kindled by the papal 
power. — " A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse," 
William Cuninghame, p. 10, 4th edition. London: Thomas Cadell, 1843. 

Seven Seals, Fourth Period, as Erasmus Drew the Picture. — Fur- 
ther, when the Christian church has been all along first planted, then 
confirmed, and since established by the blood of her martyrs, as if 
Christ, her head, would be wanting in the same methods still of pro- 
tecting her, they invert the order, and propagate their religion now by 
arms and violence, which was wont formerly to be done only with 
patience and sufferings. And though war be so brutish, as that it 
becomes beasts rather than men; so extravagant, that the poets feigned 
it an effect of the furies; so licentious, that it stops the course of all 
justice and honesty; so desperate, that it is best waged by ruffians and 
banditti; and so unchristian, that it is contrary to the express com- 
mands of the gospel; yet maugre all this, peace is too quiet, too inactive, 
and they must be engaged in the boisterousness of war. — "Praise of 
Folly" Erasmus, English translation, p. 173. Published by Brentano, 
Paris, London, Washington, Chicago, 1900. 

Seven Seals, Fifth Period, Reformation Times. — The whole of 
this imagery is explanatory of the nature of the slaughter perpetrated 
under the former seals, and particularly the fourth; and it shows that 
the church of Christ was the peculiar object, against which Death and 
Hades in that seal had directed their dreadful weapons of destruction, 
[p. 13] . . . 

The white robes given to these saints may be an emblem of that 
improved condition of the church on earth which was the consequence 
of the Reformation, when the Protestants in a considerable part of 
Europe obtained not only a complete toleration, but were acknowledged 
as a religious body; and in England, Scotland, and other countries, 
gained even a more signal victory over the Romish Church. But yet 
it is intimated that this state, however improved, was one of hope and 
expectation, rather than of joy. The cause of the church was yet un- 



534 SEVEN SEALS, FIFTH PERIOD 

avenged. The promises of her future glory remained unaccomplished. 
It was therefore necessary that the servants of God should arm them- 
selves with the faith and patience of the saints during the remaining 
period of trial allotted to them, before the triumphant reign of their 
Lord. — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse" 
William Guninghame, pp. 13, 15, 4th edition. London: Thomas Gadell, 
1843. 

If John Huss, or good Jerome of Prague, or John Wycliffe before 
them both, or William Brute, Thorpe, Swinderby, or the Lord Cobham; 
if Zisca with all the company of the Bohemians; if the Earl Reimond, 
with all the Toulousians; if the Waldois, or the Albigenses, with in- 
finite others, had either been in these our times now, or else had seen 
then this ruin of the Pope, and revealing of Antichrist, which the Lord 
now hath dispensed unto us, what joy and triumph would they have 
made! Wherefore now, beholding that thing which they so long time 
have wished for, let us not think the benefit to be small, but render 
therefore most humble thanks to the Lord our God, who by his mighty 
power, and the brightness of his word, hath revealed this great enemy 
of his so manifestly to the eyes of all men, who before was hid in the 
church so colorably, that almost few Christians could espy him. — " Acts 
and Monuments" John Foxe, Vol. IV, book 7, pp. 555, 556. London: See- 
ley and Burnside, 1837. 

Note. — It was in 1506 that John Foxe sounded this note of joy for de- 
liverance, and of longing that the martyrs of Jesus might have foreseen the 
cutting short of papal power. His truly monumental work, preserving the mem- 
ory of those witnesses of the period of papal supremacy, well stands, with many 
others, as a comment on the prophecy that the tribute of the white robes of 
honor should be given to those who had been slain for the truth. — Eds. 

Seven Seals, Sixth Pebiod — Pages 128-136, 150-153, 175-179. 

Seven Seals, Seventh Period. — Pages 7-15. 

Note.— The author of " Daniel and the Revelation," Uriah Smith, says : 

" The sixth chapter closed with the events of the sixth seal, and the eighth 
commences with the opening of the seventh seal ; hence the seventh chapter 
stands parenthetically between the sixth and seventh seals, from which it ap- 
pears that the sealing work of that chapter belongs to the sixth seal. 

" Silence in Heaven. — Concerning the cause of this silence, only conjecture 
can be offered, — a conjecture, however, which is supported by the events of the 
sixth seal. That seal does not bring us to the second advent, although it em- 
braces events that transpire in close connection therewith. It introduces the 
fearful commotions of the elements, described as the rolling of the heavens to- 
gether as a scroll, caused by the voice of God, the breaking up of the surface of 
the earth, and the confession on the part of the wicked that the great day of 
God's wrath is come. They are doubtless in momentary expectation of seeing 
the King appear in, to them, unendurable glory. But the seal stops just short 
of that event. The personal appearing of Christ must therefore be allotted to 
the next seal. But when the Lord appears, he comes with all the holy angels 
with him. Matt. 25 : 31. And when all the heavenly harpers leave the courts 
above to come down with their divine Lord, as he descends to gather the fruit of 
his redeeming work, will not there be silence in heaven? 

" The length of this period of silence, if we consider it prophetic time, would 
be about seven days." — On chap. 8, " The Seven Trumpets." — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, Meaning of Symbols (Rev. 8: 3-5). — After "the 
smoke of the incense had ascended with the prayers of the saints, from 
the hand of the angel before God," the angel took the censer, and filled 
it with fire. In Psalm 18: 8, the wrath of God is compared to fire; and 
the effects of his wrath, which are war, famine, and other scourges, are 
described under the same simile. And thus it is explained by Sir Isaac 
Newton, who says, " Burning anything with fire is put for the consuming 
thereof by war." Such a fire was cast upon "the earth," the Roman 
world, the territorial platform of prophecy; " and there were voices, and 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIRST FOUR 535 

thunderings, and lightnings," wars and hostile invasions; "and an 
earthquake," or a complete overturning of the established order of 
things. So complete indeed was the change effected by the first four 
trumpets alone, that new forms of government, new manners, new laws, 
new dresses, new languages, new names of men and countries, were 
everywhere throughout the Western Empire introduced. — "An Historical 
Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John" Matthew 
Habershon, pp. 121, 122. London: James Nisbet & Co., 1841. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fiest Fouk; Events of Western Rome's 
Downfall Summaeized. — At this point in writing [notes on Rev. 8: 7], 
I looked on a chart in history, composed with no reference to this 
prophecy, and found a singular and unexpected prominence given to 
four such events extending from the first invasion of the Goths and 
Vandals at the beginning of the fifth century, to the fall of the Western 
Empire, a. d. 476. The first was the invasion of Alaric, king of the 
Goths, a. d. 410; a second was the invasion of Attila, king of the Huns, 
" scourge of God," a. d. 447; a third was the sack of Rome by Genseric, 
king of the Vandals, a. d. 455; and the fourth, resulting in the final 
conquest of Rome, was that of Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who as- 
sumed the title of King of Italy, a. d. 476. We shall see, however, on 
a closer examination, that although two of these — Attila and Genseric 
— were, during a part of their career, contemporary, yet the most 
prominent place is due to Genseric in the events that attended the 
downfall of the empire, and that the second trumpet probably related 
to him; the third to Attila. These were, beyond doubt, four great 
periods or events attending the fall of the Roman Empire. — " Commen- 
tary,'" Rev. Albert Barnes, on the Book of Revelation, p. 224. New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, On the " Third Part" of the Empire. — These 
three parts of the Roman Empire [speaking of early imperial time], the 
really Roman, the Greek, and the Oriental. — " Historical Geography of 
Europe," E. A. Freeman, p. 72. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1882. 

In the time of Constantine, the Roman Empire was divided into 
three great sections: to Constantine was assigned Gaul, Spain, Britain, 
Italy, Africa; to Licinius, the Illyrian Prefecture; to Maximin, the 
Asiatic Provinces and Egypt. — "Apocalyptic Sketches," Gumming, Vol. 
II, p. 63. 

Each one included its third of the Mediterranean or Roman sea, as 
well as its third of the land: and each one also its own characteristic 
stream of the three great frontier rivers, the Rhine, Danube, and Eu- 
phrates. — " Horw Apocalypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, p. 342, 
3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Note. — The division of Constantine's time is usually adhered to by students, 
the blows under the trumpets falling first upon the western third, then, under 
the Saracens, and especially the Turks, upon the Eastern third part. The middle 
third, according to this division, may be counted as having suffered with the 
others, the blows that overturned the empire being really dealt in the West and 
in the East of which Rome and Constantinople were the capitals. 

It may be remarked that there was another threefold division somptimes 
reckoned, from ancient times referred to by Jordanes, who wrote about 551, in 
the closing days of the fourth trumpet. Speaking of the uprooting of the Van 
dais, he says : " Thus after a century Africa, which in the division of the earth's 
surface is regarded as the third part of the world, was delivered from the yoke 
of the Vandals." — " The Origin and Deeds of the Goths/' chap. S3. 

Habershon takes this geographical division in his comments on the " third 
part " in the first four trumpets : 

" It here refers altogether to the western part of the empire : as being that 
of the greatest extent, that of which the city of Rome itself was the capital, 



536 SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIRST 



and that which alone answers to the symbols. The other two portions of it were 
that of the East, of which Constantinople, called by many ' New Rome,' was the 
capital ; and that of the South, of which the metropolis was Carthage, called by 
contemporary writers ' the Rome of the African world.' This was the most 
remarkable and eminent division of the universal and extensive Roman Empire, 
and one that was recognized even in St. John's days."— -" An Historical Exposition 
of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," pp. 12k, 1%5. 

It is suggestive to note again in this division how while the blows fell upon 
the western and eastern thirds, the southern third was also broken off and sep- 
arated by the Vandal invasion. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Out of the North. — The first 
trumpet, we see, brings a terrible storm from the north, the region of 
hail; and the nature of the storm shows the nature of the judgment. 
Hail and fire, mingled with blood, can certainly denote nothing but such 
irruptions from the north as should cause terrible blood-shedding and 
slaughter; and this confined to the third part of the earth, with its con- 
tents, the trees and grass, i. e., on the continent part of Europe, in con- 
tradistinction from the maritime parts, and from those abounding with 
rivers and waters. — " Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, M. A., 
p. 176. London: John Whiston, 1744. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Like Hail and Fire. — Philostorgius, 
who lived in and wrote of these times, saith that " the sword of the 
barbarians destroyed the greatest multitude of men; and among other 
calamities dry heats with flashes of flame and whirlwinds of fire occa- 
sioned various and intolerable terrors; yea, and hail, greater than could 
be held in a man's hand, fell down in several places, weighing as much 
as eight pounds." (Philostorgii Hist. Eccles., lib. 11, cap. 7.) Well 
therefore might the prophet compare these incursions of the barbarians 
to " hail and fire mingled with blood." Claudian, in like manner, com- 
pares them to a storm of hail in his poem on this very war: 
" Where'er the furies drive, the scattered host 

Rush through dark paths and labyrinths unknown; 

Like showering hail, or pestilential breath." 
— "Dissertations on the Prophecies" Thomas Newton, D. D., pp. 536, 
537. London: B. Black, 1840. 

Note. — How remarkably the picture drawn by the pen of Gibbon corre- 
sponds to the picture of the prophecy — " hail," " fire," " blood," desolation of 
fertile lands — is shown by the following phrases from "The History of the De- 
cline and Pall of the Roman Empire" (Harper's 6 vol. ed.) : 

Chapter 26 : " He [Valens, a. d. 375] was informed that the North was 
agitated by a furious tempest." — Page 30, par. 13. 

" A formidable tempest of the barbarians of Germany seemed ready to burst 
over the provinces of Gaul." — Page 57, par. 26. 

Chapter 30 : " The Gothic nation [a. d. 395] was in arms. . . . Deserted 
their farms at the first sound of the trumpet." — Page 190, par. 1. 

" Flaming villages. . . . The deep and bloody traces of the march of the 
Goths." — Page 192, par. 2. 

" His trees, his old contemporary trees [said Claudian, the poet of Verona, 
Italy], must blaze in the conflagration of the whole country." — Page 200, par. 5. 

" The dark cloud, which was collected along the coast of the Baltic, burst in 
thunder upon the banks of the Upper Danube." — Page 216, par. 15. 

" This scene of peace and plenty was suddenly changed into a desert ; and 
the prospect of the smoking ruins could alone distinguish the solitude of nature 
from the desolation of man. . . . The consuming flames of war spread from the 
banks of the Rhine over the greatest part of the seventeen provinces of Gaul. 
That rich and extensive country, as far as the ocean, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, 
was delivered to the barbarians." — Pages 223, 22b, par. 19. — Eds. 

The north poured down from it her flood of warriors. From the 
extremity of Scandinavia to the frontiers of China, nation after nation 
appeared, the new pressing upon the older settled, crushing it, and mark- 
ing its onward passage with blood and devastation. The calamities 
which afflicted the human race at that period exceed, in extent of deso- 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIRST 53 7 

lation, in number of victims, in intensity of suffering, all that has ever 
been presented to our affrighted imagination. We dare not calculate the 
millions upon millions of human beings who perished before the down- 
fall of the Roman Empire was accomplished. — " The Fall of the Roman 
Empire," J. C. L. Be Sismondi, Vol. I, chap. 1, p. 18. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Elliott on. — And then the first 
trumpet sounded. His [Alaric's] course was to Italy. As he told an 
Italian monk afterward, " he felt a secret and preternatural impulse, 
which directed, and even impelled, his march to the gates of Rome." 
As his trumpet sounded and his march advanced, terrible omens and 
prognostications, we read, preceded him. " The Christians," says Gib- 
bon, " derived comfort from the powerful intercession of the saints and 
martyrs." So he notes again the very cause, prefigured in the Apoca- 
lypse, of the coming judgments. Thrice, in fulfilment of his destiny, he 
descended from the Alps on the Italian plains, marking his course each 
step, as the awe-struck historians of the times tell us, in country and in 
town, with ravage, conflagration, and blood; till the gates of Rome itself 
were opened to the conqueror, and the Gothic fires blazed around the 
capitol. 

In the meantime other destroyers, of a kindred race and origin, had 
extended their ravages to the trans-rhenane provinces. Between Alaric's 
first and second invasions of Italy, Rhadagaisus, from the far north of 
Germany, with a host of Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians, burst, " like 
a dark thundercloud from the Baltic," as Gibbon graphically describes 
it, on the Rhsetian and Italian valleys. With slaughter and difficulty 
they were repulsed by the Roman general from near Florence. But it 
was only to bend the course of the vast remnant westward; and over- 
whelm the provinces, till then flourishing and fertile, of Gaul and 
Spain, [pp. 351, 352] . . . 

" The consuming flames of war," says Gibbon, " spread from the 
banks of the Rhine over the greatest part of the seventeen provinces of 
Gaul. The scene of peace and plenty was suddenly changed into a 
desert." ... A similar description is given of the desolation of Spain. 
And the desolators entered, never to retire. " This passage of the 
Rhine," he adds, " by the Suevi, Vandals, and Burgundians, who never 
afterward retreated, may be considered as the fall of the Roman Em- 
pire in the countries beyond the Alps. [p. 352] . . . 

The era of Alaric and Rhadagaisus, — that is, of the first trumpet, 
— is to be considered as chiefly embracing some ten or twelve years, 
from a. d. 400 to about a. d. 410; though, as tne ravages of the provinces 
were not then discontinued, we may perhaps consider the vision before 
us to embrace a period somewhat longer. In that latter year the Van- 
dals had extended their conquests to the straits of Gades; and Alaric, 
having accomplished his destiny, and reached in his desolating course 
the southernmost coast of Italy, — while meditating still further con- 
quests, which were intended, however, for another hand and another 
trumpet, — was arrested suddenly by the hand of death. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 351-353, 3d edition. Lon- 
don: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The First; Recognized as a Judgment. — All 
persons of sense were aware that the calamities which this siege [of 
Rome, by Alaric] entailed upon the Romans were indications of divine 
wrath, sent to chastise them for their luxury, their debauchery, and 
their manifold acts of injustice toward each other, as well as toward 
strangers. It is said that when Alaric was marching against Rome, a 



53 S SEVEN TRUMPETS, SECOND 

monk of Italy besought him to spare the city, and not to become the 
author of so many calamities. Alaric, in reply, assured him that he did 
not feel disposed to commence the siege, but found himself compelled by 
some hidden and irresistible impulse to accomplish the enterprise. — 
"Ecclesiastical History," Bozomen, took 9, chap. 6, p. 413. London: 
Henry O. Bohn, 1855. 

The Roman world is falling: yet we hold up our heads instead of 
bowing them. — Jerome (at Bethlehem), Epistles, Letter 60, "To Helio- 
dorus;" cited in " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," Vol. VI, p. 130. 
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fiest; Elliott's Helpful Footnote. — The 
chronological intermingling of the invasions of Italy by Alaric and 
Rhadagaisus will appear from the following tabular sketch: 

A. D. 

396 Alaric's invasion of Greece. 
400-403 His first invasion of Italy (Gibbon, V. 190). 

406 Rhadagaisus with 300,000 Vandals from the Baltic, march- 
ing by way of the Upper Danube, invades Italy. 
Defeated and killed under the walls of Florence, the re- 
mains of his army retire from Italy, and cross the Rhine 
into France. 
408 Alaric's first siege of Rome. 

— Id., p. 352, footnote 1. 

Seven Trumpets, First. — Pages 477, 481. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; The Burning Mountain Cast into 
the Sea. — To the Vandal Genseric was allotted the conquest of the 
maritime provinces of Africa, and the islands: all in short that be- 
longed to the Western Empire in the Mediterranean; and which Alaric 
(as just alluded to) was prevented attempting by death. It belonged, 
I say, to Genseric; "a name," observes Gibbon, "which, in the destruc- 
tion of the Roman Empire, has deserved an equal rank with the names 
of Alaric and Attila." It was in the year 429 that he entered on it. In 
the course of the eighteen years preceding, no new invasion had broken 
on the Western Empire. . . . Africa, the granary of Rome and Italy, had 
continued to flourish intact, as before. But now its time was come. 
Invited, under the influence of temporary infatuation, by Count Boni- 
face, governor of the province, Genseric, in the year above mentioned, 
transported thither his Vandals from Spain across the Afric sea: . . . 
Then was Hippo taken and burnt; and then in 439 Carthage, with the 
capture of which, resistance ended. The whole province was subjected 
to the Vandals, and finally severed from the Western Empire. 

Thus a part of the prefigurations of the second trumpet had been 
fulfilled. But its ships, and the insular provinces of Sicily and Sar- 
dinia, still remained to the Western Empire, of the destruction of 
which the prophecy seemed to speak also. For it said, " The third part 
of the creatures which were in the sea, and had life, died; and the third 
part of ships was destroyed." Was this too fulfilled by Genseric? Mark 
what followed after the capture of Carthage. Finding himself shut in 
to the south by the desert, Genseric, we are told, cast his eyes to the 
sea, and determined to create a naval power. And then " the fleets [the 
Vandal fleets] that issued from the port of Carthage again claimed the 
empire of the Mediterranean. Sicily was conquered by them, and Sar- 
dinia, and the other Western isles; all that was in the third part of the 
sea. [pp. 353-355] . . . 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, SECOND 539 

Twice, on occasions alike memorable, the Roman navies, with vast 
preparations, were collected to destroy the Vandal power. But sud- 
denly and most disastrously, in the harbors of Carthagena and Bona, 
when the eyes of the Romans were fixed on them with hopes raised to 
the highest, they were utterly destroyed; in the latter case by fire-ships 
driven among them in the obscurity of night. So that the remainder of 
the prediction was fulfilled also. The fire of the Vandal volcano might 
not spend itself, until not only what was habitable in the Western sea 
was destroyed, but "the third part of the ships" also; those that navi- 
gated the sea-third of the Western Empire. — " Horce Apocalypticw," Rev. 
E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 853-356, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burn- 
side, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; but One Barbarian Sea Powee. — 
The Vandals were unique among the German nations by the fact that 
they maintained a fleet. — "History of the Later Roman Empire," J. B. 
Bury, Vol. I, p. 162. Cambridge: Macmillan & Co., 1889. 

Note. — Again mark how Gibbon's pen describes the transfer of the attacks 
upon Western Rome from the land portions to the maritime parts. (" Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire," Vol. Ill of Harper's 6 vol. ed.) : 

Chapter 36 : " The loss or desolation of the provinces, from the ocean to the 
Alps, impaired the glory and greatness of Rome : her internal prosperity was 
irretrievably destroyed by the separation of Africa. . . . After an interval of six 
centuries, the fleets that issued from the port of Carthage again claimed the 
empire of the Mediterranean." — Page 1,59, par. 1. 

" Genseric boldly advanced from the port of Ostia to the gates of the de- 
fenseless city [Rome]. . . . The pillage lasted fourteen days and nights; and all 
that yet remained of public or private wealth, of sacred or profane treasure, was 
diligently transported to the vessels of Genseric." — Page 1,63, par. k- 

" The Vandals repeatedly visited the coasts of Spain, Liguria, Tuscany, 
Campania, Lucania, Bruttium, Apulia, Calabria, Venetia, Dalmatia, Epirus, 
Greece, and Sicily : they were tempted to subdue the island of Sardinia, so 
advantageously placed in the center of the Mediterranean ; and their arms 
spread desolation, or terror, from the Columns of Hercules to the mouth of the 
Nile." — Page 1,86, par. 15. 

" After the failure of this great expedition [Rome's attempt by fleet to de- 
stroy the Vandal power, a. d. 468. — Eds.], Genseric again became the tyrant of 
the sea : the coasts of Italy, Greece, and Asia were again exposed to his revenge 
and avarice ; Tripoli and Sardinia returned to his obedience ; he added Sicily to 
the number ©f his provinces ; and before he died, in the fulness of years and of 
glory, he beheld the final extinction of the Empire of the West." — Pages 1,97. 
,itx. par. 21. 

When Genseric carried away the spoils of Rome in his ships, he took the 
golden candlestick and other treasures from the temple at Jerusalem, which 
Titus had carried off to grace his triumph. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; Gensekic Accounting Himself as 
Agent of Wrath. — Now that the fleets, the arsenal, the docks of Car- 
thage were all their own, now that its harboi — one of the finest in the 
Old World — reflected everywhere the Vandal flag, they became under 
Gaiseric's guidance the first naval power on the Mediterranean. . . 
At length the work [of ravaging the coasts] became almost monotonous, 
and the choice of a victim hard. Once when the fleet had weighed 
anchor and was sailing forth from the broad harbor of Carthage, the 
helmsman turned to the king and asked for what port he should steer. 
" For the men with whom God is angry," answered the Vandal king, 
and left the winds and the waters to settle the question who were the 
proper objects of the wrath of Heaven. — " The Dynasty of Theodosius," 
Thomas Hodgkin, pp. 219, 220. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1889. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second; Vandals Sweep the Mediterranean. 
— This great city [Carthage] the Rome of the African world (as a 



540 SEVEN TRUMPETS, THIRD 

contemporary calls it), opened its gates to the Vandals on the 9th of 
October, 439. . . . After a sea of blood had been shed, every kind of 
property was pillaged. . . . The loss of Africa was, perhaps, one of the 
greatest calamities which could have overtaken the Western Empire. — 
" The Fall of the Roman Empire,'" J. C. L. Be Sismondi, Vol. I, chap. 
7, pp. 155, 156. 

Seven Trumpets, The Second. — Page 490. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third ; " There Fell a Great Star . . . 
Burning." — But after a short space of time, as Orosius relates, the race 
of the Huns, fiercer than ferocity itself, flamed forth. — " The Origin and 
Deeds of the Goths," Jordanes, Mierow's translation, chap.; 24, p. 38. 
Princeton, 1908. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Attila's Invasion of the Rivers. — 
About a. d. 450, in fulfilment of a treaty with Genseric, he [Attila] moved 
against the Western provinces along the Upper Danube; reached and 
crossed the Rhine at Basle, and thence tracing the same great fron- 
tier stream of the West down to Belgium, made its valley one scene of 
desolation and woe. ... He was repulsed in the tremendous battle of 
Chalons. And whither then, when thus forced to retrace his steps, did 
he direct them? Whither but to fall on another destined scene of rav- 
age, " the European fountains of waters," in the Alpine heights and 
Alpine valleys of Italy, [p. 357] . . . 

But what further of his course of devastation? Surely, with Italy 
all defenseless before him, one might have expected that, like his prede- 
cessor Alaric, it would have continued on to Rome and the far coast of 
Bruttium. Instead of this, behold an embassy from the Western em- 
peror Valentinian, accompanied by the venerable Romish bishop Leo 
the First, was successful at this point in deprecating his wrath: and 
having granted them peace, and leaving bands only of Heruli and Ostro- 
goths in the Tyrolese country intermediate, he repassed the Alps, and 
retired. 

Wherefore a result, humanly speaking, so unlikely? Methinks we 
may see the reason. The prediction had expressly marked the term of 
Attila's desolating progress, — " the third of the rivers, and the foun- 
tains of waters." Already Attila had made bitter, besides the surplus- 
age of more Eastern scenes, the river line of the upper Danube and 
Rhine, and the Alpine fountains of waters. Many had died, and still 
continued to die, that drank of the waters, through famine, disease, and 
pestilence. This being done, his course was to end. " Thus far shalt 
thou go, and no further." 

Returned from Italy, he recrossed the Danube; reached the royal 
village between it and the Teiss; and there, the very next year, was sud- 
denly cut off by apoplexy. This occurred a. d. 453. So the meteor was 
extinct; the empire and power of the Huns broken. The woe of the 
third trumpet had passed away. [pp. 357, 358] — " Hora? Apocalyptical," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 357, 358, 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Meteoric Career of Attilla. — The 
rise of the great Hunnic power, which threatened European civiliza- 
tion in the fifth century, was as sudden and rapid as its fall. — " History 
of the Later Roman Empire," J. B. Bury, Vol. I, p. 161. Cambridge: 
Macmillan & Co., 1889. 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FOURTH 541 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Bitterness of Attila's Visitation. 

— Being styled " Metus Orbis," and Flagellum Dei, the Scourge of God 
and Terror of Men. — " Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, 

M. A., p. 184. London: John Whiston, 1744. 

This invasion is the most celebrated in our people's discourses, of 
all those which the barbarians have made upon us; and is the most 

talked of among the vulgar. . . . And now all the countries which were 
within the Apennine Mountains and the Alps were full of flight, of 
depopulation, of slaughter, of slavery, of burning, and despair. — Sigo- 
nius (a contemporary); cited in "Essay on the Revelation," William 
Whiston, M. A., pp. 184-187. London: John Whiston, 1744. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third; Attila Recognized as Agent of Ven- 
geance. — It was during the retreat from Orleans that a Christian her- 
mit is reported to have approached the Hunnish king and said to him, 
" Thou art the scourge of God for the chastisement of Christians." 
Attila instantly assumed this new title of terror, which thenceforth 
became the appellation by which he was most widely and most fearfully 
known. — " Decisive Battles of the World," Sir Edward 8. Creasy, " Cha- 
lons" chap. 6, p. 162. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1898. 

Not merely the degenerate Romans, but the bold and hardy war- 
riors of Germany and Scandinavia, were appalled at the numbers, the 
ferocity, the ghastly appearance, and the lightning-like rapidity of the 
Huns. . . . His own warriors believed him [Attila] to be the inspired 
favorite of their deities, and followed him with fanatic zeal. His ene- 
mies looked on him as the preappointed minister of Heaven's wrath 
against themselves. — Id., p. 7. 

Seven Trumpets, The Third. — Page 485. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The Light of Empire Extinguished 
in the West. — Some twenty years or more from the death of Attila, 
and much less from that of Genseric, . . . Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, 

— a barbarian remnant of the host of Attila, left on the Alpine frontiers 
of Italy, — interposed with his command that the name and the office of 
Roman Emperor of the West should be abolished. The authorities 
bowed in submission to him. The last phantom of an emperor, whose 
name, Romulus Augustus, was singularly calculated to bring in contrast 
before the reflective mind the past glories of Rome and its present deg- 
radation, abdicated: and the senate sent away the imperial insignia to 
Constantinople, professing to the emperor of the East that one emperor 
was sufficient for the whole of the empire. Thus of the Roman imperial 
sun that third which appertained to the Western Empire was eclipsed, 
and shone no more. . . . Thus in the West "the extinction of the em- 
pire" had taken place; the night had fallen. 

Notwithstanding this, however, it must be borne in mind that the 
authority of the Roman name had not yet entirely ceased. The senate 
of Rome continued to assemble, as usual. The consuls were appointed 
yearly, one by the Eastern emperor, one by Italy and Rome. . . . The 
moon and the stars might seem still to shine on the west, with a dim 
reflected light. In the course of events, however, which rapidly followed 
one on the other in the next half century, these too were extinguished. 
. . . The Roman senate was dissolved, the consulship abrogated; 
the statement of Jerome, — a statement couched under the very apoca- 
lyptic figure of the text, but prematurely pronounced on the first taking 



542 SEVEN TRUMPETS, FOURTH 

of Rome by Alaric, — might be considered as at length accomplished; 
" Clarissimum terrarum lumen extinction est" ("The world's glorious 
sun has been extinguished") : or, as the modern poet has expressed it, 
still under the same apocalyptic imagery, 

" She saw her glories star by star expire; " 
till not even one star remained, to glimmer on the vacant and dark 
night. — " Horce Apocalyptic^," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 358- 
361, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; Gibbon on the Extinction of the 
Imperial Office. — The submissive people of Italy was prepared to obey, 
without a murmur, the authority which he [Odoacer] should conde- 
scend to exercise as the vicegerent of the Emperor of the West, But 
Odoacer had resolved to abolish that useless and expensive office; and 
such is the weight of antique prejudice that it required some boldness 
and penetration to discover the extreme facility of the enterprise. The 
unfortunate Augustulus [the emperor] was made the instrument of his 
own disgrace: he signified his resignation to the senate; and that assem- 
bly, in their last act of obedience to a Roman prince, still affected the 
spirit of freedom and the forms of the constitution. An epistle was 
addressed, by their unanimous decree, to the emperor Zeno, the son- 
in-law and successor of Leo, who had lately been restored, after a short 
rebellion, to the Byzantine throne. They solemnly " disclaim the neces- 
sity, or even the wish, of continuing any longer the imperial succession 
in Italy; since, in their opinion, the majesty of a sole monarch is suffi- 
cient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the East and the 
West. In their own name, and in the name of the people, they consent 
that the seat of universal empire shall be transferred from Rome to 
Constantinople; and they basely renounce the right of choosing their 
master, the only vestige that yet remained of the authority which had 
given laws to the world. The republic (they repeat that name without a 
blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; 
and they humbly request that the emperor would invest him with the 
title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy." — " The 
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, 
chap. 36, par. 30 (Vol. Ill, p. 512). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; Early Expositor on. — The sun 
shone at Rome as long as the consular dignity and the kingdom was pos- 
sessed of authority over other cities and provinces. The moon and the 
stars shone there as long as the ancient power of the senate and of the 
other magistrates remained. But these being all taken away (which 
was done by this trumpet), what was there but darkness, and a univer- 
sal failure of light, both diurnal and nocturnal? namely, what belonged 
to that city, to which a third part of the light of heaven was attributed. 
— " Glavis Apocalyptical Joseph Mede (1627), translated by R. B. Cooper, 
p. 171. London: Rivington, 1833. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The Consulship Abolished. — The 
first magistrates of the republic [the consuls] had been chosen by the 
people, to exercise, in the senate and in the camp, the powers of peace 
and war, which were afterward translated to the emperors. But the 
tradition of ancient dignity was long revered by the Romans and bar- 
barians. A Gothic historian applauds the consulship of Theodoric 
[a. d. 493-526] as the height of all temporal glory and greatness; the 
king of Italy himself congratulated those annual favorites of fortune 
who, without the cares, enjoyed the splendor of the throne. . . . 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FOURTH 543 

The succession of consuls finally ceased in the thirteenth year of 
Justinian [a. d. 541], whose despotic temper might he gratified by the 
silent extinction of a title which admonished the Romans of their an- 
cient freedom. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 

Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 40, par. 30 (Vol. IV, pp. 110, 111). New 
York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth; The August Senate Extinguished. 
— That senate, of which he who declared that it was composed of kings, 
alone formed a true idea. — "History of Rome" Livy, translated by Canon 
W. L. Roberts, book 9, chap. 17 (Vol. II, p. 181). Everyman's Library 
edition. 

After a period of thirteen centuries [in the time of Justinian, about 
553] the institution of Romulus [the senate] expired; and if the nobles 
of Rome still assumed the title of senators, few subsequent traces can 
be discovered of a public council or constitutional order. Ascend six 
hundred years, and contemplate the kings of the earth soliciting an 
audience, as the slaves or freedmen of the Roman senate! — " The His- 
tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" Edward Gibbon, 
chap. 43, par. 17 (Vol. IV, p. 273). Neio York: Harper & Brothers. 

Where is the senate? Where are the people? . . . All the glory of 
earthly dignity has expired from the city. — Pope Gregory the Great 
[A. D. 590-604], Homilies on Ezekiel (2:6, sec. 22); cited in "Life of 
Gregory the Great," Frederick Homes Dudden, Vol. I, p. 185. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fourth. — Pages 477-485. 

Seven Trumpets, Old Expositor on the Fifth and Sixth. — As to 
the two following trumpets, they so evidently refer to the Saracens and 
Turks, that there are scarcely two opinions on the subject. — " Signs of 
the Times: or, The Overthrow of the Papal Tyranny in France," J. 
Bicheno, M. A., p. 162. London: Johnson, Matthews, Knott, 1799. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Symbolism Arabian. — The locust 
form indicated their swarming in numbers numberless; their being in 
their migratory progress rapid, far-ranging, and irresistible. . . . The 
horselike appearance seemed to imply that they would be hordes of 
cavalry; the likeness to the lion, that they would be savage destroyers 
of life; and to the scorpion, that of those in Christendom, whose lives 
they spared, they would be the tormentors, even as with a scorpion's 
poison sting, [pp. 407, 408] . . . 

The locust, the ground work of the symbol, is peculiarly Arabic. 
So the sacred history of ancient times informs us. " It was the east 
wind," it says, "which brought the locusts" on Egypt. Ex. 10: 13. . . 
And indeed the locust simile is one used in other and earlier scriptures, 
with its usual appropriateness, to designate the numbers and character 
of an invading Arab horde. Judges 6: 5. Again, as of the locust, so of 
the scorpion, the native locality was by the Jews considered the Arabian 
desert. Witness Moses' own words to the Israelites, on emerging from 
it, after forty years' wandering: " that great and terrible wilderness 
wherein were fiery serpents and scorpions." And who knows not, if 
facts so notorious be worth mentioning, that it is Arabia, still Arabia, 
that is regarded by naturalists as the original country of the horse; and 
that its wildernesses are the haunts also of the lion? The zoology of the 
hieroglyphic is all Arabian. — " Horw Apocalyptical," Rev. E. B. Elliott, 
A. M., Vol. I, pp. 407-409, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and 
Seeley, 1847. 



544 SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIFTH 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; As Historians Describe the Sara- 
cens. — Onward and still onward, like swarms from the hive, or flights 
of locusts darkening the land, tribe after tribe issued forth, and hasten- 
ing northward, spread in great masses to the east and to the west. — 
" The Caliphate," Sir William Muir, p. 44. London: The Religious Tract 
Society, 1892. 

The Persian Empire soon attracted the arms of " these locusts," as 
the swarms of hungry Saracens were not inaptly called. — " The Otto- 
man Empire," Edward Upham, Vol. I, p. 40. Edinburgh: Constable & 
Co. 



Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; The First Caliph of the Saracens. 
— He [Mohammed] was like a star that fell from heaven (Rev. 9: 1), a 
bright and illustrious prince, as if heaven-endowed, but fallen. Would 
anything better characterize the genius, the power, and the splendid 
but perverted talent of Mohammed? Mohammed was, moreover, by 
birth, of the princely house of the Koreish, governors of Mecca, and to 
no one could the term be more appropriate than to one of that family. 
He was a king. That is, there was to be one monarch — one ruling 
spirit to which all these hosts were subject. And never was anything 
more appropriate than this title as applied to the leader of the Arabic 
hosts. — " Commentary," Rev. Albert Barnes, on Revelation 9, p. 253. 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Mohammed, Founder of Mohammed- 
anism. — Mohammed, "The Praised," . . . was born at Mecca Aug. 20, 
570, and died at Medina June 8, 632. ... In 609, in consequence of a 
vision in which Gabriel commanded him (though illiterate) to read 
what appears in the Koran as Surah xcvi. 1-5, he began to preach. 

His earliest labors were in his family and among his intimates. 
Hadijah [his wife] was his first convert. Ali and Zaid, his adopted 
children, were next, and then his friend Abu-bekr. Three years of 
preaching gained him about fifty followers, and then (612) he began to 
teach in public, using a house opposite the Kaaba. His points were 
three: (1) The oneness and absoluteness of Allah who (2) revealed his 
will to men (3) by chosen men who were prophets. ... By this time 
he had abandoned idolatry in consequence of his first principle. . . . 

The rancorous opposition of Meccans continuing and extending ev§n 
to the point of banning him and his supporters, he exiled himself, and 
in the Hejira, " Flight," to Medina he took the step which made the 
Mohammedan era, June 16, 622 a. d. This was the turning-point in his 
career, the beginning of success. . . . 

Citizenship was made dependent not on family but on faith, pre- 
paring the way for a united Arabia and a world religion. For the tri- 
umph of the faith the bonds of kinship had to yield if they stood in its 
way — Mohammed did not blanch at fratricidal war. The idolater, even 
though a brother, was doomed unless he gave up this practice, and to 
the believer belonged the idolater's goods. In this last was manifested 
Mohammed's shrewdness, making capital of the Arab's lust for plunder. 
... In self-interest Arabs flocked to him, and he was soon ready to 
march upon Mecca, which he had already fixed upon as the center of 
the faith. . . . Before the prophet's death all Arabia was at his feet; 
Christians and Jewish tribes were permitted to exist, but only upon con- 
dition of paying a heavy tribute. — The New S chaff -Herzog Encyclope- 
dia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. VII, art. ''Mohammed," pp. 436-438. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Out of the Pit. — The observer could 
scarce be mistaken in interpreting this smoke from the pit of the abyss 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIFTH 545 

as an emanation from the pit of hell; i. e., as some system of error and 
false religion thence originating: originating, it would seem, all on a 
sudden; and of which the effect would be, almost instantaneously, to 
darken the moral atmosphere, and dim the imperial sun in the firma- 
mental heaven. . . . Who knows not the fact that it was after embrac- 
ing Islamism that the Saracen cavalry hordes burst forth in fury on 
Roman Christendom; and yet more, that they were imbued from this 
very source with the qualities that the symbols in the vision indicated? 
For there is indeed a perfect fitness in the representation of the sym- 
bolic locusts as issuing forth, all formed in character, out of the smoke 
from the pit of the abyss. It was the religion of Mahomet in fact, that 
made the Arabs what they were. It was this that for the first time 
united them in one, in numbers countless as the locusts; this that gave 
them the locustlike impulse to speed forth as its propagandists over the 
world; this which imparted to them, as to lions of the desert, the irre- 
sistible destroying fury of fanaticism; this, further, which . . . had 
already prepared in them a scorpion-like venom of contempt and hatred 
wherewith to torment the subject Christian. — " Horce Apocalyptical," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 415-417, 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

So great was the terror which this new power of hell had already 
struck into the world. — " Philosophy of History," Friedrich von Schlegel, 
Vol. II, Lecture 12, p. 110. 

Note. — The historian comments on the evasive replies, rather than defiance, 
with which Emperor Heraclius, and Chosroes, of Persia, met Mahomet's summons 
to acknowledge him. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; The Supernatural Element. — Even 
though it be admitted that Mahomet laid the foundations of his laws in 
the strongest principles of human nature, and prepared the fabric of 
his empire with the profoundest wisdom, still there can be no doubt 
that no human intelligence could, during his lifetime, have foreseen, 
and no combinations on the part of one individual could have insured, 
the extraordinary success of his followers. — " A History of Greece," 
George Finlay, Vol. I, p. 356. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1877. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Old Expositors on the Scorpion 
Sting. — That is, they had not only the power proper to locusts of eating 
up and depopulating the countries through which they passed, but, what 
was a kind of prodigy, they had tails like scorpions, with the stroke of 
which likewise they diffused poison. Wonderful! A locust scorpion. 
But the nature of the evil which it implies, the symbol of a serpentine 
species seems to point out; for the scorpion is of the serpent kind. . . . 
The tail, therefore, of a scorpion, with the sting, denotes the propagation 
of that diabolical false prophecy of Mohammed, with its whole apparatus, 
on which the Arabian locusts relying, not less than on warlike force, 
inflicted hurt, alas! wherever they went. Nay, this train of foulest 
errors, the Saracens first, from the creation of man, drew after them; 
and, I believe, no nation before them, relying on a similar imposture, 
in religion, and under the pretext of destroying the worship of idols, 
ever contended for the empire of the world. — " Glavis Apocalyptica," 
Joseph Mede (1627), translated by R. B. Goeper. p. 176. London: Riving- 
ton, 1833. 

These locusts had tails like scorpions, and stings in their tails. All 
the world knows that the tail and the sting in the serpent [scorpion] is 
the seat of venom and poison. And poison is the emblem of false doc- 
35 



546 SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIFTH 

trine. Which signifies not only that the Arabians should carry desola- 
tion and death everywhere, hut also the venom of a detestable religion. 
Therefore 'tis the devil is called a serpent and a dragon, by reason of 
the poison of false religions that he spreads. — "Accomplishment of the 
Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, part 1, chap. 7, p. 70. London, 
1687. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Theib Leadership. — The King of 
these locusts was the angel of the bottomless pit, being chief governor 
as well in religious as civil affairs, such as was the caliph of the Sara- 
cens. Swarms of locusts often arise in Arabia Felix, and from thence 
infest the neighboring nations: and so are a very fit type of the numer- 
ous armies of Arabians invading the Romans. — " Observations upon the 
Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John" Sir Isaac Newton, 
part 2, chap. 3, p. 304. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Since the locusts are at once secular conquerors and the propagators 
of a false religion, their king must stand to them in the double relation 
of a temporal and spiritual chief. Such, accordingly, was Mohammed 
and the caliphs his successors. . . . The twofold idea was aptly ex- 
pressed by his single official denomination, " The Commander of the 
Faithful." — " The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," George Stanley Faber, 
B. D., book 4, chap. 7 (Vol. II, p. £79). London: W. E. Painter, 1844. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Appearance or the Invading War- 
riors. — So Pliny, St. John's contemporary at the close of the first cen- 
tury, speaks of the Arabs as wearing the turban, having the hair long 
and uncut, with the moustache on the upper lip, or the beard; i that 
" venerable sign of manhood," as Gibbon, in Arab phraseology, calls it. 
So Solinus describes them in the third century; 2 so Ammianus Marcel- 
linus in the fourth; s so Claudian, Theodore of Mopsuesta, and Jerome 
in the fifth. ... In regard to the turban crown, it happens most singu- 
larly that Ezekiel (23: 42) describes the turbans of the Sabseans or 
Keturite Arabs under this very appellation: " Sabaeans from the wilder- 
ness, which put beautiful crowns upon their heads." . . . The Saracen 
policy was the wearing of defensive armor. The breastplate of iron was 
a feature of description literally answering, like the three others, to the 
Arab warriors of the sixth or seventh century. — " Horce Apocalyptical," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 411-413, 3d edition. London: See- 
ley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Instructions as Saracens Poured 
Out of Arabia. — When you fight the battles of the Lord, acquit you like 
men, without turning your backs; but let not your victory be stained 
with the blood of women or children. Destroy no palm trees, nor burn 
any fields of corn. Cut down no fruit trees, nor do any mischief to 
cattle, only such as you kill to eat. When you make any covenant or 
article, stand to it, and be as good as your word. As you go on, you will 
find some religious persons who live retired in monasteries, and propose 
to themselves to serve God that way: let them alone, and neither kill 
them nor destroy their monasteries. And you will find another sort of 
people, that belong to the synagogue of Satan, who have shaven crowns; 
be sure you cleave their skulls, and give them no quarter till they either 

1 " Arabes mitrati deyunt, aut intonso crine. Barba abraditur, prwterquam in 
superiore labro. Aliis et Jvrec intonsa." — Nat. Hist., vi, 28. 

2 c. 53 : " Plurimis crinis intonsus, mitrata capita, pars rasa in cutem barbd." 

3 " Crinitus quidam a Saracenorum cuneo." — Id., xxxi, 16. 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, FIFTH 547 

turn Mahometans or pay " tribute." — Abu-bekr, caliph, to Saracen ar- 
mies; cited, in " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
pire;' Edward Gibbon, chap. ,51, par. 10 (Vol. V, pp. 189, 190). 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; To Torment, Not to Kill. — Not that 
it could be supposed that the Saracens would not " kill " many thou- 
sands in their incursions. On the contrary, their angel hath the name 
of "the destroyer." Rev. 9: 11. They might "kill" them as individ- 
uals, but still they should not "kill" them as a political body, as a 
state or empire. They might greatly harass and " torment " both the 
Greek and the Latin churches, but they should not utterly extirpate the 
one or the other. They besieged Constantinople, and even plundered 
Rome: but they could not make themselves masters of either of those 
capital cities. The Greek Empire suffered most from them, as it lay 
nearest to them. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies;' Thomas Newton, 
D. D., p. 544. London: B. Black, 1840. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Gibbon on the Mystery of Limita- 
tion of Power. — When the Arabs first issued from the desert, they must 
have been surprised at the ease and rapidity of their own success. But 
when they advanced in the career of victory to the banks of the Indus 
and the summit of the Pyrenees; when they had repeatedly tried the 
edge of their scimeters and the energy of their faith, they might be 
equally astonished that any nation could resist their invincible arms; 
that any boundary should confine the dominion of the successor of the 
prophet. The confidence of soldiers and fanatics may indeed be excused, 
since the calm historian of the present hour, who strives to follow the 
rapid course of the Saracens, must study to explain by what means the 
church and state were saved from this impending, and, as it should 
seem, from this inevitable, danger. — " The History of the Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 52, par. 1 (Vol. V. 
p. 273). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Note. — The historian " must study to explain," says Gibbon, how it was 
that the swift progress of the Saracens did not extinguish the Eastern Empire. 
But the prophecy had declared that the " locusts " would torment, not kill. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; No Mention of "Third Part." — 

What a vast tract of land! How many crowns are here! Whence it is 
worthy of observation, that no mention is here made, as under the other 
trumpets, of the trient, or third part; since the plague fell not less 
beyond the bounds of the Roman Empire, than within it; stretching 
even to the extremest parts of India. — " Glavis Apocalyptical Joseph 
Mede (1627), translated by R. B. Gooper, p. 181. London: Rivington, 1833. 

Seven Trumpets, The Fifth; Why the Saracens are Indicated. 
— 1. Because they came from the East, as the locusts did. 2. Because 
of their vast numbers, and their wandering state and condition, living in 
tents, and roaming from place to place. Nahum 3: 15, 16. 3. Because 
they are expressly likened unto grasshoppers or locusts. Judges 7: 3-5. 

4. From the suddenness of their invasions, and the prodigious swiftness 
of their conquests, and the great havoc and ravages made by them. 

5. Because they at this time embodied in their national characters and 
tempers, which Gibbon described to be " armed against mankind, and 
doubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine, murder, and re- 
venge," the doctrines of the Koran. — "An Historical Exposition of the 
Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John" Matthew Habershon, pp. 
153, 154. London; James Nisbet & Go., 1841. 



548 SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 

Seven Trumpets, From Saracen to Turk. — With the rise of the 
Abbassides, the aspect of Western Asia alters. The seat of government 
is removed from Syria to Irak [to Bagdad, founded a. d. 762], the Syr- 
ians lose the monopoly of influence and power they had hitherto pos- 
sessed; and the tide of power is diverted from the West to the East. 
But the unity of the Caliphate was gone forever. . . . 

" The reign of the first Abbassides," says a distinguished French 
scholar and historian, " was the era of the greatest splendor of the 
Eastern Saracens. The age of conquest had passed; that of civilization 
had commenced." — "History of the Saracens," Ameer Ali, p. 208. 

Before long the Caliphs drew their bodyguard entirely from the 
Turks about the Oxus. . . . These began to overshadow the noble Arab 
chieftains; and so we soon find the imperial forces officered almost en- 
tirely by Turcomans. — " The Caliphate," Sir William Muir, p. 432. Lon- 
'don: The Religious Tract Society, 



The blow which seemed the most crushing of all, the overthrow of 
the caliphate by the Moguls [1258], was part of a chain of events whicb 
brought on the stage a Mohammedan power more terrible than all that 
had gone before it. We have now come to the time of the first appear- 
ance of the Ottoman Turks. — " The Ottoman Power in Europe," E. A. 
Freeman, D. C. L., LL. D., p. 98. London: Macmillan & Co., 1877. 

In a. d. 1281, Ortogrul took the famous city of Kutahi from the 
Greek emperor; in 1357 Orchan crossed over to Europe; in 1453 Ma- 
homet II took Constantinople, and thus began the downfall of the East- 
ern Empire, the rest of which followed the fate of the capital. — "A New 
Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William Hales, D. D., 
Vol. Ill, p. 617. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Next Blow at the Eastern 
Empire. — If the first woe trumpet referred to the Saracens, then it 
would be natural that the rise and progress of the Turkish power should 
be symbolized, as the next great fact in history; and as that under 
which the empire fell. . . . The Turkish power rose immediately after 
the power of the Saracens had reached its height, and identified itself 
with the Mohammedan religion, and was, in fact, the next great power 
that affected the Roman Empire, the welfare of the church, and the 
history of the world. — " Commentary," Rev. Albert Barnes, on Revelation 
9, p. 263. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Foxe on this Prophecy. — Among all 
the prophecies both of the Old Testament and of the New, there is none 
that painteth out the anti-Christian kingdom of the Turks better than 
doth the Revelation of St. John, whose words let us weigh and consider. 
... By loosing the angels who had rule of the great river Euphrates, 
is signified the letting out of the east kings, that is, the Turks, out of 
Scythia, Tartary, Persia, and Arabia, by whom the third part of Chris- 
tendom shall be destroyed, as we see it this day hath come to pass. — 
Written in 1563, with Turks at gates of Central Europe, "Acts and 
Monuments" John Foxe, Vol. IV, p. 102. London: R. B. Seeley and 
W. Burnside, 1837. 

Note. — Foxe is said to have been the first writer to recognize the Turks in 
this prophecy. — .Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Loosing of the Turkish Hordes. — 
The reign of Othman is contemporaneous with one of the great periods 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 549 

of immigration from Central Asia. The numbers of the Turks were 
yearly augmented by such hordes that the Greek writers continually 
use metaphors derived from the torrent, from floods and inundations, 
to describe their overwhelming force. — " The Destruction of the Greek 
Empire" Sir Edivin Pears, p. 62. London: Longmans, Green d Co., 1903. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Still the Poison Sting. — The cap- 
ture of Bagdad [Tartars under Genghis Khan, 1227, swept over the Sara- 
cen empire] entirely annihilated the Saracen name — the cloud from the 
desert was blown back into its pristine insignificance — the bubble of 
fame had collapsed. The name had been banished forever; but the 
faith remained. . . . Thus the valor of the early Saracens is now remem- 
bered only in history; whereas the religion which they enforced pre- 
vails. — " Islamism: Its Rise and Progress," F. A. Neale, Vol. I, chap. 
31, p. 340. London: J. Madden, 1854. 

He [Bajazed, 1389-1403] was an irreconcilable enemy of the Chris- 
tian name and a passionate follower of Mahomet. During the reign of 
his predecessor, the struggle between the empire and the Turks had 
taken a theological character, and it is beyond reasonable doubt that 
religious animosity of a kind which had not shown itself among the 
first armies of the Turks had now diffused its baneful influence among 
the Ottoman armies. — " The Destruction of the Greek Empire" Sir 
Edwin Pears, pp. 132, 133. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1903. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth ; The Myriads of Horsemen. — Myr- 
riads of myriads: a numeral phrase indefinite, but according to its nat- 
ural and not infrequent use in Scripture i expressive of large numbers; 
... so that it is not. without his usual propriety of language that Gib- 
bon speaks of "the myriads of the (Seljukian) Turkish horse over- 
spreading the Greek frontier from the Taurus to Erzeroum." — " Horce 
Apocalyptic^," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 478, 479, 3d edition. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

I well remember that living in the University of Ireland, a gentle- 
man that newly came from Scandrown or Alexandretta told me he saw 
the Turkish army march by to recover Bagdet or Babylon, and that the 
army was above a week marching by, consisting of fifteen hundred thou- 
sand men, with which he recovered Bagdet from the Persian. — "An Ex- 
position, or Commentaries upon the Revelation, out of Most Learned Au- 
thors " (Bullinger, Francis Junius, Brightman, etc.), Hezekiah Holland, 
p. 65. London: George Calvert, 1650. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Old Expositors on "Fire, Smoke, 
and Brimstone." — Brightman [1600] applyes this to the Turks' guns, 
out of which come fire, smoake. — Id., p. 66. 

I understand it literally of that new (and previous to this trumpet) 
unheard-of arms, which those Euphratean enemies made use of, imme- 
diately after they had been set loose. I understand it of cannon vom- 
iting fire, smoke, and sulphur. For gunpowder is ignivomous, with 
hyacinthine smoke, and sulphurous matter. — " Clavis Apocalyptica," 
Joseph Mede (1627), translated by R. B. Cooper, p. 204. London: Riv- 
ington, 1833. 



1 Num. 10 : 36 : " Return to thy thousands of myriads (Heb. myriads of thou- 
sands) in Israel ; " an example strikingly to the point, as the numbers of Israel 
are mentioned, in the census of Num. 1 : 45, 46, to have been only 600,000 above 
twenty years old. 



550 SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 

This fire, this smoke, and this brimstone seem to be a description 
of gunpowder and its effects. And this may well signify that the Turks 
should make their principal desolations in the empire of the fourth mon- 
archy, after the invention of cannons and firearms, whence come forth 
lightnings, flames, sulphur, and smoke; which indeed did come to pass. 

These horses that vomit up flame and smoke have also tails like 
unto serpents, with which they do hurt, viz., in spreading their poison. 
And this is common to them with the locusts of the fifth trumpet. 'Tis 
the venom of the wicked religion of Mahomet, which the Turks have 
established, and spread in all places where they have established their 
dominion. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter 
Jurieu, part 1, chap. 7, p. 75. London, 1687. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; An Arab Writer Describes the Use 
of Artillery at •^Constantinople. — At length the Moslems placed their 
cannon in an effectual position, and threw up their intrenchments. The 
gates and ramparts of Constantinople were pierced in a thousand places. 
The flames which issued from the mouths of these instruments of war- 
fare, of brazen bodies and fiery jaws, cast grief and dismay among the 
miscreants. The smoke which spread itself in the air, and ascended 
toward the heavens, rendered the brightness of day somber as night: 
and the face of the world soon became as dark as the black fortune of 
the unhappy infidels. — " Tadg al Tavarikh " (Diadem of Histories), 
Saadeddin ; cited from David's " Grammar of the Turkish Language" in 
" The Signs of the Times," Rev. Alexander Keith, Vol. I, p. 386, 3d edi- 
tion. Edinburgh: William Whyte & Co., 1833. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Smoke and Fire. — It was to 
" the fire and the smoke and the sulphur," to the artillery and firearms 
of Mahomet, that the killing of the third part of men, i. e., the capture 
of Constantinople, and by consequence the destruction of the Greek 
' Empire, was owing. ..." Canst thou cast a cannon," was his question 
to the founder of cannon that deserted to him, " of size sufficient to 
batter down the wall of Constantinople? " Then the foundry was estab- 
lished at Adrianople, the cannon cast, the artillery prepared, and the 
siege began. 

It well deserves remark, how Gibbon, always the unconscious com- 
mentator on the Apocalyptic prophecy, puts this new instrumentality 
of war into the foreground of his picture, in his eloquent and striking 
narrative of the final catastrophe of the Greek Empire. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. I, pp. 483, 484, 3d edition. Lon- 
don: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

The exact idea, whether that was intended or not, would be con- 
veyed by the discharge of musketry or artillery. The fire, the smoke, 
and the sulphurous smell of such a discharge would correspond pre- 
cisely with this language. . . . One thing is certain, that this is not 
language which would be employed to describe the onset of ancient cav- 
alry in the mode of warfare which prevailed then. No one describing 
a charge of cavalry among the Persians, the Greeks, or the Romans, 
when the only armor was the sword and the spear, would think of say- 
ing that there seemed to be emitted from the horses' mouths fire, and 
smoke, and brimstone. — " Commentary," Rev. Albert Barnes, on Rev. 
9:17, p. 259. New York: Harper & Brothers. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Horse-Tail Banners. — It seems 
that in the times of their early warlike career the principal standard 
was once lost, in the progress of battle; and the Turkman commander, 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 551 

in its default, cutting off his horse's tail, lifted it on a pole, made it the 
rallying ensign, and so won the victory. Hence the introduction and 
permanent adoption among the Turks throughout their empire of this 
singular ensign; among the Turks alone, if I mistake not, of all the 
nations that have ever risen up on this world's theater: and this as that 
which was thenceforward, — from the vizier to the governors of prov- 
inces and districts, — to constitute their badge, mark their rank, and 
give them name and title. For it is the ensign of one, two, or three 
horse tails that marks distinctively the dignity and power of the Turk- 
ish pasha. — " Horce Apocalyptic^," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M%, Vol. I, p. 
486, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Last Emperors of the East. — In 
the year 1381 he [John V or VI, surnamed Paleologus, 1332-1391] con- 
cluded a treaty with Sultan Murad, acknowledging himself again a 
vassal and tributary of the Ottoman Empire. Murad continued to pur- 
sue his career of conquest in Europe without disturbing the fragments 
of territory which still retained the proud name of the Roman Empire, 
but of which the exact extent mocks the research of the historian. — "A 
History of Greece," George Finlay, Vol. Ill, p. 467. Oxford: The Claren- 
don Press, 1877. 

Best remembered among the tribulations of John is the siege of 
Philadelphia. . . . Murad, wishing to subdue it, compelled John V and 
his son Manuel to march in person against the last Christian stronghold 
in Asia. The emperor submitted to the degradation, and Philadelphia 
surrendered when it saw the imperial banner hoisted among the horse- 
tails of the Turkish pashas above the camp of the besiegers. The 
humiliation of the empire could go no further. — " The Story of the 
Byzantine Empire," C. W. G. Oman, M. A., F. S. A., pp. 330, 331. New 
York: G. P.Putnam's Sons, 1892. 

He [John VI or VII, surnamed Paleologus, 1390-1448] never forgot 
that he was a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. — ''A History of Greece," 
George Finlay, Vol. Ill, p. 496. 

Note. — The death of John VI " took place on the last day of October, 1448 " 
("Destruction of the Greek Empire," Pears, p. 178). Constantine, his older 
brother, was in Sparta, Greece, at the time. As he had recently been in conflict 
with the Sultan, it was a question whether he would be an acceptable candidate 
for the throne. Some favored Demetrius, the younger brother. The sultan 
(Mohammed II) signified his willingness, however, that Constantine should take 
the throne, which he did, being crowned at Sparta, Jan. 10, 1449. 

" The arguments of the Prince Demetrius' partisans were based not so 
much on personal as on public grounds — the political interest of the state. At 
last a compromise was made : an embassy was to be sent at once to the sultan 
to ask him. Would he acknowledge Despot Constantine as emperor or not? This 
course was perhaps the only one to prevent civil war, or eventually an attack on 
the part of the Turks, but it shows more than anything else the growing weak- 
ness of the empire, and tbp failing sonsp of dignity." — "Constantine, Last Em- 
peror of the Greeks," CJiedomil Mijatovich, p. 8!,. London: S. Low & Co., 1892. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth ; The Eastern " Third Part " Now 
to Pall. — The Western Empire had already been exhibited, in the first 
four trumpets, under the figure of a symbolical universe, and its sub- 
version by the Gothic arms was denoted by the destruction of a third 
part of that universe. The Eastern Empire is now placed before us as 
a political community, under the generic appellation of " the men;" 
and its overthrow is in a similar manner signified by the slaughter of 
a third part of " the men." — "A Dissertation on the Seals and Trumpets 
of the Apocalypse." William Cuninghame, p. 83. 4th edition. London: 
Thomas Cadell, 1843. 



552 SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth ; This Time to Kill. — The locusts of 
the foregoing trumpet were sent, not to kill men, but to torment them 
for five months; because the Saracens and Arabians did only gnaw off 
the edges of the Roman Empire, and did not penetrate into its entrails. 
But the Turks pierced even into the very heart of the fourth monarchy, 
and laid it desolate; and they have established their empire in one of its 
capital cities, viz., Constantinople. 

They are sent to kill the men of this third part of the world. 
. . . To kill signifies also a total destruction: so that the prophecy 
seems to signify that the Turks are sent of God entirely to destroy 
the Roman Empire. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophe- 
cies,'' Peter Jurieu, part 1, chap. 7, pp. 78, 74. London, 1687. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth ; The Last Blow at Hand. — The Ro- 
man world [a. d. 1395-1402] was now contracted to a corner of Thrace, 
between the Propontis and the Black Sea, about fifty miles in length and 
thirty in breadth. — " The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 64, par. 20 (Vol. VI, p. 



Every province was in turn subdued, every city opened her gates 
to the conqueror; the limbs were lopped off one by one; but the pulse 
still beat at the heart, and the majesty of the Roman name was ulti- 
mately confined to the walls of Constantinople. Before Mahomet II 
planted his cannon against them, he had completed every smaller con- 
quest and deprived the expiring empire of every hope of succor or de- 
lay. — " History of Europe During the Middle Ages," Henry Hallam, Vol. 
II, p. 69, revised edition. London: The Colonial Press, 1900. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; The Eastern Empire Fallen at 
Last. — The Ottoman artillery thundered on all sides; and the camp and 
city, the Greeks and the Turks, were involved in a cloud of smoke which 
could only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction of the 
Roman Empire. . . . 

The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed to the bullet, 
or arrow, which pierced the gauntlet of John Justiniani. The sight of 
his blood, and the exquisite pain, appalled the courage of the chief, 
whose arms and counsels were the firmest rampart of the city. As he 
withdrew from his station in quest of a surgeon, his flight was per- 
ceived and stopped by the indefatigable emperor. "Your wound," ex- 
claimed Palasologus, "is slight; the danger is pressing: your presence 
is necessary; and whither will you retire?" "I will retire," said the 
trembling Genoese, " by the same road which God has opened to the 
Turks; " and at these words he hastily passed through one of the 
breaches of the inner wall. . . . His example was imitated by the great- 
est part of the Latin auxiliaries, and the defense began to slacken. . . . 
The victorious Turks rushed through the breaches of the inner wall. 
... In the first heat of the pursuit, about two thousand Christians were 
put to the sword. ... It was thus, after a siege of fifty-three days, 
that Constantinople, which had defied the power of Chosroes, the 
Chagan, and the caliphs, was irretrievably subdued by the arms of Ma- 
homet the Second [a. d. 1453]. — " The History of the Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire," Edward Gibbon, chap. 68, pars. 17, 18 (Vol. VI, 
pp. 400-403). New York: Harper & Brothers. 

With the fall of Constantinople was extinguished forever the last 
vestige of the majesty of Rome. — Lord John Russell; cited in " Turkey 
and the Balkan States," Esther Singleton, p. 10. New York: Dodd, Mead 
d Co., 1908. 



SEVEN TRUMPETS, SIXTH 553 

All Europe and Asia knew the end was come of the longest tale of 
empire that Christendom has yet seen. — " The Story of the Byzantine 
Empire," C. W. C. Oman, M. A., F. S. A., p. 350. New York: G. P. Put- 
nam's Sons, 1892. 

The age-long fight which the imperial East had waged against bar- 
barism was over. The city of the Caesars and the church was in the 
hands of the infidel. — " Constantine," W. H. Hutton, p. 150. London: 
J. M. Dent & Co., 1900. 

For the Turks Byzantium and its lord had long been the center of 
the universe and the zenith of human grandeur. They felt that, in 
conquering it, they and their sovereign had for practical purposes be- 
come masters of the world. — " Turkey in Europe," Sir Charles Eliot, 
p. 115. London: E. Arnold, 1908. 

As being a continuation of the Roman Empire whose capital was 
New Rome, the empire is correctly called Roman, and the name has the 
advantage of always keeping in view the continuity of Roman history. 
It was the Eastern Roman Empire which declined and fell in 1453. — 

" The Destruction of the Greek Empire," Sir Edwin Pears, Preface, 
p. xvii. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1903. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; Images to the Last. — The sacred 
eikons and relics were brought from the churches, were taken to the 
neighborhoods where the walls were most injured, and paraded with 
the procession in the hope — to people of northern climes and the pres- 
ent century inexplicable and almost unthinkable — that their display 
would avert the threatening danger. — Id., p. 327. 

Note. — This was the last idolatrous procession in Constantinople before its 
fall; and as the prophecy says (Rev. 9:20), the survivors, whether in East or 
West, failed to recognize the judgment upon the idols or images and all the 
works of men's hands. — Eds. 

Seven Trumpets, The Sixth; As the Scourge op Idolatry. — I 
promise to the only God, Creator of all things, by my vow and my oath, 
that I will not give sleep to my eyes, that I will not eat any choice 
viands, that I will not seek out that which is pleasant, nor touch that 
which is beautiful, that I will not turn my face from the west to the 
east, till I overthrow and tread under the feet of my horses the gods of 
the nations; these gods of wood, of brass, of silver, and of gold, or of 
painting, which the disciples of Christ have made with their hands. — 
Void of Mahomet II, published in all the mosques, March 11, 1470; cited 
in " The Two Later Visions of Daniel," Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., p. 319. 
London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1846. 

Seven Trumpets, Agreement as to Sixth. — It may indeed be said 
that there is no one part of the Revelation in which there exists so 
unanimous an agreement as that the Turks were the second woe. It 
is a point which even the popish interpreter, Dr. Wamsley, admits; it 
is likewise a fact, that in the whole range of political speculation, there 
is no subject on which there exists so unanimous an opinion, as that 
the empire which they founded on the ruins of the Eastern Roman Em- 
pire, is now on the point of extinction! Must therefore the third woe 
not soon follow? Will not God indeed be as good as his word; and will 
not the event of Constantinople falling out of the hands of its present 
possessors, be the certain signal of the almost immediate approach, to 
say the least, of as great calamities coming upon the nations of the 
earth, as were brought about by the Saracens or the Turks? — "An His- 
torical Exposition of the Prophecies of the Revelation of St. John," 
Matthew Habershon, p. 297. London: James Nisbet & Co.. 1841. 



554 SEVENTY WEEKS, TIME OF 

Seventy Weeks, " Determined " — " Cut Off." — " Are determined." 
The word here used, TprQ , from Tpn , occurs nowhere else in the Scrip- 
tures. It properly means, according to Gesenius, to cut off, to divide; 
and hence, to determine, to destine, to appoint. — " Commentary," Rev. 
Albert Barnes ( Presbyterian J, on Dan. 9:24, p. 372. New York: Leavitt 
and Allen, 1859. 

Note. — As the angel came to explain " the vision," — naturally the vision 
of the preceding chapter, of which the time period was the portion left unex- 
plained, — the only possible inference is that the period from which this 490 
years was to be " cut off," was the 2300 years of " the vision." Dan. 8 : 14. 
The two periods therefore begin together. Probably the failure in the past to 
connect the visions of these two chapters, was due to a faulty chronology, ac- 
cording to which the visions were separated by a period of fifteen years. It is 
now thought that the latter was given only a few months after the former. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, The Famous French Bishop of Meaux on Period. 
— In the reign of Cyaxeres, Daniel, already honored under the pre- 
ceding reigns with several heavenly visions, wherein he saw in manifest 
figures so many kings and empires pass before him, learned by a new 
revelation those seventy famous weeks, in which the times of Christ and 
the destiny of the Jewish people are unfolded. It was weeks of years, 
so that they contained 490. — " A Universal History,'" Jacques B. Bossuet, 
p. 39. London: T. Evans, 1778. 

Seventy Weeks, Artaxerxes' Commission to Ezra. — In the same 
year, and seventh of his reign, b. c. 457, he issued a decree, empowering 
Ezra, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, to go to Judea, with 
full powers to preside there in all ecclesiastical and civil concerns; to 
restore and enforce the law of Moses, to appoint magistrates and judges 
throughout the land, and to punish all transgressors of the law with con- 
fiscation of goods, banishment, or death. Ezra 7: 12-26. — "A New Analy- 
sis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. IV, 
p. 186. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

The only decree which was capable of any wider application than 
the temple merely, and the text of which is preserved to us in the his- 
toric records of Scripture, is the edict which was given to Ezra in the 
seventh year of Artaxerxes, or b. c. 457. This decree in its express 
terms provided not only for the embellishment of the temple, which had 
been completed since the sixth year of Darius, but also for the political 
organization and government of the nation. ... To it are to be referred 
not only all the reconstructive operations of Ezra, but those also of 
Nehemiah, who was furnished with subsequent authority by the same 
king in the spirit of his former decree. As far, therefore, as the sacred 
history of the Jews enables us to determine when the commandment 
went forth to restore and to build Jerusalem, there seems little doubt 
that we must refer it to the decree of the seventh year of Artaxerxes, of 
which the original Aramaic text is preserved to us in the book of Ezra. 
— " Old Testament Prophecy" Rev. Stanley Leathes, D. D., pp. 219, 220. 
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

Seventy Weeks, Decree of Artaxerxes. — The decree of Artaxerxes 
was of a different character. The temple was now built. So the decree 
contains no grant for its building, like those of Cyrus and Darius. 
Ezra thanks God that " He had put it into the king's heart, to beautify 
[not, to build] the house of the Lord in Jerusalem." On the other hand, 
the special commission of Ezra was " to inquire concerning Judah and 
Jerusalem, according to the law of thy God, which is in thy heart, and 
to set magistrates and judges, which may judge all the people that are 



SEVENTY WEEKS, CHRONOLOGY OF 555 

beyond the river." These magistrates had power of life and death, ban- 
ishment, confiscation, imprisonment, conferred upon them. It looks as 
if the people were in a state of disorganization. Ezra had full powers 
to settle it according to the law of his God, having absolute authority 
in ecclesiastical and civil matters. The little colony which he took with 
him, of 1,683 males (with women and children, some 8,400 souls) was 
itself a considerable addition to those who had before returned, and 
involved a rebuilding of Jerusalem. — "Daniel the 'Prophet," Rev. E. B. 
Pusey, D. D., Lecture 4, pp. 171, 172. London: Rivingtcns, 1868. 

Seventy Weeks, Month of Ezra's Restoration of Worship. — 'The 
seventh month, indeed, is not mentioned in the history, but it is almost 
a matter of course that the month of the Feast of Trumpets, of the Day 
of Atonement, and of the Feast of Tabernacles, would form the epoch 
of Ezra's restoration of the Mosaic worship and polity. — "A Treatise on 
the Chronology of the Holy Scriptures" Henry Browne, M. A., p. 381. 
London: John W. Parker, 1844. 

Seventy Weeks, The Commandment of Artaxerxes' Seventh Year. 
— It was, in fact, as Sir Isaac Newton, Pusey, Birks, and other high au- 
thorities have pointed out, a decree which was practically the restora- 
tion of the Jewish polity, and which involved the restoration of its 
metropolis. It seems evident that Ezra so regarded it, and we could 
wish no better authority, for in his prayer, recorded in Ezra 9:9, he 
thus expresses himself: "God hath not forsaken us in our bondage, but 
hath extended mercy to us in the sight of the king of Persia, to give us 
a reviving, to set up the house of our God, and to repair the ruins 
thereof, and to give us a wall [marg., fence] in Judah and Jerusalem." 
Moreover, this accounts for the disappointment of Nehemiah when, some 
thirteen years afterward, he learned, by inquiring from some Jews who 
had recently come from Jerusalem, that these hopes of the restoration 
of the capital had not yet been fulfilled, and that the walls and gates 
had not yet been repaired. This led to his being sent by Artaxerxes as 
a second special commissioner, to carry out more fully and completely 
that work of national " reviving " which had been initiated by Ezra. 
Wordsworth remarks that Nehemiah does not ask for a commission to 
build the city; he assumes that this had previously been given: and, as 
it remained unexecuted, he asks that he may go and execute it. — 
"Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 38. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks, Chronology of First Seven Weeks. — Ezra came 
to Jerusalem b. c. 457; he labored in restoring the Jewish polity, within 
and without, for thirteen years before Nehemiah was. sent by Artaxer- 
xes, b. c. 444. Nehemiah, as governor, labored together with Ezra for 
twelve years. . . . Then he returned to the king, and after an undefined 
time, "at the end of days" (Neh. 13: 6), he says, "obtained I leave of 
the king, and came to Jerusalem." The interval probably was not 
short. . . . The mention of Eliashib's son, Joiada, being high priest 
then, in place of his deceased father, fixes this second visit probably in 
the reign of Darius Nothus, in whose eleventh year Eliashib is said to 
have died (Chron. Alex., Olymp. 78, pp. 162, 163). . . . Now from the 
seventh year of Artaxerxes to the eleventh year of Darius Nothus are 45 
years. But it was in the period of the high priesthood of Joiada, not 
precisely in the very first year, that this reform took place. We have 
anyhow for the period of the two great restorers of the Jewish polity, 
Ezra and Nehemiah conjointly, a time somewhat exceeding forty-five 
years; so that we know that the restoration was completed in the latter 



556 SEVENTY WEEKS, CHRONOLOGY OF 

part of the seventh week of years, and it is probable that it was not 
closed until the end of it. — "Daniel the Prophet" Rev. E. B. Pusey, 
D. D., Lecture 4, pp. 174, 175. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Seventy Weeks, The Second Period of Sixty-two Weeks. — From 
these seven weeks, or forty-nine years, reckoning sixty-two weeks, or 
four hundred and thirty-four years more (which is the term of the 
second period), this will lead us down to the coming of Christ the 
Messiah, who is here in the prophecy predicted to come at the end of 
the said sixty-two weeks. For the words of the prophecy are, " From 
the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build Jerusalem 
unto the Messiah the Prince, shall be seven weeks and threescore and 
two weeks; " that is, there shall be seven weeks for the completing and 
finishing of the work for which that commandment or decree was 
granted, and from thence sixty-two weeks more to the coming of Christ 
the Messiah here intended, that is, to the time of his first appearance on 
the ministry of the gospel. — "An Historical Connection of the Old and 
New Testaments," Humphrey Prideaux, D. D., revised, (2 vol. ed.) 
Vol. I, p. 256. London: William Tegg & Co., 1858. 

Seventy Weeks, Prophecy and History Correspond. — This rebuild- 
ing of the city and reorganization of the polity, begun by Ezra and car- 
ried on and perfected by Nehemiah, corresponds with the words in Dan- 
iel, " From the going forth of a commandment to restore and to build 
Jerusalem." 

The term also corresponds. Unto " Messiah the Prince," shall be 
" seven weeks and threescore and two weeks," i. e., the first 483 years of 
the period, the last seven being parted off. But 483 years from the 
beginning of b. c. 457 were completed at the beginning of 27 a. d., which 
(since the nativity was four years earlier than our era) would coincide 
with his baptism, " being about thirty years of age," when the descent 
of the Holy Ghost upon him manifested him to be " the anointed with 
the Holy Ghost, the Christ." — " Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, 
D. D., Lecture 4, p. 172. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Note. — It should be borne in mind that the commandment to restore did 
not go forth at the beginning of b. c. 457, but well on into that year. Hence the 
expiration of the 483 years would be well on into a. d. 27. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, "The Anointed," "The Prince." — Christ did come 
forth at the time of his baptism in just this twofold character. John 
the Baptist — the herald who went before the King — thus speaks, in a 
manner exactly corresponding to this prophecy in Daniel: "The king- 
dom of heaven is at hand [i. e., in the sense of the king presenting him- 
self to the nation for acceptance]. . . . There cometh One mightier than 
I after me." Then follows the scene of Christ's baptism, and his official 
anointing by the Holy Ghost visibly descending upon him. Anointing 
was the rite appointed for the official inauguration of priests and kings. 
Thus Aaron and his descendants were anointed as high priests. Simi- 
larly Saul and David were anointed as kings by having oil poured over 
their heads, and were afterward spoken of as " the Lord's anointed." 
Hence it is evident that the descent of the Holy Ghost upon Christ, 
when he entered upon his public career at his baptism by John, consti- 
tuted the official anointing of him who was both Priest and King in one 
person. — " Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 40. 
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks, Date or John the Baptist's Appearance. — The 
fifteenth year, therefore, of the reign of Tiberius (Luke 3: 1), in which 



SEVENTY WEEKS, TIBERIUS 557 

John the Baptist began to preach, must he reckoned from that time 
when he began to reign jointly with Augustus. . . . And this happened, 
as the most learned Archbishop Usher observes, in the year of the Julian 
period 4725 [a. d. 12]; and the fifteenth year from thence brings us to 
the year of the Julian period 4739 [a. d. 26], in which (as is above 
noted) the word of God came to John the Baptist, and the preach- 
ing of the gospel first began. And then it was that Christ, by this his 
forerunner, manifested his coming, and made his first appearance in that 
great work of our salvation on which he was sent. And from the sev- 
enth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, when the commandment went 
forth from that king for the restoring of the church and state of the 
Jews, to this time, were just seven weeks and sixty-two weeks, that is, 
sixty-nine weeks, or four hundred and eighty-three years in all, exactly 
as this prophecy predicted. — "An Historical Connection of the Old and 
New Testaments" Humphrey Prideaux, D. D., revised, (2 vol. ed.J 
Vol. I, p. 257. London: William Tegg & Co., 1858. 

Note. — Accurately, the fifteenth year of Tiberius was at the earliest, from 
the latter part of a. d. 26 to the latter part of a. d. 27, in which came John the 
Baptist. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Roman Historians on Tibeeius' First Year. — 
Augustus, because he was growing old, wrote a letter commending Ger- 
manicus to the senate and the latter to Tiberius. — Under "A. U. 765, 
A. D. 12," marginal dates, "History of Rome," Gassius Bio (wrote 
A. D. 210-229), translated by Herbert Baldwin Foster, book 56, chap. 26. 
Troy, N. Y.: Pafraefs Book Company, 1905. 

Note. — The less is blessed of the greater ; so Germanicus was commended to 
the senate, but the senate to Tiberius, suggesting that Tiberius was recognized 
as having imperial authority in a. d. 12. — Eds. 

At the desire of Augustus there was a law passed by the senate and 
people of Rome, that Tiberius might have equal power with him in all 
the provinces and armies. — Yelleius Paterculus (who lived under Au- 
gustus and Tiberius), lib. 2, cap. 121; cited in " The Works of Lardner," 
Vol. I, p. 374. 

A law having been . . . carried by the consuls for his [Tiberius'] 
being appointed a colleague with Augustus in the administration of 
the provinces, and in taking the census. — " The Lives of the Twelve 
Cwsars," C. Suetonius Tranquillus, translated by Alexander Thomson, 
M. D., p. 206. London: George Bell & Sons, 1887. 

Tiberius Nero was the only survivor of his [Augustus's] stepsons. 
On him every honor was accumulated (to that quarter all things in- 
clined) ; he was by Augustus adopted for his son, assumed colleague in 
the empire, partner in the tribunitian authority, and presented to the 
several armies; not from the secret machinations of his mother, as 
heretofore, but at her open suit. For over Augustus, now very aged, she 
had obtained such absolute sway that he banished into the isle of Plan- 
asia his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Posthumus. — " The Works 
of Tacitus," book 1, chap. 3 (Vol. I, pp. 3, 4). New York: Harper & 
Brothers, 1863. 

Seventy Weeks, The Witness of the Coins of Tiberius. — From 
the evidence of coins struck at this date it is shown that it was cus- 
tomary to regard Tiberius's reign as beginning a. d. 12, or a. u. c. 765. — 
"A Dictionary of the Bible," James Hastings, M. A., D. D., Vol. IV, 
art. "Tiberius," p. 760. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1898. 



558 SEVENTY WEEKS, PILATE 

There are coins from Antioch in Syria of the date a. u. 765, with 
the head of Tiberius and the inscription, Kal<rap Se/3a<rT6s [Eaisar Se- 
bastos~\ (Augustus). — "History of the Christian Church,'" Philip S chaff, 
D. D., (7 vol. ed.) Vol. I, p. 120, footnote. New York: Charles Scribner's 
Sons, 1893. 

Notes. — The events of a. d. 12 are so full that some authorities fix upon a. d. 
13 as the year in which Tiberius was made imperial colleague. But the history 
and the dated coins are proofs that a. d. 12 is the year, though evidently the 
latter part. The first year of Tiberius would therefore be from the latter part 
of a. d. 12 to the latter part of a. d. 13 ; and his fifteenth year would be from the 
latter part of a. d. 26 to the latter part of a. d. 27. — Eds. 

In referring to dates after the founding of Rome, some writers use the 
letters A. U. (anno urbis, in the year of the city), while others use A. U. C. (anno 
urbis conditw, in the year of the founding of the city). The two abbreviations 
have the same general meaning. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Recognition of Tiberius (a. d. 12), Shown Other- 
wise. — While a young soldier in the camp, he [Tiberius] was so re- 
markable for his excessive inclination to wine, that, for Tiberius, they 
called him Biberius; for Claudius, Caldius; and for Nero, Mero. And 
after he succeeded to the empire, and was invested with the office of 
reforming the morality of the people, he spent a whole night and two 
days together in feasting and drinking with Pomponius Flaccus and 
Lucius Piso; to one of whom he immediately gave the province of 
Syria, and to the other the prefecture of the city. — " The Lives of the 
Twelve Ca'sars," C. Suetonius Tranquillus, " Tiberius,''' chap. 42, trans- 
lated by Alexander Thomson, M. D., p. 218. London: George Bell & Sons, 
1887. 

About the same time [consulate of Domitius and Camillus, a. d. 32] 
died Lucius Piso, the Pontiff. . . . Messala Corvinus was the first in- 
vested with this authority, and in a few days dismissed, as a man in- 
competent to discharge it. It was then filled by Taurus Statilius, who, 
though very aged, sustained it with signal honor. After him, Piso held 
it for twenty years, with equal credit; so that he was distinguished with 
a public funeral, by a decree of the senate. — " The Works of Tacitus" 
book 6, chaps. 10, 11 (Vol. I, pp. 219, 220). New York: Harper & 
Brothers, 1863. 

Note. — Lardner ("Works," Vol. I, p. 376) shows that the consulate of 
Camillus and Domitius was the year a. u. c. 785, or a. d. 32. Piso was appointed 
by Tiberius when " prince," and died in a. d. 32, after twenty years in office. 
Therefore his appointment (32 less 20) was in a. d. 12, showing that Tiberius 
was then recognized as " prince," of royal honor. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, "Pilate Being Governor of Judea " (Luke 3: 1). 
— The Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that 
had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused 
Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not 
go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the 
violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take 
care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer 
before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he 
had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedi- 
ence to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before 
he could get to Rome, Tiberius was dead. — Josephus, " Antiquities of the 
Jews," Whiston's translation, book 18, chap. 4, par. 2. Philadelphia: The 
John C. Winston Company. 

Tiberius died March 26, a. d. 37; and Pilate might be out of 
his office a month or six weeks before, suppose it was February; from 



SEVENTY WEEKS, END OF 559 

thence we must count ten years backward for the beginning of Pilate's 
government, which will therefore fall into February, a. d. 27. — " Short 
View of the Harmony of the Four Evangelists," William Whiston, M. A., 
p. 139; cited in " The Works of Lardner" Vol. I, p. 393. 

Pilate was procurator of Judaea, in succession to Gratus, and he 
held office for ten years. Josephus tells ("Antiquities," book 18, chap. 
4, par. 2) that he ruled for ten years; that he was removed from office 
by Vitellius, the legate of Syria, and traveled in haste to Rome to 
defend himself before Tiberius against certain complaints. Before he 
reached Rome the emperor had passed away. Josephus adds that Vi- 
tellius came in the year 36 a. d. to Judaea to be present at Jerusalem at 
the time of the Passover. It has been assumed by most authorities that 
Pilate had departed before this visit of Vitellius. They accordingly 
date the procuratorship of Pilate as lasting from 26 to 36 a. d. As 
against this view, Von Dobschutz points out that by this reckoning 
Pilate must have taken at least a year to get to Rome; for Tiberius died 
on March 16, 37 a. d. Such delay is inconceivable in view of the cir- 
cumstances; hence Von Dobschutz rightly dates the period of his proc- 
uratorship 27-37 a. d. — The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 
edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. IV, art. " Pilate," sec. 2, p. 2396. 

Note. — Thus in the case of Pilate, the evidence points to early a. d. 27 as 
the beginning of his governorship, at the earliest, the very last of A. d. 26. 
Accused of murder to Caesar, and sent to answer at Rome, Josephus says he 
" made haste," as well he might. Yet he had not reached Rome March 16, a. d. 
37, when Tiberius died. The natural inference is that he started early in the 
year, and that his ten years in Judea, therefore, began early in a. d. 27. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, " The Time is Fulfilled." — We have our Lord's 
own testimony to show that his entrance upon his official career was the 
time when this prophecy of Daniel concerning the appearance of the 
Anointed, the Prince, was fulfilled; for when he began his ministry, we 
are told that the burden of his preaching was, " The time is fulfilled. 
The kingdom of God is at hand," in the sense that the Prince was then 
offering himself to his people, as already explained. That our Lord, in 
thus speaking of " the time," referred to the term of 69 weeks foretold in 
this prophecy as reaching " unto the Messiah, the Prince," is recognized 
in our reference Bibles, and has been pointed out by the ablest com- 
mentators. — " Daniel and the Revelation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., 
p. 41. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1898. 

Note. — It is suggestive that the year of John's proclamation was a Sab- 
batical year, when the land had rest. "The year from Tishri (Autumn) 779 
[a. d. 26] to Tishri 780 [a. d. 27] was a sabbatic year." — Edersheim's "Life and 
Times of Jesus the Messiah/' book 2, chap. 12 (Vol. I, p. 278), 8th edition, 
footnote. On the stillness of the year, when more Jews were free to gather 
and to listen, broke the voice of one crying in the wilderness, " Prepare ye 
the way of the Lord." — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks', Catholic Bishopon Last Week. — In the fifteenth 
year of Tiberius, St. John Baptist appears; Jesus Christ receives bap- 
tism from that divine harbinger; the eternal Father acknowledges his 
well-beloved Son by a voice from heaven; the Holy Ghost descends upon 
the Saviour, under the harmless figure of a dove: the whole Trinity 
manifests itself. There begins, with the seventieth week of Daniel, 
the preaching of Jesus Christ. This last week was the most important 
and the most noted. Daniel had distinguished it from the rest, as the 
week wherein the covenant was to be confirmed, and in the middle of 
which the old sacrifices were to lose their efficacy. We may call it 
the week of mysteries. In it Jesus Christ establishes his mission and 
doctrine by numberless miracles, and afterward by his death. This 



560 SEVENTY WEEKS, THE HALF WEEK 

happened in the fourth year of his ministry, which was also the fourth 
year of the last week of Daniel; and after this manner is that great week 
found exactly intersected hy the suffering of our Saviour. — "A Universal 
History," Jacques B. Bossuet, p. 96. London: T. Evans, 1778. 

Seventy Weeks, The Midst of the Week. — It seems to me abso- 
lutely certain that our Lord's ministry lasted for some period above 
three years. For St. John mentions by name three Passovers (John 
2: 13; 6: 4, and the last); and St. Matthew's mention of the disciples' 
rubbing the ears of corn (Matt. 12: 1 sqq.) relates to a time near upon 
a Passover, later than the first (for John had been cast into prison, 
Matt. 11: 2), yet earlier than the last but one, for it preceded the feed- 
ing of the 5,000, which itself preceded that Passover (Matt. 14: 15; 
John 6: 4-10 ).i This bears out the opinion, which is in itself nearly cer- 
tain, that the intermediate feast, mentioned by St. John, is the Passover 
(John 5:1). Our Lord's parable of the fig tree virtually asserts that a 
period of some three years of special culture of God's people had pre- 
ceded. " Behold, these three years I come seeking fruit on this fig tree 
and find none; " and that one year remained, "let it alone this year 
also." The cursing .of the barren fig tree and its instant withering, 
just before his Passion and the final pronunciation of its sentence, 
seems to be the symbolical declaration that that year of respite was 
over, and its doom was fixed. — " Daniel the Prophet," Rev. E. B. Pusey, 
D. D., Lecture 4, pp. 176, 177, 2d edition. London: Rivingtons, 1868. 

Note. — In the form of a table, Dr. Hales outlines the events between the 
first and last Passovers of Christ's ministry : 

A. D. 

I. Passover 28 

Christ purges the temple — Opens his ministry in Judea — John 
imprisoned by Herod Antipas — Christ's ministry in Galilee — 
Sermon on the Mount. 

II. Passover 29 

12 Apostles sent to proclaim Christ — John beheaded. 

III. Passover 30 

70 Disciples sent to proclaim Christ — Christ's transfiguration. 

IV. Passover 3] 

Christ's crucifixion, resurrection, ascension. 
— "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," Rev. William Hales, 
D. D.j, Vol. Ill, p. 2. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. — Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Eusebius on the Half Week. — It is recorded in 
history, that the whole time of our Saviour's teaching and working mir- 
acles was three years and a half, which is the half of a week [of years]. 
This John the Evangelist will represent to those who critically attend 
to his Gospel. . . . Moreover, " in the half of this one week," in which 
he confirmed the covenant disclosed to the many, " was the sacrifice 
taken away," and the libation, and " the abomination of desolation " 
began; since, in the midst of this week, after the three years and half 
of his teaching, at the time of his Passion, " the veil of the temple was 
rent from top to bottom; " so that from that time, -the libation and the 
sacrifice was virtually taken away from them, and the abomination of 
desolation began to take place in the temple, that tutelary power which 
watched over and guarded the [holy] place from the beginning to that 
season, leaving them desolate. — " Demonstratio Evangelica," Eusebius 
(A. D. 300), p. 400; cited in "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geog- 
raphy," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. I, pp. 94, 95. London: G. J. G. & 
F. Rivington, 1830. 

1 Siisskind brought out the argument (in Bengel's Archiv. 1. 186-194), and 
observed that, even if the corn were ripe before the Passover, it would not have 
been ripe some weeks before it, yet the history in St. Matthew 12 must have beeD 
at least some weeks before that in St. Matthew 14, which was itself before the 
Passover. 



SEVENTY WEEKS, KNOWN TO THE JEWS 561 

Seventy Weeks, Secondary Evidence on Date of Christ's First 
Passover. — And now Herod, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and 
after the acts already mentioned, undertook a very great work, that is, 

to build of himself the temple of God. — Josephus, "Antiquities of the 
Jews," Whiston's translation, book 15, chap. 11, par. 1. Philadelphia: The 
John C. Winston Company. 

Herod made this proposal to a general assembly of the people, in 
the eighteenth year of his reign, probably at the Passover, b. c. 19, but 
they were startled thereat, apprehending that when he had pulled down 
the old temple, he might not be able nor willing to build the new; he 
therefore promised them that he would not attempt to demolish the pres- 
ent, until he had provided all the materials for immediately rebuilding 
it. And he kept his word; for he employed a thousand carts to draw 
stones and materials, ten thousand of the most skilful workmen, and a 
thousand priests, whom he had instructed to be masons and carpenters; 
and, after two years' preparation, pulled down the old temple, and began 
the new, in the twentieth year of his reign, b. c. 17. . . . 

This determines the date of our Lord's first Passover, a. d. 28, 
which was forty-five years complete, or the forty-sixth current, from the 
foundation of the temple, b. c. 17. And leads us to an emendation of 
the English translation of John 2: 20: "Forty and six years hath this 
temple been in building [and is not finished yet], and wilt thou erect it 
in three days?" For such is the proper. rendering of the Greek aorist, 
(^Kodo/jL-ridr) [okodomethe"]. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geogra- 
phy," Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 601. London: G. J. G. & 
F. Rivington, 1830. 

Seventy Weeks, Jewish Authorities on the Sacrifices Ceasing. 
— Rabbi Phineas, Rabbi Levi, and Rabbi Jochanan, from the authority of 
Rabbi Menachem of Galilee, said, " In the time of the Messiah all sac- 
rifices, except the sacrifice of praise, shall cease." — Rabbi Tanchum, 
Vol. LV; cited in " A Commentary and Critical Notes," Adam Clarke, 
LL. D., on Heb. 13:15. New York: Lane and Scott, 1851. 

Seventy Weeks, The Temple Left Desolate. — Goode (Warb. Lect., 
pp. 304-7) also quotes the remarkable Jewish tradition that "for forty 
years before the destruction of Jerusalem," a. d. 70, i. e., from the day 
of atonement after the crucifixion, what they held to be a sign of 
acceptance, never took place. (See Rosh. hashanah, p. 31; in Lightfoot, 
min. tempi., c. 15, Opp. i. 746, 2d. ed.) — "Daniel the Prophet" Rev. E. B. 
Pusey, D. D., Lecture 4, p. 172, footnote, 3d edition. London: Riving- 
tons, 1868. 

Seventy Weeks, The Time Known to the Jews. — Daniel's weeks 
had so clearly defined the time of the true Messias, his coming, that the 
minds of the whole nation were raised into the expectation of him. 
Hence it was doubted of the Baptist, whether he were not the Messias. 
Luke 3: 15. Hence it was that the Jews were gathered together from all 
countries unto Jerusalem (Acts 2), expecting, and coming to see, because 
at that time the term of revealing the Messias, that had been prefixed by 
Daniel, was come. Hence it was that there was so great a number of 
false Christs (Matt. 24: 5, etc.), taking the occasion of their impostures 
hence, that now the time of that great expectation was at hand, and ful- 
filled: and in one word, " They thought the kingdom of God should pres- 
ently appear." Luke 19: 11. " But when those times of expectation were 
past, nor did such a Messias appear as they expected (for when they 
saw the true Messias, they would not see him), they first broke out into 
36 



562 SEVENTY WEEKS, CLOSE OF 

various, and those wild, conjectures of the time; and at length, all 
those conjectures coming to nothing, all ended in this curse (the just 
cause of their eternal blindness), [gives Hebrew] "May their soul be 
confounded, who compute the times!" — John Lightfoot; cited in 
Clarke's Commentary, on Matthew 2, edition 1834. 

Note. — As the time drew near, the joyful expectation of the Messiah stirred 
the hearts of the Jewish people. In a work, " Psalms of Solomon," composed 
from about b. c. 70 to 40, it was written, as cited in " The New Archeological 
Discoveries and the New Testament," Cobern, p. 612 : 

" Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the Son of David. . . . 
He shall have the heathen nations to serve him under his yoke. . . . Nations 
shall come from the ends of the earth to see his glory. . . . All nations shall 
be in fear before him. . . . For God will make him mighty by means of his 
Holy Spirit."— Eds. 

Seventy Weeks, Close of Last Week. — The one week, or Passion 
week, in the midst of which our Lord was crucified, a. d. 31, began with 
his public ministry, a. d. 28, and ended with the martyrdom of 
Stephen, a. d. 34. — " A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," 
Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 518. London: C. J. G. & F. Riv- 
ington, 1830. 

Note. — The usual time from which to reckon the ministry of our Lord is 
A. D. 27, when he was baptized, although it may be that his strictly public min- 
istry began later. — Eds. 

Eusebius dates the first half of the Passion week of years as begin- 
ning with our Lord's baptism, and ending with his crucifixion. The 
same period precisely is recorded by Peter, as including the duration of 
our Lord's personal ministry: "All the time that the Lord Jesus went 
in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of (or by) John, 
until the day that he was taken up from us," at his ascension, which 
was only 43 days after the crucifixion. Acts 1: 21, 22. And the re- 
maining half of the Passion week ended with the martyrdom of Ste- 
phen, in the seventh or last year of the week. For it is remarkable, 
that the year after, a. d. 35, began a new era in the church, namely, 
the conversion of Saul, or Paul, the apostle, by the personal appearance 
of Christ to him on the road to Damascus, when he received his mission 
to the Gentiles, after the Jewish Sanhedrin had formally rejected 
Christ by persecuting his disciples. Acts 9: 1-18. And the remainder 
of the Acts principally records the circumstances of his mission to the 
Gentiles, and the churches he founded among them. — Id., Vol. I, p. 100. 

The number seven implies completion, and the completion of the 
term of probation of the Jewish nation in possession of their city and 
temple, and also the complete establishment of the Christian church 
in the Gentile world, may be said to have been accomplished during 
the few years that elapsed between the cutting off of the Messiah and 
the martyrdom of Stephen. There are no certain data for fixing posi- 
tively the time of Stephen's death, but it is admitted to have taken 
place within a few years after the crucifixion. The three and a half 
years therefore of respite to the Jewish nation after the perpetration 
of their great crime, — the period during which the door of national re- 
pentance and forgiveness, ere the sentence of judgment should be ir- 
revocably pronounced, was still left open, — may fitly be taken as the 
epoch which marked the close of the 490 years. — " Daniel and the Reve- 
lation," Rev. Joseph Tanner, B. A., p. 64. London: Hodder and StougJi- 
ton, 1898. 

Seventy Weeks.— Page 629. 



SEVENTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY 563 



Seventy Years' Captivity in Babylon. — The seventy years of the 
captivity, during which the land lay waste and " enjoyed its sabbaths," 
may be counted from different dates. In this place the year of the final 
destruction of Jerusalem seems to be taken as the terminus a quo. 
This was b. c. 586, the nineteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 25: 
3-8; Jer. 52: 6-12), and the passage would therefore seem to point to 
b. c. 516 as the termination of the captivity period. Now b. c, 516, the 
sixth of Darius Hystaspis, was, in fact, the close of the period of depres- 
sion and desolation, so far as the temple was concerned. Ezra 6: 15. 
But the personal captivity, the desolation of the land through loss of 
inhabitants, both began and ended earlier. Jeremiah evidently intended 
his " seventy years " to count from the first capture of Jerusalem by 
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 25:1-12), which was in b. c. 605; and Daniel 
must have counted from the same date when he felt, in b. c. 538, that 
the time of release was approaching (Dan. 9:2). It is questionable, 
however, whether the full term of the prophetic announcement, thus 
understood, was actually reached. If Nebuchadnezzar carried away his 
first captives from Jerusalem in b. c. 605, and Cyrus issued his edict for 
the return in his first year (2 Chron. 36: 22; Ezra 1:1), which was 
b. c. 538, the seventieth year had certainly not then commenced. Even 
if the captives did not take immediate advantage of the edict, but made 
the journey from Babylonia to Palestine in the year following the proc- 
lamation, b. c. 537, which is not improbable, still the captivity had not 
endured seventy years, but only sixty-eight. It is usual to meet the 
difficulty by the supposition that the first year of Cyrus in Scripture is 
really the third year from his conquest of Babylon, Darius the Mede 
having been viceroy of Babylon under Cyrus. during the first two years 
after the conquest. This is, no doubt, a possible explanation. But it is 
perhaps as probable that the round number " seventy," in the prophecy 
of Jeremiah, was not intended to be exact, but approximate, and that 
the actual duration of the captivity fell short by a year or two of the 
threatened period. — " Egypt and Babylon," George Raiolinson, M. A., 
pp. 30, 31. New York: John B. Alden, 1885. 

There were two periods of seventy years which had to be fulfilled 
by the captivity of Judah: (1) The seventy years' servitude (Jer. 29: 
10), which dated, not from their deportation to Babylon as captives, but 
from their subjection to the suzerainty of Babylon. The servitude be- 
gan (in the reign of Nabopolassar) the third year of Jehoiakim, b. c. 
606-605. It ended in b. c. 536, when Cyrus issued his decree. (2) The 
seventy years' desolations (Jer. 25: 11) began in the ninth year of 
Zedekiah (in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar), and lasted till the second 
year of Darius — the exact date being given in Haggai 2 : 18, 19. — " The 
Bible and the British Museum," Ada R. Habershon, p. 83. London: 
Morgan and Scott, 1909. 

Showbread. — Our term " showbread " is a translation of that used 
by Luther fSchaubrod), which, in turn, may have been taken from the 
Vulgate (panes prwpositionis). The Scriptural name is " bread of the 
face; " that is, " of the presence of God," just as the similar expression, 
" angel of the face," means the " angel of his presence." Prom its con- 
stant presence and disposition in the sanctuary, it is also called "per- 
petual bread" and "bread of laying out" (set in order), which latter 
most nearly corresponds to the term used in the New Testament. The 
placing and weekly renewal of the " bread of the presence " was evi- 
dently among the principal temple services. The " table of showbread " 
stood along the northern or most sacred side of the holy place, being 



564 SHOWBREAD, MEANING OF 

ranged lengthways of the temple, as all its furniture was, except the ark 
of the covenant, which stood broadways. — " The Temple, Its Ministry 
and Services, as They Were at the Time of Jesus Christ," Rev. Dr. Eder- 
sheim, pp. 152, 153. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

Showbread, Symbolical Meaning of. — The title " bread of the 
face " seems to indicate that bread through which God is seen, that 
is, with the participation of which the seeing of God is bound up, or 
through the participation off which man attains the sight of God; 
whence it follows that we have not to think of bread merely as such, 
as the means of nourishing the bodily life, but as spiritual food, as a 
means of appropriating and retaining that life which consists in see- 
ing the face of God. — "A Dictionary of the Bible," William Smith, 
LL. D., art. " Showbreud," p. 619, Teacher's edition. Philadelphia: 
Porter and Coates, copyright 1884. 

Signs of the Times, Increase of Wealth. — Million-dollar incomes 
are almost as numerous now as were million-dollar fortunes not more 
than two generations ago. We have millionaires in a new sense: those 
whose annual returns — not whose whole fortunes — equal or exceed a 
million dollars. . . . 

" There were not five men in the United States worth as much as 
five million dollars each twenty years before the Civil War," says a 
historical writer; " and there were not more than twenty millionaires, 
all told. When the war was over, they had increased by hundreds, and 
there were several men with twenty million dollars apiece." — Albert 
W. Atwood,,in Saturday Evening Post, June 24, 1916, p. 12. 

On one hand, it can be shown that the richest two per cent of the 
people own sixty per cent of the wealth; that the poorest sixty-five per 
cent of the people own but five per cent of the wealth; and that one or 
two men are as rich as several million of their fellow countrymen. — 
Ibid. 

Signs of the Times, Justice Brewer on Capital and Labor. — A 
capital combine may, as is claimed, produce better, cheaper, and more 
satisfactory results; . . . but too often the combine is not content with 
the voluntary co-operation of such as choose to join. It grasps at 
monopoly, and seeks to crush out all competition. If any individual 
prefers his independent business, however small, and refuses to join the 
combine, it proceeds to assail that business. ... It thus crushes or 
swallows the individual, and he is assaulted as though he were an 
outlaw. 

So it is with organizations of labor; the leaders order a strike; the 
organization throws down its tools and ceases to work. No individual 
member dare say, " I have a family to support; I prefer to work," but 
is forced to go with the general body. . . . 

Are we going to drift along until this contest ends in a bloody 
struggle? Must our children pay for securing the real liberty of each 
individual the price that the nation paid a score of years ago to abolish 
human slavery? — David Brewer, Justice of the Supreme Court; cited in 
"■ The Laborer and the Capitalist," Freeman Otis Willey, pp. 27, 28. 
New York: Equitable Publishing Company. 

Note. — The prophecy of James 5 foretold just this condition, warning both 
the capitalist and the laborer that the day of God is at hand. — Eds. 

Signs of the Times, Strikes and Lockouts in America. — Since 
1880 statistics of strikes and lockouts occurring in the United States 



SIGNS OF THE TIMES, SYNDICALISM 565 

have been collected by the United States Bureau of Labor. . . . During 
the period of twenty-five years [1881-1905] there were 36,757 strikes and 
1,546 lockouts in the United States, making a total of 38,303 disturbances 
of this character, not including disturbances of less than one day's dura- 
tion. Strikes occurred in 181,407 establishments and lockouts in 18,547 
establishments, making a total of 199,954 establishments affected. The 
total number of persons who went out on strike during the period was 
6,728,048 and the number of persons locked out was 716,231, making a 
total of 7,444,279 persons striking or locked out. — Nelson's Encyclopedia, 
Vol. XI, art. " Strikes and Lockouts," p. 499 A. 

Note. — As shown by the tenth census, there were in 1880 only 610 reported 
strikes and lockouts in the entire United States, while for the five years ending 
1905, the average was 2,792.8, or an increase of more than 457 per cent, while 
the increase in population was only about 50 per cent. — Eds. 

Signs of the Times, Growth of Social Discontent. — Fifty years 
ago there was scarcely a voice of protest; indeed, there was hardly any- 
thing to protest against. Twenty-five years ago the protest was clear 
and distinct, and we understood it. Ten years ago the protest found 
expression in a dozen weekly publications, but today the protest is cir- 
culated, not by hundreds or thousands of printed copies of books, pam- 
phlets, magazines, and newspapers, but actually by the million. . . . 

The warnings that hundreds of us are uttering may be ignored. 
The squandering may go on, the vulgar bacchanalia may be prolonged, 
the poor may have to writhe under the iron heel of the iron lord — the 
dance of death may go on until society's " E " string snaps, and then 
the Vesuvius of the underworld will belch forth its lava of death and 
destruction. . . . 

This is not the voice of a pessimist. It is the voice of one who 
finds himself a part of that which he condemns; of one who would avert 
the catastrophe that, unless we change our ways, will come and come as 
inevitably as comes night after day! — " The Morality of the Idle Rich," 
Frederick Townsend Martin, in Hearst's Magazine (New* York), Sep- 
tember, 1913, pp. 334-336. 

Signs of the Times, Syndicalism, a New Symptom of Industrial 
Unrest. — Syndicalism was born of the growing differences and contro- 
versies within labor and trade unions. The first symptoms appeared in 
France [about 1902], whence the doctrine soon spread to Italy, to Eng- 
land, and thence to America. Syndicalism is antagonistic to govern- 
ment, to existing labor unions, and to capital alike, and is even designed 
to supplant socialism. . . . 

Syndicalism demands that social revolution come through labor 
unions in order to abolish capitalism, whereas socialists expect to work 
reform by political agitation through parliamentary majorities. . . . 

Prior to the war France had approximately 600,000 avowed syndi- 
calists. Agricultural Italy was a veritable hotbed of syndicalism. Or- 
ganized farm laborers controlled over 200,000 acres of tillable land, 
which was farmed on the co-operative plan, and the entire Italian rail- 
way system was under the influence of advanced syndicalism. 

At a conference of syndicalists held in England in November, 1910, 
60,000 professed followers attended, since which date their doctrine has 
spread considerably, especially among the more intelligent of the indus- 
trial workers. 

Here in America syndicalism first showed its head during the labor 
troubles at Lawrence, Mass., under direction of the Industrial Workers 
of the World [1912].—" The World Almanac and Encyclopedia" 1917, 
p. 189. 



566 SOJOURNING OF ISRAEL 

Signs of the Times, Famine in Russia. — Russia has begun the year 
1922 with eight months of unspeakable horror before her and the terrible 
dread that next summer's crops may only slightly relieve the gnawing 
famine. 

At Tsaratsin, Saratoff, Samara, Ufa, Orenburg, and Kazan, frozen 
bodies are stacked high awaiting burial in trenches which workmen can- 
not prepare fast enough for the victims of famine, exposure, and typhus, 
and every day the situation is growing worse. 

American relief workers, who originally cautiously placed the num- 
ber of probable deaths in the famine area this winter at 2,000,000, now 
say that 5,000,000 is a low estimate, and many say the number may reach 
10,000,000, or even more. ' This is possible particularly since the shortage 
of horses, oxen, and camels makes it impossible to reach the more remote 
sections, and since it is predicted the typhus epidemic probably will be 
the worst that Russia has ever suffered. 

The Americans are feeding nearly 1,000,000 children, and the British 
and various other organizations are furnishing nourishment for at least 
100,000 under the most dangerous conditions. — Associated Press dispatch 
from Moscow, under date of Jan. 5, 1922 ; printed in the Washington 
(D. G.J Star of the same date. 

Signs of the Times.— Pages 15, 128-136, 150-153, 175-179, 248-253, 
568-571. 

Sojourning of Israel. — There are two reckonings of the sojourning, 
one starting from the "promise" to Abraham (Ex. 12: 40; Gal. 3: 14, 
17) =430 years; the other, starting from the recognition of his "seed" 
(Isaac) (Gen. 21: 12. See Acts 7: 6 and Gen. 15: 13) —400 years. . . . 

This dwelling in Egypt was only 215 years; and is to be distin- 
guished from the " sojourning," which was another 215 years. — " The 
Companion Bible" Part I, " The Pentateuch, " p. 90. London: Oxford 
University Press. 

Sojourning of Israel, Length of. — In Genesis 15: 12-17 God de- 
clares to Abraham that his seed should be a stranger in the land that 
is not theirs, and should serve them, and they should afflict them 400 
years; but that in the fourth generation they should return again. 
In Exodus 12: 40 it is said, "Now the sojourning of the children of 
Israel who dwelt in Egypt was 430 years." On these two passages Bun- 
sen remarks that, " taken literally, they do not agree, and therefore 
are not strictly chronological." " In the first case," he says, " we could 
not, from the outset, expect any strictly chonological date, for none 
such can be based upon a prophetic announcement." With regard to 
the second, which alone we propose to examine, he thinks that the 
number 430 arose in this way: From the genealogy of the three first 
patriarchs, we find that the earlier sojourn in Canaan amounted to 
215 years; and as for the period of the sojourn in Egypt, there existed 
neither historical chronology nor even history; these 215 years were 
doubled to express the time of the sojourn in Egypt, and to intimate 
that it was of far longer duration than the sojourn in Canaan. 

We do not pause to inquire whether such statements can be recon- 
ciled with any doctrine regarding the inspiration of Scripture, but, tak- 
ing them as we find them, we proceed to test them by an examination 
of what collateral evidence we can gather from other passages of Scrip- 
ture. Bunsen was probably biased by his views of the parallel chro- 
nology of ancient Egypt; but, as in the chapter we are examining he 
rests the case entirely on the statements of Scripture, it is to these 
alone that the appeal now lies. 



SOJOURNING OF ISRAEL 56 7 



First of all, let us notice that the unanimous voice of Jewish tra- 
dition ascribes the 430 years, not to the sojourn in Egypt, but to the so- 
journs in Egypt and in Canaan taken together; and that the Septua^int 
and the Samaritan Pentateuch have embodied this view in their render- 
ing of Exodus 12: 40. It has also the authority of the apostle Paul, who, 
in the epistle to the Galatians, describes the law as being 430 years after 
the promise. 

But it is impossible to believe, we are told by Bunsen, that it could 
naturally happen that this period should be exactly bisected by Jacob's 
descent into Egypt, so that 215 years should be assigned to each of the 
two sojournings before and after that event. And why so? Does not the 
later history of the Jewish nation abound in similar apparently arti- 
ficial periods? Have we not the 70 years of captivity, and the 70 weeks 
of Daniel's vision? Is it not possible to conceive that God may have 
had some purpose in thus arranging the times and seasons; and is not 
this possibility worthy of being taken into account by science? 

But what say the genealogies? We affirm that they are wholly in 
favor of the supposition that the sojourn in. Egypt only extended to 215 
years. The main basis of calculation is the genealogy from Levi to 
Aaron. (Ex. 6: 16, seqq.) 

Levi died at the age of 137. 
Kohath died at the age of 133. 
Amram died at the age of 137. 

Moses was eighty-three years old, and Aaron eighty years old, at 
the exodus. 

Now Levi was born when Jacob was about eighty-seven, and was 
therefore about forty-three years old at the descent into Egypt, where 
he lived ninety-four years. Hence the sum of the whole lives of the 
patriarchs spent in Egypt, including that of Moses, is only 94+133-}- 
137-4-80=444, so that it is absolutely impossible that the sojourn could 
have extended to 430 years. — " The Quarterly Journal of Prophecy ," 
January, 1850, art. " On the Early Chronology of Scripture,' 1 ' 1 pp. 47, 48. 
London: James Nisbet c£- Co. 

Sojourn, Time of. — That these 430 years are reckoned, not from 
the descent into Egypt, but from the beginning of the sojourning in 
Canaan, has always, as far back as we have any information, been the 
belief of the Jews themselves. — <"A Treatise on the Chronology of the 
Holy Scriptures," Henry Browne, M. A., p. 295. London: John W. 
Parker, 1844. 

Spiritism, A Satanic Form of Communication. — Spiritism is not 
altogether a sham or fraud, not a sleight-of-hand performance that de- 
ceives the natural senses, not a device or creation of the imagination 
that has no real basis for existence. There are phenomena or mani- 
festations in the spirit realm that admit of no deliberate or prearranged 
purpose to deceive. . . . The delusion in spiritism is not that the 
phenomena or manifestations recorded by its votaries are shams, frauds, 
mental creations, aberrations, or mere inventions that deceive, but in 
the fact that these phenomena or manifestations do not prove what their 
deluded votaries claim. The delusion or deception is not in the phe- 
nomenon itself, but in what is claimed in behalf of the phenomenon. 

Like any other delusion, only worse in its blinding and corrupting 
influence, demoralizing to the mind and corrupting the soul, are those 
engaged in the practice and propagation of what is termed spiritism. 
Any victim is as much in peril of the poison as if struck by the fangs 
of some poisonous reptile. The delusion in spirit or mental communi- 
cation is not that the experience is a fiction or a mere illusion of the 
mind, but in the claim that the experience is between the embodied 



568 SPIRITUALISM, ORIGIN OF 



spirits of the living and the disembodied spirits of the dead. It is a 
satanic form of communication, which, in actual experience, may be 
real, but Satan himself being a party, the other party cannot be other- 
wise than a victim of a delusion of some kind or nature. Beware of 
" familiar spirits," so speaks the word of God. — Editorial in the Cumber- 
land Presbyterian, Nashville, Tenn., Sept. SO, 



Spiritualism, Birth of Modern Form of. — Modern Spiritualism 
dates from March, 1848, it being then that, for the first time, intelligent 
communications were held with the unknown cause of the mysterious 
knockings and other sounds similar to those which had disturbed the 
Mompesson and Wesley families in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. — " On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism " Prof. Alfred Russel 
Wallace, p. 146. London, 1875. 

Spiritualism, Encyclopedia Britannica on Rise of. — A complete 
examination into it [Spiritualism] would involve a discussion of the 
religions of all ages and nations. In 1848, however, a peculiar form of 
it, believed to be based on abundant experimental evidence, arose in 
America and spread there with great rapidity, and thence over the civ- 
ilized world. . . . The movement began in a single family. In 1848 a 
Mr. and Mrs. J. D. Fox and their two daughters, at Hydesville, Wayne 
County, New York, were much disturbed by unexplained knockings. 
At length Kate Fox (b. 1839) discovered that the cause of the sounds 
was intelligent and would make raps as requested. ... It was, however, 
at Rochester, where Kate and her sister Margaret (1836-93) went to 
live with a married sister (Mrs. Fish), that modern Spiritualism as- 
sumed its present form, and that communication was, as it was believed, 
established with lost relatives and deceased eminent men. ... The 
" spiritualistic " movement spread like an epidemic. — Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XXV, art. " Spiritualism," p. 705, 11th edition. 

Spiritualism, Origin and Adherents of. — Modern Spiritualism 
claims as its birthday March 31, 1848, and the place of its birth Hydes- 
ville, Wayne County, New York, U. S. A.; but it is in reality almost as 
old as the world's history, and will go on to its close. 

That the number of adherents of modern Spiritualism is amazingly 
large is borne out by Dr. F. Maack, of Hamburg, writing so recently as 
1910. As an antagonist of Spiritualism, he is not likely to overstate the 
numbers. In Berlin alone, he says, there are probably 10,000 Spirit- 
ualists, among them exalted and court personages; 400 mediums, and 
from fifteen to twenty societies. In North America there are said to be 
16,000,000 adherents; while in the whole world it was computed that 
in 1894 there were 60,000,000 modern Spiritualists, with 200 journals 
exclusively devoted to the propaganda of this awful system. The num- 
ber has grown considerably since. Add to these the demonized races of 
the heathen world; the millions of China, Japan, and India; the count- 
less tribes of Africa; the savage hordes of the Sudan; the cannibal 
inhabitants of the South Sea Islands; and you complete roughly the pic- 
ture of Spiritualism covering the earth with darkness — ancient Spirit- 
ualism in the East, and modern Spiritualism in the West, bringing in 
its train wickedness of every hideous kind. — Algernon J. Pollock, in 
"The Fundamentals,'" Vol. X, p. 111. Chicago: Testimony Publishing 
Company. 

Spiritualism, Wins over Scientific Investigators. — The phenom- 
ena which have converted to psychicism the greatest scientists of Eu- 
rope, and are now creating widespread comment in every intelligent 



SPIRITUALISM, SPREAD OP 569 

center of the globe, are not, we must remember, the credulous mingling 
of hysteria, darkness, and fraud which we commonly associate with 
Spiritualism; they are facts of cold daylight, things of the laboratory, 
weighed, measured, dissected, counted, by the exact methods of calcu- 
lating, unsympathetic science. 

Of course, Crookes, the inventor of the Cfookes tube; Curie, the dis- 
coverer of radium; Lombroso, the founder of the science of criminol- 
ogy; Sir Oliver Lodge, the eminent biologist; Morselli, the psychologist, 
and their several hundred brother scientists, may be very much mis- 
taken in what they say they have discovered. That, the author will not 
pretend to decide; but surely, what they consider worthy of credence 
on such a vital subject is at least worthy of our serious consideration. 
— " Are the Dead Alive? " Fremont Rider, Preface, pp. viii, ix. New 
York: B. W. Dodge & Co., 1909. 

Note. — Although this author advocates 1 , giving serious consideration to the 
claims of Spiritualism, he decides against them as the result of his investi- 
gations. — Eds. 

Spiritualism, Rapid Spread of. — Never before in the history of the 
race has any belief of a religious character obtained so wide and deep 
a foothold among men, or established its standards of faith at so many 
distant points at once, appealed successfully to so many classes of 
society, and wrought such a vast revolution in human opinion, — and 
that in less than half a century of time. — "Nineteenth Century Mira- 
cles," Emma Hardinge Britten, pp. 554, 555. Published by William Brit- 
ten; printed by Lovell & Co., New York, 1884. 

Spiritualism, Reality of Ancient Spiritism. — Magic and sorcery, 
though they lay outside of religion and were forbidden arts in all the 
civilized states of antiquity, were never regarded as mere imposture. — 
" The Religion of the Semites," Prof. Robertson Smith, D. D., p. 90; 
cited in " Semitic Magic" R. C. Thompson, Introduction, p. xvii. Lon- 
don, 1908. 

Spiritualism, Seen as Coming World Marvel. — The lowly manifes- 
tations of Hydesville have ripened into results which have engaged the 
finest group of intellects in this country during the last twenty years, 
and which are destined, in my opinion, to bring about far the greatest 
development of human experience which the world has ever seen. — Sir 
Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D., in the Metropolitan Magazine (New York), 
January, 1918, p. 69. 

Spiritualism, Declared to Be the Essence of Religion. — It has 
been asserted by men for whose opinion I have a deep regard, . . . that 
psychical research is quite distinct from religion. Certainly it is so, in 
the sense that a man might be a very good psychical researcher, but a 
very bad man. But the results of psychical research, the deductions 
which we may draw, and the lessons we may learn, teach us of the con- 
tinued life of the soul, of the nature of that life, and of how it is in- 
fluenced by our conduct here. ... To me it is religion — the very es- 
sence of it. — Ibid. 

Spiritualism, Declares, " Ye Shall Not Surely Die." — It demon- 
strates, as completely as the fact can be demonstrated, that the so-called 
dead are still alive. — " On Miracles and Modern Spiritualism," Prof. 
Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 212. London, 1875. 

We found beyond a shadow of doubt or peradventure, that death 
had no power over the spirit, could never touch the soul, or destroy one 



5?0 SPIRITUALISM, PROPHECY FULFILLED 

attribute or property of soul life. In a word, we found our so-called 
dead were all living, aye, and living so near to us that they breathe our 
very atmosphere, share our very thoughts. — " Nineteenth Century Mir- 
acles," Emma Hardinge Britten, p. 555. Published by William Britten; 
printed by Lovell & Co., New York, 1884. 

Spiritualism, Denies the Divine Saviour and Atonement. — One 
can see no justice in a vicarious sacrifice, nor in the God who could be 
placated by such means. Above all, many cannot understand such ex- 
pressions as the " redemption from sin," " cleansed by the blood of the 
Lamb," and so forth. . . . Never was there any evidence of a fall. But 
if there were no fall, then what became of the atonement, of the redemp- 
tion, of original sin, of a large part of Christian mystical philosophy? 
Even if it were as reasonable in itself as it is actually unreasonable, it 
would still be quite divorced from the facts. Again, too much seemed 
to be made of Christ's death. It is no uncommon thing to die for an 
idea. — Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D., in the Metropolitan Magazine 
(New York), January, 1918, p. 69. 

Spiritualism, An Exercise of Satanic Power. — Those Christians 
who treat Spiritualism as a mere imposture are working much harm. 
That many impostures are connected with it, is a fact; and that it 
would be absurd to believe in the occurrence of any alleged manifesta- 
tion without sufficient proof, is self-evident. But the Bible, as we have 
endeavored to show, warrants us in conceding the possibility of an exer- 
cise of satanic power. Moreover, at the time of the end, false Christs 
and false prophets are to show great signs and wonders: it may be that 
they are even now arising among us. — " Earth's Earliest Ages," G. H. 
Pember, Preface to fifth edition, pp. xxv, xxvi. London: Hodder and 
Stoughton, 1895. 

Spiritualism, A Revival of Ancient Demonology. — Modern Spirit- 
ualism is not only Greek and Roman sorcery, but New Testament de- 
monology. There cannot be found one important point in which they 
differ. This being the case, what is to be thought of this boasted new 
dispensation of Spiritualism? What is to be thought of intelligent men 
going back to Greek and Roman idolatry, and uniting with New Testa- 
ment demons in " What have we to do with thee, Jesus, thou Son of 
God?" Is it not true, that men "love darkness rather than light"? — 
"Spiritualism," W. M' Donald, p. 74. New York: Carlton and Porter, 
1866. 

Spiritualism, A Sign of the Times. — The movement is rapidly ad- 
vancing, and becoming one of the siens of the times. — " Review of 
Spiritual Manifestations" Rev. Charles Beecher, p. 58; cited in "A 
Threefold Test of Modern Spiritualism" William R. Gordon, D. D., p. 80. 
New York: Charles Scribner, 1856. 

Spiritualism, A Fulfilment of Prophecy. — This modern revival of 
Spiritualism, therefore, not only seems to lend evidence that we are 
living in what Paul calls the " latter times," but Paul seems to inti- 
mate rather strongly that the spirits which are around in the seances 
and sittings of the present day, or rather night, are not the spirits of 
our loved ones at all, but spirits whose distinguishing features are a 
cloven hoof and a forked tail and a lying tongue. Demon possession 
does not, of course, always manifest itself in the same way, but always 
with one purpose, and that is to seduce man from the worship of God. 
The old devil is as cunning as ever, and these demons of his, like 
angels of light, often disguise the real purpose of their action by a pre- 



SPIRITUALISM "FROM THE EAST" 571 



tended zeal for the truth, even by the reading of the Bible and encour- 
agement to the Christian life; but this is only to gain confidence and a 
firmer hold on the victim, and back of it all is the sinister motive of 
enthralling mankind under the dominion of their lord and master, 
Satan, the arch-enemy of God. The Bible says distinctly that the air 
which envelops our earth is full of evil spirits, and, if that is so, we 
cannot be surprised at their attempt to communicate with man and to 
influence him for evil. — " Spiritualism," William Edward Biederwolf, 
pp. 81, 82. Chicago: Glad Tidings Publishing Company. 

Spiritualism, Demonism in Heathenism. — Dr. Ashmore, who has 
spent his whole life in China, says: " I have no doubt that the Chinese 
hold direct communications with the spirits of another world. They 
never pretend that they are the spirits of their departed friends. They 
get themselves into a certain state and seek to be possessed by these 
spirits." — "Ancient Heathenism and Modern Spiritualism" H. L. Has- 
tings, p. 211. Boston: H. L. Hastings & Sons. 

Spiritualism, Accompanying Revival of Docteines " feom the 
East" (Isa. 2: 6). — India has apparently still a mission to fulfil, for 
her thought is slowly beginning to mold the thought of Europe and of 
America; our keenest minds are today studying her philosophy; our 
New Theology is founded upon the old, old Vedanta. — Madame Jean 
Delaire, in the National Review (London), September, 1908, p. 131. 

Spiritualism, What Theosophists Expect. — My message is very 
simple: " Prepare for the coming of Christ." We stand at the cradle of 
a new subrace, and each race or subrace has its own messiah. Hermes 
is followed by Zoroaster; Zoroaster by Orpheus; Orpheus by Buddha; 
Buddha by Christ. We now await with confidence a manifestation of 
the Supreme Teacher of the world, who was last manifested in Pales- 
tine. Everywhere in the West, not less than in the East, the heart of 
man is throbbing with the glad expectation of the new avatar. — News- 
paper report of speech by Mrs. Annie Besant (of India), on tour in 
America, 1909. 

Spiritualism, Viewed as System to Unite All Religions. — If such 
a view of Christianity were generally accepted, and if it were enforced 
by assurance and demonstration from the New Revelation which is, as 
I believe, coming to us from the other side, then I think we should have 
a creed which might unite the churches, which might be reconciled to 
science, which might defy all attacks, and which might carry the Chris- 
tian faith on for an indefinite period. — Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, M. D.. 
in the Metropolitan Magazine (New York), January, 1918. p. 75. 

Spiritualism, A Glokification of the Dead. — The whole system of 
the secret mysteries of Babylon was intended to glorify a dead man; 
and when once the worship of one dead man was established, the wor- 
ship of many more was sure to follow. This casts light upon the lan- 
guage of the 106th psalm, where the Lord, upbraiding Israel for their 
apostasy, says: "They joined themselves to Baalpeor, and ate the sacri- 
fices of the dead." — " The Two Babylons," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 69, 
7th edition. London: S. W. Partridge & Co. 

Spiritualism, Bible Against. — We may safely say, in general, that 
there is no ground for asserting that the Bible admits the possibility of 
conscious and voluntary communion with spirits. This is an essential 
element of popular d.emonology in all ages, but it is absent from Scrip- 



5 72 SUNDAY, ORIGIN OF 

ture. Even in the passages mentioned above (Lev. 18:31; 20: 6, 27; 
Deut. 18: 11; 1 Sam. 28: 3, 7, 8, 9; 2 Kings 21: 6; 23: 24; 1 Chron. 10: 
13; 2 Chron. 33: 6; Isa. 8: 19; 19: 3; 29: 4), which refer to necro- 
mancers and wizards, while, as we shall see, the words indicate that 
such practitioners professed to rely upon spirits in their divinations, 
the Scriptures carefully refrain from sanctioning these claims, and a 
number of features in the various passages serve to indicate that the 
true Scriptural view is quite the opposite. — The International Standard 
Bible Encyclopedia, edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., Vol. II, art. " Com- 
munion with Demons," p. 689. 

Sunday, A Pagan Name. — The same tenacious adherence to the 
ancient god of light has left its trace, even to our own time, on one of 
the most sacred and universal of Christian institutions. The retention 
of the old pagan name of " Dies Solis," or " Sunday," for the weekly 
Christian festival, is, in great measure, owing to the union of pagan and 
Christian sentiment with which the first day of the week was recom- 
mended by Constantino to his subjects, pagan and Christian alike, as 
the " venerable day of the sun." ... It was his mode of harmonizing the 
discordant religions of the empire under one common institution. — 
"History of the Eastern Church,'" Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, D. D., Lec- 
ture 6, par. 15. Neiv York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. 

Sunday, Origin of Observance of. — " The Lord's day " had its origin 
entirely apart from the Sabbath. It was not commanded by Jesus, nor 
by any of his immediate followers. It was simply kept for sentimental 
reasons by Christians as an appropriate day on which to come together 
for worship, because on it Jesus had risen from the grave, and on it 
at Pentecost the disciples had received the Spirit. It was not a day of 
rest; it could not be when the Christians were a small minority in the 
population and possessed no political power; it was a day of work, but 
after or before working hours the Christians met together to revive 
in one another the spirit of their living Lord. Paul was not concerned 
with giving advice to churches that could influence the state to enact a 
legal holiday; he was thinking of little communities made up of 
slaves and artisans, who must live their lives under an altogether in- 
different imperial government. 

But as soon as Christianity became the dominant religious force 
under Constantine, it obtained legislation making Sunday a day free 
from labor. Its motives were in part the identical motives that set 
apart the Jewish Sabbath — the desire to obtain humane relief for the 
laboring classes; in part it wished to secure sufficient leisure for its 
religious services. The civilized world today owes this work-free day 
to the efforts of the Christian church. Whatever men do with it, they 
ought to recognize to whom they are indebted for it. — "The Ten Com- 
mandments" Henry Sloane Coffin, pp. 78, 79. New York: George H. 
Doran Company, copyright 1915. 

Sunday, Regarded in the East as of Ecclesiastical Origin. — In 
the East, indeed, where the seventh day of the week was long kept as a 
festival, that would present itself to men's minds as the Sabbath, and 
the first day of the week would appear rather in its distinctively Chris- 
tian character, and as of apostolical and ecclesiastical origin, than in 
connection with the old law. — • "A Dictionary of the Bible," William 
Smith, LL. D., Vol. Ill, art. "Sabbath," p. 1072. Boston: Little, Brovon 

6 Co., 1863. 

Sunday, New Testament Texts Not Sufficient Authority for. — 
Taken separately, perhaps, and even all together, these passages seem 



SUNDAY, FIRST DAY OF THE WEEK 573 

scarcely adequate to prove that the dedication of the first day of the 
week to the purposes above mentioned was a matter of apostolic insti- 
tution, or even of apostolic practice. — "A Dictionary of the Bible" 
edited by William Smith, LL. D., art. " Lord's Day," p. 356 (1 vol. ed). 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 

These arguments, however, are not satisfactory to some, and it must 
be confessed that there is no law in the New Testament concerning the 
first day. — " A Theological Dictionary," Rev. Charles Buck, art. " Sab- 
bath," p. 403, corrected edition. Philadelphia: Crissy and Markley, 1851. 

Note. — This statement of Buck's is reproduced word for word in the later 
standard work, McClintock and Strong's " Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature," art. " Sabbath." — Eds. 

Sunday, " The First Day " Meeting of Acts 20: 7. — It was the eve- 
ning which succeeded the Jewish Sabbath. On the Sunday morning the 
vessel was about to sail. — " Life and Epistles of the Apostle Paul" Cony- 
beare and Howson, chap. 20, p. 520 (1 vol. ed.). New York: Thomas 
Y. Crowell & Co. 

Strength and peace were surely sought and obtained by the apostle 
from the Redeemer as he pursued his lonely road that Sunday afternoon 
in spring among the oak woods and the streams of Ida. — Id., p. 522. 

The Jews reckoned the day from evening to morning, and on that 
principle the evening of the first day of the week would be our Satur- 
day evening. If Luke reckoned so here, as many commentators sup- 
pose, the apostle then waited for the expiration of the Jewish Sabbath, 
and held his last religious service with the brethren at Troas at the 
beginning of the Christian Sabbath, i. e., on Saturday evening, and 
consequently resumed his journey on Sunday .morning. — " Commentary 
on Acts," Horatio B. Hackett, Professor of New Testament Greek, 
Rochester Theological Seminary, pp. 329, 330. Boston: Gould and Lin- 
coln, 1858. 

It has from this last circumstance [" lights in the upper chamber "] 
been inferred that the assembly commenced after sunset on the Sab- 
bath, at which hour the first day of the week had commenced, accord- 
ing to the Jewish reckoning, which would hardly agree with the idea 
of a commemoration of the resurrection. — " Cyclopedia of Biblical Lit- 
erature," Eitto, art. "Lord's Day;" cited in "History of the Sabbath," 
Andrews and Conradi, p. 204, footnote, edition 1912. 

Sunday, First Day of the Week at Troas. — If, moreover, we again 
advert to the striking fact that St. Luke, in writing the book of the 
Acts, which comprises a history of the first thirty years of the Chris- 
tian church, should mention one instance only of a meeting of Chris- 
tians on the first day of the week, and that he should mention that one 
meeting without any intimation of its being the result of a custom 
then prevailing, it seems difficult to imagine how any unprejudiced in- 
quirer into the true interpretation of Scripture narrative can find 
any proof in the text in question, that when St. Paul and St. Luke 
visited Troas, the custom among Christians of meeting for religious 
purposes, on the first day of the week, " was by this time familiar and 
established." — ■" The Sabbath," Sir William Domville, pp. 92, 93. Lon- 
don: Chapman and Hall, 1849. 

Sunday, Mention of " First Day." — ■ Certainly it may not be in- 
ferred from this passage [1 Cor. 16: 2] that collections took place among 



574 SUNDAY, FIRST DAY OF THE WEEK 

the congregations on the Sabbath [Sunday], for it was Paul's inten- 
tion that each should make a suitable contribution at home. — " Biblical 
Commentary on St. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians" 
Hermann Olshausen, D. D., translated from, the German with additional 
notes by the Rev. John Edmund Cox, M. A. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,, 
1855. 

All mentioned here is easily explained, if one simply thinks of the 
ordinary beginning of the week in secular life. — " General History of the 
Christian Religion and Church" Dr. Augustus Neander, Vol. I, p. 339 
(German edition); cited in "History of the Sabbath," Andrews and Con- 
radi, p. 200, edition 1912. 

Paul, if we examine his language closely, says no more than this: 
that every one should lay by in his own house on the first day of the 
week, whatever he was able to save. — " History of the Planting and 
Training of the Christian Church" Dr. Augustus Neander, translated 
by Ryland, Vol. I, p. 158. London: George Bell & Sons, 1900. 

The word 9r)cravpl$o)v ithesaurizon] (1 Cor. 16: 2), applied to setting 
aside the small sums weekly, is against the notion of a public collec- 
tion. — Id., footnote, p. 158. 

In this passage we can find no evidence for the religious distinction 
of Sunday. — Id., p. 159. 

Strange that a text which says nothing of any meeting for any pur- 
pose, should be brought to prove a custom to meet for purposes of 
religion! [p. 101] . . . 

If it be strange to infer from it a custom to meet, although no 
meeting is mentioned in it, it seems still more strange, still more in- 
consistent, to infer from it, as Mr. Gurney and other Sabbatarians do, 
that a direction to lay by alms at home means that those alms should 
be given at church, [p. 103] . . . 

The translation in our common Bibles is just to the original: 
" Let every one of you lay by him in store." A still more literal trans- 
lation of the word in the original, dyaavpifavlthesaurizdn] (treasuring up), 
would render it still more apparent that each contributor was to make 
the accumulation himself, and not to hand it over from week to week to 
any other person, [p. 104] — " The Sabbath," Sir William Domville, pp. 
101-104. London: Chapman and Hall, 1849. 

Notes. — According to Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon, the Greek phrase 
■wap iavrcp (par heauto) found in 1 Cor. 16 : 2, and translated " by him," means 
" at one's home or house," the same as the Latin phrase apud se. — Eds. 

It was by misunderstanding the everyday usage of Palestine in this mat- 
ter that Mr. S. W. Gamble was led, some years ago, to come out with the 
theory that the translation "first day of the week" (Matt. 28:1) is incorrect, 
that the word " day " is supplied incorrectly, and that the real meaning is that 
Sunday is the first of the Sabbaths, or the original Sabbath of Eden. Opponents 
of the Sabbath quickly seized upon Mr. Gamble's " discovery," and great was 
the agitation and joy. It was hailed as " the Waterloo of the Saturdarians " — 
until, in chagrin, Mr. Gamble's own people and others showed the absurdity of 
it all. The three following quotations deal with this subject. — Eds. 

Sunday, Mr. S. W. Gamble's Theory of " First of the Sabbaths " 
Reviewed (1899). — In the contest with the tireless seventh-day Sab- 
batarians, increasingly are certain Methodist writers insisting that the 
resurrection of Christ upon the first day of the week recovered and re- 



SUNDAY, MATTHEW 28:1 575 

enacted the original, creational, and true Sabbath. With hearty sym- 
pathy does the writer view their every legitimate argument to establish 
the sanctity and foster the hallowing of the Lord's day. But when a 
claim on its behalf is distinctly based upon, or forcibly corroborated by, 
a gross wresting of the Holy Scriptures, suspicion as to its validity 
instinctively sets in, to say nothing of mortification and repugnance. . . . 

This widely heralded Klondike discovery as to mian Sabbaton 
turns out to be only the glitter of fool's gold. It rests upon the pro- 
foundest ignoring or ignorance of a law of syntax fundamental to in- 
flected speech, and especially of the usage and influence of the Aramaic 
tongue, which was the vernacular of Jesus and his apostles. Must 
syntax die that the Sabbath may live? 

Let these affirmations [of the theory] be traversed: "4. No Greek 
word for ' day ' occurs in any of the passages." Made for simple readers 
of English, that statement lacks candor. Said word is there, latent, 
to a much greater degree than it is in our phrase, " The twenty-fifth of 
the month." Upon being asked, " The twenty-fifth what? " the veriest 
child instantly replies, " Day." But stronger yet is the case in hand. 
The adjectival word mian is in the feminine gender, and an immutable 
law requires adjective modifiers to agree with their nouns in gender. 
Sabbaton is of the neuter gender, and out of the question. What femi- 
nine Greek word is latent in this phrase, and yet so patent as to re- 
flect upon this adjectival numeral its feminine hue? Plainly the femi- 
nine word hemera, "day," as analogously it is found in Mark 14: 12, 
prote hemera ton azumon, " the first day of unleavened bread." Boldly 
to aver that " no Greek word for ' day ' occurs in any of the passages," 
is to blind the simple English reader to the fact that an inflected 
language, by its numerous genders and cases, can indicate the presence 
and force of latent words to an extent undreamed of in English. — Dr. 
Wilbur Fletcher Steele, in an article, " Must Syntax Die That the Sab- 
bath May Live? " in the Methodist Review, New York, May-June, 1899. 

Note. — Speaking of the West Aramaic speech of Palestine in the days of 
Christ, Dr. Steele said : " In that language we have the names of the days of 
the week as Mary taught them to her son Jesus." Then he gives a sample of the 
ancient Aramaic calendar: "One in the Shabba " (Sabbath), "second in the 
Shabba," " third in the Shabba," etc., on to " eve of the Shabba," and " the 
Shabba." Such were the calendars that Matfhew and Mark and Luke were 
familiar with, the current language of the street as men or children spoke of 
the days of the week. Dr. Steele concluded his review and exposure of Mr. 
Gamble's theory with tbe words : 

" As a vital or corroboratory part of any argument for the sanctifying of 
the Lord's day, this travestied exegesis, instead of being a monumental dis- 
covery, is but a monumental blunder. Thereby our foes will have us in derision. 
" Tell it not in Gath, 
Publish it not in the streets of Battle Creek, 
Lest the daughters of the Sabbatarians rejoice, 
Lest the daughters of the Saturdarians triumph." — Eds. 

Sunday, Letter of a Professor of Greek on the Proper Transla- 
tion of Matthew 28: 1. — 

New York, Sept. 8, 1904. 

My Dear Dr. White: Your correspondent asks, "Is it allowable 
to translate the Greek of Matthew 28: 1, opse de sabbaton, te epiphos- 
kouse eis mian sabbaton, ' At the end of the sabbaths, as it began to 
dawn toward the first of the sabbaths ' ? " 

Such a rendering is impossible. 

1. Mian is feminine, and sabbaton is neuter. Mian agrees with 
hameran understood. 

Your inquirer remarks on this point (as made by writer in Sunday 
School Times), " Neither do they [mian and sabbaton] agree i* n"-^- 
ber." Of course not; a substantive followed by a partitive genitive can- 
not agree with it numerically. 



576 SUNDAY, MATTHEW 28:1 

2. It seems idle to add anything to the foregoing grammatical pro- 
hibition of the rendering proposed. But I may add that mian sabbaton 
is a Hebraism corresponding to the rabbinical designation of the days 
of the week. They called each day of the festal week a " sabbath," and 
indicated each day by its proper ordinal prefixed to " sabbath." 

And in Greek, eis is commonly used (as here) instead of protos. 

The Septuagint and New Testament alike use ta sabbata in sense of 
singular — - " the Sabbath day," and also in the meaning " week." Mian 
sabbaton in Matthew 28: 1 cannot mean anything else than the "first 
day of the week." The Revised Version correctly translates the verse. 

Your correspondent will find ample scholarly notes in Lange's 
" Matthew," by Schaff. 

Yours very truly, 

Walter Quincy Scott. 

— Bible Record, New York City, January, 1905. 

Note. — At the time when this letter was written, Walter Quincy Scott was 
professor of Greek in the Bible Teachers' Training School, New York City, of 
which Dr. Wilbert W. White was the president. — Eds. 

Sunday, Letter from Professor White, of Harvard University, 
Cambridge, Mass., on the Proper Translation of Matthew 28: 1. — 
Cambridge, Thursday Evening, Nov. 7, 1912. 
Dr. R. D. Wakeman. 

Dear Sir: I profess no authority as a theologian, nor have I great 
interest in the Greek, as such, of the New Testament. With this pro- 
viso let me try to answer your question, which of course is not new. 

There are at least two strong objections I should feel against ren- 
dering 0\j/£ 8e crafifiaTuv, rrj iirMpwaKovari els fiiav aa^^drwu [opse de sabbaton, 
te epifoskouse eis mian sabbaton] (Matt. 28: 1) by "at the end of the 
[old Jewish] Sabbath, as it began to dawn toward the first of the [Chris- 
tian] Sabbaths." 

1. In classical Greek certainly no such vital ellipses as are here 
assumed would be allowed. If the writer had meant what they signify, 
he would have said it. In other words, this version renders into the 
passage something that is not there. What Greek of any period would 
get this meaning from the words without the ellipses? Try it! 

2. The use of the plural in this version is more than doubtful. 
Greek uses to designate the Jewish Sabbath both adfiparov [sabbaton] 
singular, and <Ta.pj3dTwv [sabbaton] plural, as the Latins did both sab- 
batum and sabbata. This use of the plural to denote a single thing 
(here "day" ) is common in Greek of all periods. The designation of 
festivals is commonly a neuter plural. 

As to the second version you send, there is no doubt that the word 
in question meant "week" as well as "Sabbath," as in Mark 16: 9; 
Luke 18: 12. Such a literal version, therefore, as " late in the Sabbath, 
as the day was dawning toward the first day of the week." I see no 
violence to the original. So we say " late in the month," meaning at 
the end of it. 

Yours very truly, 

John Williams White. 

[Professor of Greek in Harvard University, 1884-1909.] 

Sunday, Not Known as Rest-Day in Early Centuries. — The notion 
of a formal substitution by apostolic authority of the Lord's day for the 
Jewish Sabbath, and the transference to it, perhaps in a spiritualized 
form, of the Sabbatical obligation established by the promulgation of 



SUNDAY, NO COMMAND FOR 577 

the fourth commandment, has no basis whatever, either in Holy Scrip- 
ture or in Christian antiquity. . . . The idea afterward embodied in 
the title of the " Christian Sabbath," and carried out in ordinances of 
Judaic rigor, was, so far as we can see, entirely unknown in the early 
centuries of Christianity. — "A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities," 
Smith and Cheetham, art. "Sabbath" p. 1823. London: John Murray, 
1880. 

Take which you will, either the Fathers or the moderns, and we 
shall find no Lord's day instituted by any apostolical mandate, no Sab- 
bath set on foot by them upon the first day of the week. — "History of 
the Sabbath" Dr. Peter Heylyn (Church of England), part. 2, chap. 1. 
London: Henry Seile, 1636. 

The Lord's day did not succeed in the place of the Sabbath, but the 
Sabbath was wholly abrogated, and the Lord's day was merely an ec- 
clesiastical institution. It was not introduced by virtue of the fourth 
commandment, because they for almost three hundred years together 
kept that day which was in that commandment. . . . 

The primitive Christians did all manner of works upon the Lord's 
day, even in the times of persecution, when they are the strictest ob- 
servers of all the divine commandments; but in this they knew there 
was none. — " Ductor Dubitantium," Bishop Jeremy Taylor (Church of 
England), part 1, book 2, chap. 2, rule 6, sees. 51, 59; cited in "History 
of the Sabbath," J. N. Andrews, pp. 338, 344, 345, 3d edition. 

Sunday* No Command foe, in New Testament. — It is quite clear 
that, however rigidly or devoutly we may spend Sunday, we are not 
keeping the Sabbath. . . . The Sabbath was founded on a specific, di- 
vine command. We can plead no such command for the obligation to 
observe Sunday. . . . There is not a single sentence in the New Testament 
to suggest that we incur any penalty by violating the supposed sanctity 
of Sunday. — " The Ten Commandments," R. W. Dale, M. A. (Congrega- 
tionalist), pp. 106, 107. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1871. 

There is no word, no hint, in the New Testament about abstaining 
from work on Sunday. . . . Into the rest of Sunday no divine law enters. 
. . . The observance of Ash Wednesday or Lent stands on exactly the 
same footing as the observance of Sunday. — " The Ten Commandments," 
Canon Eyton (Church of England), pp. 62, 63, 65. London: Trilbner & 
Co., 1894. 

And where are we told in Scripture that we are to keep the 
first day at all? We are commanded to keep the seventh; but we are 
nowhere commanded to keep the first day. . . . The reason why we keep 
the first day of the week holy instead of the seventh is for the same 
reason that we observe many other things, not because the Bible, but 
because the church, has enjoined it. — " Plain Sermons on the Cate- 
chism," Rev. Isaac Williams, B. D. (Church of England), Vol. I, pp. 334- 
336. London: Rivingtons, 1882. 

It is true there is no positive command for infant baptism, nor is 
there any against it, as there should have been if Christ intended to 
abridge the rights of Jewish parents under the Abrahamic covenant. 
Nor is there any for keeping holy the first day of the week, or for 
family devotion, or for women to receive the Lord's Supper. The rea- 
sons are obvious; there was no controversy in either case that called 
for it. — " Theological Compend," Rev. Amos Binney, pp. 180, 181. New 
York: Methodist Book Concern, 

37 



578 SUNDAY, CONSTANTINES LAW 

You may read the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, and you will 
not find a single line authorizing the sanctification of Sunday. The 
Scriptures enforce the religious observance of Saturday, a day which 
we never sanctify. — " The Faith of Our Fathers," James Cardinal Gib- 
dons (B. C), p. 111. Baltimore: John Murphy & Co., 1893. 

Sunday, The Poet Milton on Applying the Foueth Commandment 
to First-Day Rest. — It is impossible to extort such a sense from the 
words of the commandment; seeing that the reason for which the com- 
mandment itself was originally given, namely, as a memorial of God's 
having rested from the creation of the world, cannot be transferred from 
the seventh day to the first; nor can any new motive be substituted in 
its place, whether the resurrection of our Lord or any other, without 
the sanction of a divine commandment. — " The Christian Doctrine," book 
2, chap. 7; in " Prose Works of John Milton," Vol. V, p. 70. London: 
Henry G. Bohn, 1853. 

For if we under the gospel are to regulate the time of our public 
worship by the prescriptions of the decalogue, it will surely be far 
safer to observe the seventh day, according to the express command- 
ment of God, than on the authority of mere human conjecture to adopt 
the first. — "A Treatise on Christian Doctrine," John Milton; cited in 
" The Literature of the Sabbath Question," Robert Cox, Vol. II, p. 54. 
Edinburgh: Maclachlan and Stewart, 1865. 

Sunday, Earliest Law for. — The earliest law by which the ob- 
servance of the first day of the week was ordained, is the edict of 
Constantine, 321. — Haydn's " Dictionary of Dates," art. "Sabbath" 
25th edition. London: Ward, Lock, & Co., 1910. 

Centuries of the Christian era passed away before the -Sunday 
was observed by the Christian church as a Sabbath. History does not 
furnish us with a single proof or indication that it was at any time so 
observed previous to the Sabbatical edict of Constantine in a. d. 321 — 
" The Sabbath: or an Examination of the Six Texts," by a Layman (Sir 
William Domville), p. 291. London: Chapman and Hall, 1849. 

Sunday, Work Not Prohibited on, Before Constantine' s Law. — 
When the early Fathers speak of the Lord's day, they sometimes, per- 
haps, by comparing, connect it with the Sabbath; but we have never 
found a passage, previous to the conversion of Constantine, prohibitory 
of any work or occupation on the former. — "A Dictionary of the Bible," 
William Smith, LL. D., Vol. Ill, art. " Sabbath," p. 1072. Boston: Little, 
Brown & Co., 1863. 

Sunday, Constantine's Sunday Law. — On the venerable day of 
the sun let the magistrates and people residing in the cities rest, and 
let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged 
in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; be- 
cause it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain 
sowing or for vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment' for 
such operations, the bounty of heaven should be lost. (Given the 7th 
day of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls each of them for 
the second time.) — Codex Justinianus, lib. 3, tit. 12, 3; translated in 
" History of the Christian Church," Philip Schaff, D. D., (7 vol. ed.) 
Vol. Ill, p. 380. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. 



SUNDAY, STATE INFLUENCE FOR 579 

Sunday, Influence of the State in Behalf of. — As to the cele- 
bration of Sunday, the custom, which had long prevailed in the church, 
of consecrating this day in a special manner to religious employments 
and of abstaining from all worldly business, was established by a 
synodal law, the twenty-ninth canon of the Council of Lraodicea, yet 
with this restriction, that all Christians should abstain from their 
worldly business if they were able. A collision betwixt this ecclesias- 
tical ordinance and the relations to the state, which must have arisen 
in the earlier situation of the church, could now be easily removed, 
when the state itself recognized the church as such, and endeavored 
to uphold her in the prosecution of her principles and the attainment of 
her ends. 

We have already said that the emperor Constantine, in a law en- 
acted previous to the year 321, commanded the suspension of all suits 
and courts of justice on Sunday. It was a beautiful exception, wholly 
in accordance with the spirit of Christianity, by which he provided that 
the emancipation of slaves, after the usual forms, should be permitted 
to take place on Sunday. As Eusebius, in his life of Constantine, re- 
lates, he also forbade all military exercises on this day. By a law of 
the year 386, those older changes effected by the emperor Constantine 
were more rigorously enforced, and, in general, civil transactions of 
every kind on Sunday were strictly forbidden. Whoever transgressed 
was to be considered, in fact, as guilty of sacrilege (as a sacrilegus). 

Owing to the prevailing passion at that time, especially in the 
large cities, to run after the various public shows, it so happened that 
when these spectacles fell on the same days which had been conse- 
crated by the church to some religious festival, they proved a great 
hindrance to the devotion of Christians, though chiefly, it must be al- 
lowed, to those whose Christianity was the least an affair of the life 
and of the heart. Church teachers, such as Chrysostom, were, in truth, 
often forced to complain that in such competitions the theater was 
vastly more frequented than the church. And among those who gave 
up the church for the theater, many might be found not wholly unsus- 
ceptible of right feelings, who, if they had not been hurried along by 
the prevailing corruption, would have employed Sunday in a way more 
serious and more healthful for their inner life. Moreover, by the civil 
relations of those times, many were obliged, on account of their par- 
ticular place among the citizens, to take part in the arrangements 
necessary for the support of the public shows, and so to be interrupted 
in their devotions even against their will. 

Hence, the North African church resolved, at an ecclesiastical con- 
vention held at Carthage in 401, to petition the emperor that the public 
shows might be transferred from the Christian Sunday and from 
feast days to some other days of the week. Owing to the prevailing 
passion for the shows, this petition could not be granted, perhaps, 
without considerable difficulty. First, in the year 425, the exhibition of 
spectacles on Sunday and on the principal feast days of the Christians, 
was forbidden, in order that the devotion of the faithful might be 
free from all disturbance. In this way the church received help from 
the state for the furtherance of her ends, which could not be obtained 
in the preceding period. — " General History of the Christian Religion 
and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, translated by Joseph Torrey, Vol. 
Ill, pp. 403-405. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1848. 

Sunday, Begun as Pagan Festival, Ends as Church Institution. 
— This legislation by Constantine probably bore no relation to Chris- 
tianity; it appears, on the contrary, that the emperor, in his capacity of 
Pontifex Maximus, was only adding the day of the sun, the worship of 



580 SUNDAY, ON CONSTANTINE'S LAW 



which was then firmly established in the Roman Empire, to the other 
ferial days of the sacred calendar. — " Rest Days," Prof. Hutton Webster, 
Ph. D. (University of Nebraska), p. 122. New York: Macmillan & Co., 

1916. 

What began, however, as a pagan ordinance, ended as a Christian 
regulation; and a long series of imperial decrees, during the fourth, 
fifth, and sixth centuries, enjoined with increasing stringency absti- 
nence from labor on Sunday. — Id., p. 270. 

Sunday, Dean Stanley on Constantine's " Day of the Sun." — 
The retention of the old pagan name "Dies Solis" [Day of the Sun], 
or " Sunday," for the weekly Christian festival, is, in great measure, 
owing to the union of pagan and Christian sentiment with which the 
first day of the week was recommended by Constantine to his subjects, 
pagan and Christian alike, as the " venerable day of the sun." . . . 
It was his mode of harmonizing the discordant religions of the empire 
under one common institution. — " Lectures on the History of the 
Eastern Church" Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, D. D., Lecture 6, par. 15, p. 
184. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884. 

Sunday, Dr. Heylyn's Summing Up. — Thus do we see upon what 
grounds the Lord's day stands; on custom first, and voluntary conse- 
cration of it to religious meetings: that custom countenanced by the 
authority of the church of God, which tacitly approved the same; and 
finally confirmed and ratified by Christian princes throughout their em- 
pires; and as the day, so rest from labors, and restraint from business 
upon that day, received its greatest strength from the supreme magis- 
trate as long as he retained that power which to him belongs; as after 
from the canons and decrees of councils, the decretals of popes and or- 
ders of particular prelates, when the sole managing of ecclesiastical 
affairs was committed to them. — " History of the Sabbath," Dr. Peter 
Heylyn, part 2, chap. 3, sec. 12, pp. 94, 95. London: Henry Seile, 1636. 

Sunday Laws, Constantine the Father of Sunday Legislation. — 
So long as Christianity was not recognized and protected by the state, 
the observance of Sunday was purely religious, a strictly voluntary serv- 
ice, but exposed to continual interruption from the bustle of the world 
and a hostile community. . . . Constantine is the founder, in part at 
least, of the civil observance of Sunday, by which alone the religious 
observance of it in the church could be made universal and could be 
properly secured. . . . But the Sunday law of Constantine must not be 
overrated. . . . There is no reference whatever in his law either to the 
fourth commandment or to the resurrection of Christ. Besides, he ex- 
pressly exempted the country districts, where paganism still prevailed, 
from the prohibition of labor. . . . Christians and pagans had been ac- 
customed to festival rests; Constantine made these rests to synchronize, 
and gave the preference to Sunday. — " History of the Christian Church" 
Philip Schaff, (7 vol. ed.) Vol. Ill, pp. 379, 380. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1893. 

Sunday Laws, Peculiar Character of Constantine's Law. — To 
fully understand the provisions of this legislation, the peculiar position 
of Constantine must be taken into consideration. He was not himself 
free from all remains of heathen superstition. It seems certain that 
before his conversion he had been particularly devoted to the worship 
of Apollo, the sun god. . . . The problem before him was to legislate 



SUNDAY LAWS, CHARACTER OF 581 

for the new faith in such a manner as not to seem entirely inconsistent 
with his old practices, and not to come in conflict with the prejudices 
of his pagan subjects. These facts serve to explain the peculiarities of 
this decree. He names the holy day, not the Lord's day, but the " day 
of the sun," the heathen designation, and thus at once seems to identify 
it with his former Apollo worship. — " The Abiding Sabbath," Rev. 
George Elliott (Prize Essay), p. 229. American Tract Society, 1884. 

Sunday Laws, Nature or Constantine's Sunday Law. — The em- 
peror [Constantine] makes no appeal therein [in his law of 321] to 
apostolical or Scriptural authority for its justification. It is, in fact, 
a Sabbath of his own invention, its chief feature being completely anti- 
Scriptural; for it commands a Sabbath to be observed in towns, but 
exempts the country, in order, says the edict, that the bounty of Provi- 
dence (intended for the sustenance of man) might not perish. Yet we 
read in Exodus (34: 21) that the Sabbath day was to be kept even "in 
earing time and harvest" (or, as Dr. Geddes translates the original, 
"in seedtime and in harvest"). — " The Sabbath" Sir William Dom- 
ville, pp. 291, 292, footnote. London: Chapman and Hall, 1849. 

Sunday Laws, Inceeasing Stringency of. — By a law of the year 
386, those older changes effected by the emperor Constantine were more 
rigorously enforced, and, in general, civil transactions of every kind 
on Sunday were strictly forbidden. — " General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, translated by Joseph 
Torrey, Vol. II, p. 300. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1854. 

Sunday Laws, Religious Woeship Enfoeced in Constantine's 
Army. — For the army, however, he [Constantine] . . . enjoined a cer- 
tain positive observance of Sunday, in requiring the Christian soldiers 
to attend Christian worship, and the heathen soldiers, in the open field, 
at a given signal, with eyes and hands raised toward heaven, to recite 
the following, certainly very indefinite, form of prayer: "Thee alone 
we acknowledge as God, thee we reverence as king, to thee we call as 
our helper. To thee we owe our victories, by thee have we obtained the 
mastery of our enemies." — " History of the Christian Church" Philip 
Schaff, D. D., (7 vol. ed.) Vol. Ill, pp. 380, 381. New York: Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1893. 

Sunday Laws, Baneful Fruitage of Church and State Union. — 
To the reign of Constantine the Great must be referred the commence- 
ment of those dark and dismal times which oppressed Europe for a 
thousand years. It is the true close of the Roman Empire, the begin- 
ning of the Greek. The transition from one to the other is emphati- 
cally and abruptly marked by a new metropolis, a new religion, a new 
code, and, above all, a new policy. An ambitious man had attained 
to imperial power by personating [espousing] the interests of a rapidly 
growing party. The unavoidable consequences were a union between 
the church and state; a diverting of the dangerous classes from civil 
to ecclesiastical paths, and the decay and materialization of religion. — 
" History of the Intellectual Development of Europe," John William 
Draper, M. D., LL. D., Vol. I, p. 278. New York: Harper & Brothers, 
copyright 1876. 

It was the aim of Constantine to make theology a branch of poli- 
tics: it was the hope of every bishop in the empire to make politics a 
branch of theology. — Id., p. 311. 

Sunday Laws, To Promote Chuech Attendance (425). — All the 
pleasure of the theaters and of the circus throughout all cities, being 



582 SUNDAY LAWS, ACT OF CHARLES II 



denied to the people of the same, let the minds of all faithful Chris- 
tians be employed in the worship of God. If any, even now, through 
the madness of Jewish impiety or the error and folly of dull paganism, 
are kept away, let them learn that there is one time for prayer and 
another for pleasure. — " Codex Theodosius," lib. 15, tit. 5, lex. 5; cited in 
" A Critical History of Sunday Legislation" A. H. Lewis, D. D., p. 46. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Note. — Schaff ("History of the Christian Church," Vol. Ill, p. 106) shows 
that the Council of Carthage (399 or 401) had insisted upon this legislation. 
The bishops wished to find a way of compelling church attendance. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Neander on Church Use of Civil Legislation. — 
First, in the year 425, the exhibition of spectacles on Sunday, and on the 
principal feast days of the Christians, was forbidden, in order that the 
devotion of the faithful might be free from all disturbance. In this 
way, the church received help from the state for the furtherance of 
her ends, which could not be obtained in the preceding period. But 
had it not been for that confusion of spiritual and secular interests, 
had it not been for the vast number of mere outward conversions thus 
brought about, she would have needed no such help. — '' General History 
of the Christian Religion and Church," Dr. Augustus Neander, translated 
by Joseph Torrey, Vol. II, pp. 300, 301. Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 
1854. 

Sunday Laws, The Act of Charles II (England), 1676. — For the 
better observation and keeping holy the Lord's day, commonly called 
Sunday: be it enacted . . . that all the laws enacted and in force con- 
cerning the observation of the day, and repairing to the church thereon, 
be carefully put in execution; and that all and every person and persons 
whatsoever shall upon every Lord's day apply themselves to the ob- 
servation of the same, by exercising themselves thereon in the duties 
of piety and true religion, publicly and privately; and that no trades- 
man, artificer, workman, laborer, or other person whatsoever, shall do 
or exercise any worldly labor or business or work of their ordinary 
callings upon the Lord's day, or any part thereof (works of necessity 
and charity only excepted). . . . 

And it is further enacted that no drover, hors*e-courser, wagoner, 
butcher, higgler — they or any of their servants shall travel or come into 
his or their inn or lodging upon the Lord's day, or any part thereof, 
upon pain that each and every such offender shall forfeit twenty shil- 
lings for every such offense; and that no person or persons shall use, 
employ, or travel upon the Lord's day with any boat, wherry, lighter, 
or barge, except it be upon extraordinary occasion to be allowed by 
some justice of the peace of the county, or some head officer, or some 
justice of the peace of the city, borough, or town corporate, where the 
fact shall be committed, upon pain that every person so offending shall 
forfeit and lose the sum of five shillings for every such offense. — "An 
Act for the Better Observance of the Lord's Bay, Commonly Called Sun- 
day," British " Statutes at Large from the first year of King James 
the First to the tenth year of the reign of King William the Third," 
Vol. Ill, p. 388, 389. London: Henry Woodfall and William Strahan, 
Law Printers to the King's Most Excellent Majesty, 1763. 

Note. — While it is true that the idea of Sunday legislation goes back to Con 
stantine's law of 321 a. d., it is also true that nearly all American statutes, since 
the earliest New England legislation of that character, are modeled more or less 
closely after the foregoing statute of 29th Charles II. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Such Statutes Found in Nearly All the States. — 
Special regulations for the conduct of citizens on the first day of the 



SUNDAY LAWS, A TYRANNY 58 & 

week are usually among the first enactments of an American common- 
wealth. The manner in which such legislation has been treated by the 
courts forms a most curious and interesting chapter in our constitu- 
tional history, [p. 1] . . . The following general statement, made in 
Louisiana in 1879, fitly introduces the subject: 

" The Constitution of the United States forbids the Congress from 
making any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
the free exercise thereof. But this is an inhibition to Congress only, 
leaving to the State governments the whole power over the subject of 
religion. There are considerable differences in the various State consti- 
tutions on this subject, but the general provision of the most perfect 
equality before the law of all shades of religious belief is common to 
all of them." [pp. 1, 2] — BotVs Case, 31 La. Ann., 663; "Sunday: Legal 
Aspects of the First Day of the Week," James T. Ringgold, pp. 1, 2. 
Jersey City: Frederick D. Linn & Co., 1891. 

Sunday Laws, Invade Divine Prerogative. — It is the duty of the 
civil power to protect Christians against disturbance in their Sabbath 
worship. But the power is intruding into the divine prerogative when 
it assumes the right to compel the subject to worship God, or to refrain 
from those pursuits which do not disturb others. The keeping of the 
Sabbath is eminently a moral duty, and hence it must be a voluntary 
service rendered under the pressure of moral suasives only. — " Theo- 
logical Compend" Rev. Amos Binney, pp. 173, 174. New York: The 
Methodist Book Concern, 1902. 

Sunday Laws, A Tyranny over Conscience. — If any persons or 
religious denominations want Sunday kept in a particular way, it is 
their privilege so to keep it. Churches can enforce discipline upon 
their communicants. By precept and example they can recommend their 
theories and practices upon their neighbors. The moment they seek 
the aid of the law to thrust upon the great body of citizens a code of 
Sunday observance against which it rebels, they are trying to exercise 
a tyranny over other men's consciences. — Editorial, "Sunday Observ- 
ance," in New York Times, Nov. 30, 1920. 

Sunday Laws, Report of the United States Senate, 1829. — The 
proper object of government is to protect all persons in the enjoyment of 
their religious as well as civil rights, and not to determine for any 
whether they shall esteem one day above another, or esteem all days 
alike holy. . . . Our government is a civil, and not a religious institu- 
tion. . . . 

Among all the religious persecutions with which almost every 
page of modern history is stained, no victim ever suffered but for 
the violation of what government denominated the law of God. . . . 
Extensive religious combinations to effect a political object are, in the 
opinion of the committee, always dangerous. This first effort of the 
kind calls for the establishment of a principle which, in the opinion of 
the committee, would lay the foundation for dangerous innovations 
upon the spirit of the Constitution, and upon the religious rights of the 
citizens. If admitted, it may be justly apprehended that the future 
measures of the government will be strongly marked, if not eventually 
controlled, by the same influence. All religious despotism commences 
by combination and influence; and when that influence begins to oper- 
ate upon the political institutions of a country, the civil power soon 
bends under it; and the catastrophe* of other nations furnishes an awful 
warning of the consequence. . . . 

If the principle is once established that religion, or religious ob- 



584 SUNDAY LAWS, REPORT ON 



servances, shall be interwoven with our legislative acts, we must pursue 
it to its ultimatum. . . . 

What other nations call religious toleration, we call religious rights. 
They are not exercised in virtue of governmental indulgence, but as 
rights of which government cannot deprive any portion of citizens, 
however small. Despotic power may invade those rights, but justice 
still confirms them. Let the national legislature once perform an act 
which involves the decision of a religious controversy, and it will have 
passed its legitimate bounds. The precedent will then be established, 
and the foundation laid, for that usurpation of the divine prerogative 
in this country which has been the desolating scourge to the fairest 
portions of the Old World. — From Senate Report on Sunday Mails, 
communicated to the United States Senate, Jan. 19, 1829, and adopted 
by that body; "American State Papers,'" Class VII, Post Office Depart- 
ment, pp. 211, 212. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1834. 

Note. — This report was submitted from the committee on post offices and 
post roads by Col. Richard M. Johnson, Senator from Kentucky, born 1780, 
died 1850. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Repoet of House of Representatives, 1830. — A Jew- 
ish monarch, by grasping the holy censer, lost both his scepter and his 
freedom. A destiny as little to be envied may be the lot of the American 
people, who hold the sovereignty of power, if they, in the person of 
their representatives, shall attempt to unite, in the remotest degree, 
church and state. 

From the earliest period of time, religious teachers have attained 
great ascendancy over the minds of the people; and in every nation, an- 
cient or modern, whether pagan, Mahometan, or Christian, have suc- 
ceeded in the incorporation of their religious tenets with the political 
institutions of their country. The Persian idols, the Grecian oracles, 
the Roman auguries, and the modern priesthood of Europe, have all, 
in their turn, been the subject of popular adulation, and the agents of 
political deception. If the measure recommended should be adopted, 
it would be difficult for human sagacity to foresee how rapid would be 
the succession, or how numerous the train of measures which follow, 
involving the dearest rights of all — the rights of conscience. . . . 

If minor punishments would not restrain the Jew, or the Sabba- 
tarian, or the infidel, who believes Saturday to be the Sabbath, or disbe- 
lieves the whole, would not the same system require that we should 
resort to imprisonment, banishment, the rack, and the fagot, to force 
men to violate their own consciences, or compel them to listen to 
doctrines which they abhor? . . . 

If the Almighty has set apart the first day of the week as a time 
which man is bound to keep holy, and devote exclusively to his wor- 
ship, would it not be more congenial to the precepts of Christians to 
appeal exclusively to the great Lawgiver of the universe to aid them 
in making men better — in correcting their practices, by purifying their 
hearts? — House Report on Sunday Mails, communicated to House of 
Representatives, March 4, 5, 1830; "American State Papers," Glass VII, 
Post Office Department, pp. 229*231. Washington: Gales and Seaton, 
1834. 

Sunday Laws, Protest of General Assembly of Indiana, 1830. — 
The memorial of the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, respect- 
fully represents: 

That we view all attempts to introduce sectarian influences into the 
councils of the nation as a violation of both the letter and the spirit 



SUNDAY LAWS, GARRISON'S PROTEST 585 

of tiie Constitution of the United States and of this State, and at the 
same time dangerous to our civil and religious liberties, inasmuch as 
those charters secure to every man the free exercise of his religion and 
the right to worship the Almighty God according to the dictates of his 
own conscience, and inasiriUch as any legislative interference in matters 
of religion would be an infraction of those rights: 

We, therefore, most respectfully remonstrate against any attempt, 
by a combination of one or more sects', to alter the laws providing 
for the transportation of the mail, and against the passage of a law 
to regulate or enforce the observance of religious duties, or which may 
interfere with what belongs to the conscience of each individual. — 
Against proposed law to prohibit carrying of mails on Sunday; "Amer- 
ican State Papers" Class VII, Post Office Department, pp. 240, 241. 
Washington: Gales and Seaton. 1834. 

Sunday Laws, Kentucky's Remonstrance, 1831. — However long 
and generally the functionaries of our government, in their individual 
or corporate capacities, may have conformed to the general and laud- 
able custom of observing the Sabbath, it has been voluntary. But when 
once the Congress shall have assumed the right of deciding by a legis- 
lative act the orthodoxy of this or any other point of religious contro- 
versy, the magic spell will have been broken which has excluded reli- 
gious intolerance from our civil tribunals. . . . Some sect, whose tenets 
shall at the time be most popular, will ultimately acquire the ascendancy. 

The civil and ecclesiastical power once united in the hands of a 
dominant party, the people may bid adieu to that heart-consoling, soul- 
reviving religious liberty, at once the price of the patriot's blood and 
the boon of enlightened wisdom; a liberty nowhere enjoyed but in the 
United States. . . . 

It was to secure the inestimable privilege of worshiping God ac- 
cording to the dictates of conscience, against the misguided zeal of 
even their own representatives, that its enlightened framers ingrafted 
into the Federal Constitution the prohibitory clauses on Congressional 
legislation. — Kentucky Citizens'' Remonstrance, communicated to House 
of Representatives, Jan. 31, 1831, against agitation to prevent transporta- 
tion of mail on Sunday; Id., pp. 261, 262. 

Sunday Laws, William Lloyd Gaeeison's Pbotest, 1848. — The 
right of every man to worship God according to the dictates of his own 
conscience is inherent, inalienable, self-evident. Yet it is notorious 
that, in all the States, except Louisiana, there are laws enforcing reli- 
gious observance of the first day of the week as the Sabbath, and pun- 
ishing as criminals such as attempt to pursue their usual avocations 
on that day. . . . There is, therefore, no liberty of conscience allowed 
to the people of this country, under the laws thereof, in regard to the 
observance of a Sabbath day. 

In addition to these startling facts, within the last five years a reli- 
gious combination has been formed in this land, styling itself, " The 
American and Foreign Sabbath Union," whose specific object it is to 
impose the Sabbatical yoke yet more heavily on the necks of the Ameri- 
can people. In a recent appeal made for pecuniary assistance by the 
executive committee of the union, it is stated that " the secretary (Rev. 
Dr. Edwards) has visited twenty of the United States, and traveled 
more than thirty thousand miles, addressing public bodies of all descrip- 
tions, and presenting reasons why, as a nation, we should keep the 
Sabbath, — all secular business, traveling, and amusement be confined 
to six days in the week, — and all people assemble on the Sabbath, and 
worship God," , „ , 



58 6 SUNDAY LAWS, AN ALLIANCE SOUGHT 

That this combination is animated by the spirit of religious bigotry 
and ecclesiastical tyranny — the spirit which banished the Baptists 
from Massachusetts, ,and subjected the Quakers to imprisonment and 
death, in the early settlement of this country — admits of little doubt. 

We claim for ourselves and for all mankind, the right to worship 
God according to the dictates of our own consciences. This right, in- 
herent and inalienable, is cloven down in the United States; and we call 
upon all who desire to preserve civil and religious liberty to rally 
for its rescue. — William Lloyd Garrison's call " To the Friends of Civil 
and Religious Liberty," for a meeting of Protest against Sunday Legisla- 
tion, to be held in Boston, 1848. " Life of Garrison " (1805-1879), by His 
Children, Vol. Ill, pp. 222-225. New York: The Century Company. 

Of all the assumptions on the part of legislative bodies, that of in- 
terfering between a man's conscience and his God is the most unsupport- 
able and the most inexcusable. For what purpose do we elect men to 
go to the general court? Is it to be our lawgivers on religious mat- 
ters? . . . This passing a law forbidding me or you to do on a particular 
day what is in itself right, on the ground that that day, in the judg- 
ment of those who make the enactment, is more holy than another, — 
this exercise of power, I affirm, is nothing better than usurpation. 
It is the spirit which in all ages has persecuted those who have been 
loyal to God and their consciences. It is a war upon conscience, and 
no religious conclave or political assembly ever yet carried on that 
war successfully to the end. You cannot by enactment bind the con- 
sciences of men, nor force men into obedience to what God requires. 

— " Selections from the Writings and Speeches of William Lloyd Gar- 
rison," p. 104. Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1852. 

Sunday Laws, Significant Pronouncements. — Let a man be what 
he may — Jew, seventh-day observer of some other denomination, or 
those who do not believe in the Christian Sabbath — let the law apply 
to every one, that there shall be no public desecration of the first day 
of the week, the Christian Sabbath, the day of rest for the nation. — 
David McAllister, D. D., at National Reform Convention, Lakeside, Ohio, 
July, 1887; cited in " Religious Liberty in America," C. M. Snow, p. 384. 

It is better that a few should suffer than that the whole nation 
should lose its Sabbath. — Ibid. 

Note. — This pronouncement is an unconscious repetition of that of the high 
priest when the Jewish council was preparing to condemn Jesus for violating the 
law. John 11 : 49, 50. — Eds. 

Sunday Laws, Catholics and National Reformers to Join Hands. 

— There are many Christian issues upon which Catholics could come 
together with non-Catholics and shape legislation for the public weal. 
In spite of rebuff and injustice, and overlooking zealotry, we should 
seek an alliance with non-Catholics for proper Sunday observance. 
Without going over to the Judaic Sabbath, we can bring the masses over 
to the moderation of the Christian Sunday. — From Platform of Catholic 
Lay Congress, Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1889, reported in Daily Inter-Ocean 
(Chicago), Nov. 13, 1889. 

What we should seek is an en rapport with the Protestant Chris- 
tians who desire to keep Sunday holy. — Paper by the editor of the Cath- 
olic Universe, read at Catholic Lay Congress, Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1889; 
cited in " Religious Liberty in America," C. M. Snow, p. 284. 



SUNDAY LAWS, PHARISAISM OF 587 

Common interest ought to strengthen both our determination to 
work and our readiness to co-operate with our Roman Catholic fellow 
citizens. We may be subjected to some rebuffs in our first proffers, 
for the time has not yet come when the Roman Catholic Church will 
consent to strike hands with other churches — as such; but the time 
has come to make repeated advances, and gladly to accept co-operation 
in any form in which they may be willing to exhibit it. — Dr. 8. F. 
Scovel, in the Christian Statesman, organ of the National Reform Asso- 
ciation, Aug. 31, 1884; cited in "American State Papers," W. Addison 
Blakely, p. 348. 

Whenever they [the Roman Catholics] are willing to co-operate in 
resisting the progress of political atheism, we will gladly join hands 
with them. — The Christian Statesman, Dec. 11, 1884; cited in " Amer- 
ican State Papers," W. Addison Blakely, p. 348, edition 1911. 

Sunday Laws, Alexander Campbell on. — The gospel commands 
no duty which can be performed without faith in the Son of God. 
" Whatever is not of faith is sin." 

But to compel men destitute of faith to observe any Christian in- 
stitution, such as the Lord's day, is commanding duty to be performed 
without faith in God. 

Therefore, to command unbelievers or natural men to observe, 
in any sense, the Lord's day, is anti-evangelical or contrary to the 
gospel. — "Memoirs of Alexander Campbell," Robert Richardson, Vol. I, 
p. 528. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1868. 

Sunday Laws, Pharisaism of. — The type of mind which is repre- 
sented by this spirit [of bigotry] is one which belongs to an age of 
intolerance — and it may be added, of literalism. It believes that the 
outward observation of rules and customs is equivalent to piety. It 
is a Pharisaical way of thinking which lays more emphasis upon ritual 
than spirit. . . . 

Yet it is in the minds of these blue law fanatics to pass a law 
that men shall be obliged to go to church on Sundays. With such a 
law in force it is pleasant to speculate on the state of mind of the dif- 
ferent members of the congregation as they foregather in church to 
conform to the law. We can imagine the wells of devotion that would 
be plumbed. — The Chronicle (Monthly Magazine of the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church), January, 1921, p. 238. 

Sunday Laws, Not to Be Sought by the Church. — [The church's] 
principal and most characteristic business ... is not to besiege legis- 
latures for laws or courts for convictions, but to teach as many people 
as possible the joys of " Sabbath well spent." . . . Much better Sab- 
bath keeping this country today certainly does need, but the explanation 
which accounts for Sunday laxity is much less a failure of law in the 
state than a failure of Christian teaching and example in the church. — 
The Continent (Presbyterian), cited in the Literary Digest, Jan. 15, 
1921, p. 33. 

Sunday Laws, A Confession of the Failure of the Church. — It 
would appear that the Sunday Alliance [urging Sunday laws] is starting 
at the wrong end. Its refuge in law seems to be an open confession that 
in some way the church has failed in its obligation to man. It attempts 
therefore to compel what should have been entirely volitional. The 
Alliance seems not to appreciate that no one was ever legislated into 
goodness.— The Chronicle (Monthly Magazine of the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church), February, 1921, p. 297. 



588 SUN WORSHIP 

Sunday Laws, Example Better than Law. — We want a better ob- 
servance of the Lord's day in worship, quiet family life, and neighborly 
work. But that will never come by political agitation. It is within the 
power of the churches to bring it about whenever they choose. If Chris- 
tians would keep the Lord's day as it should be kept, their witness 
would go far toward changing the whole atmosphere of the nation. A 
joyful, genuinely Christian Sunday, fifty-two times in the year, by all 
Christians, would be better and more effective than a Constitutional 
amendment. — The Congregationalist and Advance; cited in the Literary 
Digest, Jan. 15, 1921, p. 33. 

Sunday Laws, Constantine's Edict of a. d. 321. — Page 578. 

Sunday Laws. — Page 511. 

Sunday Mails. — Pages 450, 584. 

Sun Worship, A Presumptuous Sin. — The sun, as the great source 
of light and heat, was worshiped under the name of Baal. Now the 
fact that the sun, under that name, was worshiped in the earliest ages 
of the world, shows the audacious character of these first beginnings 
of apostasy. Men have spoken as if the worship of the sun and of the 
heavenly bodies was a very excusable thing, into which the human race 
might very readily and very innocently fall. But how stands the fact? 
According to the primitive language of mankind, the sun was called 
" Shemesh," — that is, " the Servant," — that name, no doubt, being di- 
vinely given to keep the world in mind of the great truth that, however 
glorious was the orb of day, it was, after all, the appointed minister of 
the bounty of the great unseen Creator to his creatures upon earth. Men 
knew this, and yet, with the full knowledge of it, they put the servant 
in the place of the Master, and called the sun Baal — that is, the Lord — 
and worshiped him accordingly. What a meaning, then, in the saying 
of Paul, that "when they knew God, they glorified him not as God," 
but " changed the truth of God into a lie, and worshiped and served 
the creature more than the Creator, who is God over all, blessed for- 
ever." The beginning, then, of sun worship, and of the worship of the 
host of heaven, was a sin against the light — a presumptuous, heaven- 
daring sin. — " The Two Baby Ions," Rev. Alexander Hislop, p. 226, 7th 
edition. London: 8. W. Partridge & Co. 

Sun Worship.— Pages '35, 512, 513. 

Tea.— Pages 219, 220. 

Temperance. — Pages 216-219. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Source of. — First, the exarchate 
of Ravenna, which of right belonged to the Greek emperors, and which 
was the capital of their dominions in Italy, having revolted at the in- 
stigation of the Pope, was unjustly seized by Aistulphus, king of the 
Lombards, who thereupon thought of making himself master of Italy. 
The Pope in this exigency applied for help to Pipin, king of France, 
who marched into Italy, besieged the Lombards in Pavia, and forced 
them to surrender the exarchate and other territories, which were not 
restored to the Greek emperor, as in justice they ought to have been, 
but at the solicitation of the Pope were given to St. Peter and his 
successors for a perpetual succession. Pope Zachary had acknowl- 
edged Pipin, usurper of the crown of France, as lawful sovereign; and 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE 589 

now Pipin in his turn bestowed a principality, which was another's 
properly, upon Pope Stephen II, the successor of Zachary. "And so," 
as Platina says, " the name of the exarchate, which had continued from 
the time of Narses to the taking of Ravenna by Aistulphus, a hundred 
and seventy years, was extinguished." This was effected in the year 
755, according to Sigonius. And henceforward the popes, being now 
become temporal princes, did no longer date their epistles and bulls 
by the years of the emperor's reign, but by the years of their own 
advancement to the papal chair. 

Secondly, the kingdom of the Lombards was often troublesome to 
the popes: and now again King Desiderius invaded the territories of 
Pope Adrian I. So that the Pope was obliged to have recourse again 
to the king of France, and earnestly invited Charles the Great, the 
son and successor of Pipin, to come into Italy to his assistance. He 
came accordingly with a great army, being ambitious also himself of 
enlarging his dominions in Italy, and conquered the Lombards, and put 
an end to their kingdom, and gave great part of their dominions to the 
Pope. He not only confirmed the former donations of his father Pipin, 
but also made an addition of other countries to them, as Corsica, 
Sardinia, Sicily, the Sabin territory, the whole tract between Lucca and 
Parma, and that part of Tuscany which belonged to the Lombards: 
and the tables of these donations he signed himself, and caused them 
to be signed by the bishops, abbots, and other great men then present, 
and laid them so signed upon the altar of St. Peter. And this was 
the end of the kingdom of the Lombards, in the 206th year after their 
possessing Italy, and in the year of Christ 774. 

Thirdly, the state of Rome, though subject to the popes in things 
spiritual, was yet in things temporal governed by the senate and people, 
who after their defection from the Eastern emperors, still retained 
many of their old privileges, and elected both the Western emperor and 
the popes. After Charles the Great had overthrown the kingdom of the 
Lombards, he came again to Rome, and was there, by the Pope, bishops, 
abbots, and people of Rome, chosen Roman patrician, which is the 
degree of honor and power next to the emperor. He then settled the 
affairs of Italy, and permitted the Pope to hold under him the duchy 
of Rome, with other territories. . . „ And thus the foundation was 
laid for the absolute authority of the Pope over the Romans, which was 
completed by degrees; and Charles in return was chosen emperor of 
the "West. — "Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D„ 
pp. 243-245. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Not Divinely Confekred. — All in- 
quiry into the origin and history of the temporal power of the popes 
is necessarily attended with difficulty. ... If it were divine, as Pius 
IX asserts, there would be, undoubtedly, some word or act of Christ 
or of his apostles, ... to attest a fact of so much importance, 
especially as it is now required that it shall be accepted as a necessary 
part of the true faith. If conferred by the nations, to preserve them- 
selves from anarchy, some distinct historic record would have been 
made of it, as a guide to future ages. In the absence of any con- 
vincing proof upon these points, the impartial mind will naturally run 
into the conclusion that its origin was, at least, suspicious. And if 
it is found that it had no existence in the apostolic age, and was not 
recognized as a part of the early Christian system, this other conclusion 
must inevitably follow: that it is the product of human ambition, 
resting upon authority which the popes have wrenched from the 
nations by illegitimate means, and not upon any divinely conferred 



590 TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE 

upon Peter or the Church of Rome. — " The Papacy and the Civil Power" 
R. W. Thompson, pp. 320, 321. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1876. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Founder of. — Innocent III may be 
called the founder of the states of the church. The lands with which 
Pippin and Charles had invested the popes were held subject to the 
suzerainty of the Frankish sovereign and owned his jurisdiction. On 
the downfall of the Carolingian Empire the neighboring nobles, calling 
themselves papal vassals, seized on these lands; and when they were 
ousted in the Pope's name by the Normans, the Pope did not gain by 
the change of neighbors. Innocent III was the first Pope who claimed 
and exercised the rights of an Italian prince. He exacted from the 
imperial prefect in Rome the oath of allegiance to himself; he drove 
the imperial vassals from the Matildan domain, and compelled Con- 
stance, the widowed queen of Sicily, to recognize the papal suzerainty 
over her ancestral kingdom. He obtained from the emperor Otto IV 
(1201) the cession of all the lands which the Papacy claimed, and so 
established for the first time an undisputed title to the Papal States. 
— " A History of the Papacy," M. Greighton, D.'D., Vol. I, p. 24. London: 
Longmans, Green & Go., 1899. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Bellarmine on. — There remains the 
last part of the discussion concerning the Pontiff, that which relates to 
his temporal power, concerning which there are found three opinions of 
authors. The first is that the Pope by divine right has full power over 
the whole world, both in ecclesiastical and political affairs. Thus teach 
Augustinus Triumphus (in Summa de Potes. Eccl., qusest. 1, art. 1), 
Alvarus Pelagius (lib. 1, De Planctu Ecclesioe, ca. 13), and many 
jurists, as Hostiensis (in ca. Quod Super His, de Voto and Voti Re- 
demptione), Panormitanus (in ca. Novit. de Judiciis), Sylvester (in 
Summa de Peccatis, verbo " Papa " If 2 ) , and many others. Nay rather, 
Hostiensis goes further. For he teaches that by the coming of Christ 
all right of ownership of infidel princes was transferred to the church, 
and resides in the Chief Pontiff, as vicar of the supreme and true King, 
Christ, and therefore the Pontiff can of his own right give the kingdoms 
of unbelievers to such of the faithful as he wishes. — " Disputations Con- 
cerning the Controversies About the Christian Faith, Against the 
Heretics of This Time" Bellarmine (R. C.), Vol. I, " Concerning the Ro- 
man Pontiff," book 5, chap. 1. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Roman Catholic View of Rise of. — 
The independence of Italy and Rome dates from the moment when the 
emperors of the East abandoned it. From that time there never was a 
moment when the emperors of the East could so much as protect 
Rome. Italy and Rome were given over providentially to the purgation 
of fire and of blood; — that sea of blood mingled with fire which 
poured from the steeps of the Alps when Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, 
Huns, and Lombards in successive generations poured over the plains 
of Italy, steeped it in blood, and furrowed it with fire. Rome itself 
was saved only by the Roman pontiffs, by a divine presence, and by 
a supernatural agency, which turned back the barbarian chiefs Attila 
and Genseric and others when within the very sight of its walls. 

Again, when Pepin descended into Italy to deliver the exarchate 
of Ravenna, the capital of that very Romagna which is now the 
center of discord; when he drove out the Lombards who had usurped 
the patrimony of the church, we are told that he again made a donation 
to the church. Not so; the very word in his act was this, that he made 
"restitution to the church and to the (Roman) republic" — that, is, 



TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPE 591 



the commonwealth of the people and city of Rome — of that portion 
of territory which had been usurped from them by the Lombards. 
Again, when Charlemagne once more delivered Ravenna, and even 
Rome itself, he at the same time declared that he made a restitution, 
not a donation. Though included nominally for a time, central Italy 
and Rome were providentially and in fact eliminated and excluded 
from all civil dominion; from the moment the empire was translated, 
they have stood out from the circle of any other sovereignties, resting 
on a sovereignty of their own; and neither the empire of the Franks, 
nor the empire of the Germans, much less the empire of the Greeks, 
has ever included Rome within its circumference from that hour. 

I say, then, that it was God's own act which liberated his vicar 
upon earth from subjection to temporal power; and that for twelve 
hundred years the bishops of Rome have reigned as temporal princes. 
— " The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ," Henry Edward 
Manning, D. D. (R. C), pp. 14-16. London: Burns and Lambert, 1862. 

The conversion of the empire to Christianity, and then its removal, 
its banishment into the Far East, freed the vicar of Jesus Christ from 
temporal subjection; and then, by the action of the same Providence, 
he was clothed with the prerogatives of a true and proper local 
sovereignty over that state and territory and people so committed to his 
charge. From that hour, which I might say was fifteen hundred years 
ago, or, to speak within limit, I will say was twelve hundred, the 
Supreme Pontiff has been a true and proper sovereign, exercising the 
prerogatives of royalty committed to him by the will of God over the 
people to whom he is father in all things both spiritual and temporal. 
— Id., p. 182. 

Temporal Power of the Pope, Time of Loss of. — At half-past five 
o'clock on Tuesday morning, Sept. 20 [1870], the Sardinian troops, having 
arrived before the walls of the city [Rome], opened fire upon the Porta 
Pia and upon the Porta Salavia. At half-past eight a breach was effected 
at the Porta Pia; and at half-past nine it was carried by storm. At ten 
o'clock, two divisions of General Cardona's army entered Rome, and 
took possession of the city; and the struggle ceased. — "Italy," John 
S. C. Abbott, p. 618. New York: Peter Fenelon Collier d Son, 1900. 

Temporal Power of the Pope. — Page 196. 

Ten Kingdoms, Invasions from the North. — When at the present 
day we take a general survey of the world's past history, we see that by 
a species of fatality — by a law, that is, whose workings we cannot 
trace — there issue from time to time out of the frozen bosom of the 
North vast hordes of uncouth savages, brave, hungry, countless, who 
swarm into the fairer southern regions determinedly, irresistibly, like 
locusts winging their flight into a green land. How such multitudes 
come to be propagated in countries where life is with difficulty sus- 
tained, we do not know; why the impulse suddenly seizes them to quit 
their old haunts and move steadily in a given direction, we cannot say: 
but we see that the phenomenon is one of constant recurrence, and we 
therefore now scarcely regard it as being curious or strange at all. In 
Asia, Cimmerians, Scythians, Parthians, Mongols, Turks; in Europe, 
Gauls, Goths, Huns, Avars, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Bulga- 
rians, have successively illustrated the law, and made us familiar with 
its operation. — " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
World," George Rawlinson, M. A., " The Second Monarchy," chap. 9, Vol. 
II, p. 221. Neiv York: Dodd, Mead d Co. 



592 TEN KINGDOMS 

Ten Kingdoms, Sie Isaac Newton on Their Location in Western 
Europe. — " As concerning the rest of the beasts, they had their do- 
minion taken away: yet their lives were prolonged for a season and a 
time." And therefore all the four beasts are still alive, though the 
dominion of the three first be taken away. The nations of Chaldea 
and Assyria are still the first beast. Those of Media and Persia are 
still the second beast. Those of Macedon, Greece and Thrace, Asia 
Minor, Syria and Egypt, are still the third. And those of Europe, on 
this side Greece, are still the fourth. Seeing therefore the body of 
the third beast is confined to the nations on this side the river Eu- 
phrates, and the body of the fourth beast is confined to the nations 
on this side Greece; we are to look for all the four heads of the third 
beast, among the nations on this side of the river Euphrates; and for 
all the eleven horns of the fourth beast, among the nations on this side 
of Greece. And therefore, at the breaking of the Greek Empire into 
four kingdoms of the Greeks, we include no part of the Chaldeans, 
Medes, and Persians in those kingdoms, because they belonged to the 
bodies of the two first beasts. Nor do we reckon the Greek Empire 
seated at Constantinople, among the horns of the fourth beast, be- 
cause it belonged to the body of the third. — " Observations upon the 
Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John," Sir Isaac New- 
ton, part 1, chap. 4, pp. 31, 32. London: J. Darby and T. Browne, 1733. 

Ten Kingdoms, Boundaries of Western Rome. — I would therefore 
beg the reader to trace on the map the frontier line of the Western 
Empire as drawn by Gibbon: Beginning north from the wall of Anto- 
ninus that separated England from Scotland, then following the Rhine 
up to its point of nearest proximity to the Danube source, i. e., half way 
between Strasburg and Basle; thence down the Danube to Belgrade; and 
thence in a southern course to Dyrrachium, and across the Adriatic and 
Mediterranean to the Syrtis Major and the Great Desert of Africa: it is 
to be understood that all to the eastward of this line belonged to ths 
Constantinopolitan or Greek division of the empire; all westward, — 
including England, Prance, Spain, and African Province, Italy, and the 
countries between the Alps and the Rhine, Danube, and Save, anciently 
known under the names of Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia, in modern 
times as Switzerland, half Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, and the western 
part of Hungary, — to the western or Roman division. — " Horce Apoca- 
lypticw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, p. 115, 3d edition. London: 
Seeley, Burnside, and Seelcy, 1847. 

Ten Kingdoms, Tenfold Division Prominent in History. — The 
historian Machiavel, without the slightest reference to this prophecy, 
gives the following list of the nations which occupied the territory of 
the Western Empire at the time of the fall of Romulus Augustulus 
[476 a. d.], the last emperor of Rome: 

The Lombards, the Pranks, the Burgundians, the Ostrogoths, the 
Visigoths, the Vandals, the Heruli, the Sueves, the Huns, and the Sax- 
ons: ten in all. [p. 318] . . . 

Amidst unceasing and almost countless fluctuations, the kingdoms 
of modern Europe have from their birth to the present day averaged 
ten in number. They have never since the break-up of old Rome been 
united into one single empire; they have never formed one whole even 
like the United States. No scheme of proud ambition seeking to reunite 
the broken fragments has ever succeeded; when such have arisen, they 
have been invariably dashed to pieces. . . . 

And the division is as apparent now as ever! Plainly and palpably 
inscribed on the map of Europe this day, it confronts the skeptic with 



TEN KINGDOMS 593 

its silent but conclusive testimony to the fulfilment of this great proph- 
ecy. Who can alter or add to this tenfold list of the Kingdoms now 
occupying the sphere of old Rome? — Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Prance, 
Germany, England, Holland, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal — ten, and 
no more; ten, and no less. [pp. 320, 321] — " The Divine Program of the 
World's History," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 318-321. 

The ten horns may not be strictly permanent, but admit of partial 

change. Some may perhaps fall or be blended, and then replaced by 
others. The tenfold character may thus be dominant through the whole, 
and appear distinctly at the beginning and close of their history, 
though not strictly maintained every moment. The following reasons 
may be given for this view: 

First, it avoids the opposite difficulties of the primary and the ter- 
ritorial definition of the kingdoms. It recognizes the kings as ruling 
powers, not local divisions, three of which may therefore be uprooted. 
Yet it extends the fulfilment through the whole range of European his- 
tory, instead of confining ic to one corner of time. It also accounts for 
the same number, ten, being still found at the fall of [mystic] Babylon. 

Next, it has a direct warrant in the vision of the image. For these 
kings " mingle themselves wiin the seed of men, but shall not cleave 
one to another." This implies temporary and partial union, and then 
renewed separation. And these changes will of course alter the list of 
actual kingdoms. 

Further, it results at once from the uprooting of three horns. For 
since after this the number is still ten (Rev. 17: 16), the three uprooted 
horns must have been replaced. And unless they are replaced in the 
same instant, there will be an interval in which the number is not 
exactly ten. Both a deviation, then, from the precise number, and a 
change in the kingdoms, is consistent with the emblems, and directly 
implied in them. — " The Four Prophetic, Empires and the Kingdom, of 
Messiah; The First Two Visions of Daniel,'" Rev. T. R. Birks, M. A., 
pp. 143, 144, 2d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Beeley, 1845. 

Amidst fluctuations so numerous and unceasing as almost to defy 
an exact numeration the prophetic description remains prominent, 
and a tenfold division of the Western Empire reappears from time to 
time. The correspondence with the prediction is thus accurate and com- 
plete. For it must be borne in mind that two opposite features had 
equally to be fulfilled. The tenfold number was to exist; but there was 
also to be a frequent intermingling with the seed of men. In the actual 
outline of European history, both of these predicted features are alike 
conspicuous. A tenfold division, such as some have looked for, mathe- 
matical and unvaried, would frustrate one half of the prediction; and 
would deprive the rest of all its freedom and moral grandeur. But now 
every part is alike accomplished. At the same time, by these partial 
changes in the list of the doomed kingdoms, the reproach of a stern fa- 
talism, which otherwise would cloud the equity of divine Providence, 
is rolled away. — Id., p. 152. 

Ten Kingdoms, Exactness of the Prophetic Fulfilment. — Even 
if it is not practicable to make out the number with strict exactness, or 
if all writers do not agree in regard to the dynasties constituting the 
number ten, we should bear in remembrance the fact that these powers 
arose in the midst of great confusion; that one kingdom arose and 
another fell in rapid succession; and that there was not that entire 
certainty of location and boundary which there is in old and estab- 
lished states. One thing is certain, that there never has been a case 
38 



594 TEN KINGDOMS 



in which an empire of vast power has been broken up into small sov- 
ereignties, to which this description would so well apply as to the rise 
of the numerous dynasties in the breaking up of the vast Roman power; 
and another thing is equally certain, that if we were now to seek an 
appropriate symbol of the mighty Roman power — of its conquests, and 
of the extent of its dominion, and of the condition of that empire about 
the time that the Papacy arose, we could not find a more striking or 
appropriate symbol than that of the terrible fourth beast with iron 
teeth and brazen claws, stamping the earth beneath his feet, and with 
ten horns springing out of his head. — " Commentary," Rev. Albert 
Barnes, on Daniel 7, p. 323. New York: Leavitt and Allen, 1859. 

Ten Kingdoms, As Enumerated in " Thoughts on Daniel." — Rome 
was divided into ten kingdoms, enumerated as follows: The Huns, the 
Ostrogoths, the Visigoths, the Pranks, the Vandals, the Suevi, the Bur- 
gundians, the Heruli, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Lombards. These di- 
visions have ever since been spoken of as the ten kingdoms of the 
Roman Empire. — " Daniel and the Revelation" Uriah Smith, p. 132. 
Washington: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1907. 

Note. — In the " Appendix " to his " Daniel and the Revelation," p. 785 
(edition of 1912), the author says of the various enumerations of the ten king- 
doms by old-time expositors : 

" The ten kingdoms which arose out of the old Roman Empire, are symbol- 
ized by the ten horns on the fourth beast of Daniel 7. All agree on this point ; 
but there has not been entire unanimity among expositors as to the names of 
the kingdoms which constituted these divisions. Some name the Huns as one 
of these divisions, others put the Alemanni in place of the Huns. That the 
reader may see the general trend of what has been written on this subject, the 
following facts are presented : 

" Machiavelli, the historian of Florence, writing simply as a historian, names 
the Huns as one of the nations principally concerned in the breaking up of the 
Roman Empire. Among those who have written on this point with reference to 
the prophecy, may be mentioned, Berengaud, in the ninth century ; Mede., 1586- 
1638 ; Bossuet, 1627-1704 ; Lloyd, 1627-1717 ; Sir Isaac Newton, - 1642-1727 ; 
Bishop Newton, 1704-1782 ; Hales, 1821 ; Faber, 1773-1854. 

" Of these nine authorities, eight take the position that the Huns were 
one of the ten kingdoms ; of these eight, two, Bossuet and Bishop Newton, fol- 
lowed by Dr. Clarke, have both the Huns and the Alemanni ; only one, Mede, 
omits the Huns and takes the Alemanni. Thus eight favor the view that the 
Huns were represented by one of the horns ; two, while not rejecting the Huns, 
consider the Alemanni one of the horns ; one rejects the Huns and takes the 
Alemanni. Scott and Barnes, in their commentaries, and Oswald, in his - King- 
dom That Shall Not Be Moved,' name the Huns." — Eds. 

Ten Kingdoms, Reference Notes on Gibbon's List. — Gibbon, in 
his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (Harper's edition), gives 
the names of ten kingdoms that arose in that empire, and the time 
when each arose [or in some instances, rather, the time when they broke 
into the empire. — Eds.]. They are as follows: 

1. The Alemanni, a. d. 351, Suabia, Alsace, and Lorraine. (See Gib- 
bon, chap. 10, par. 26; 12: 20; 19: 20; 36: 5; 49: 22.) 

2. The Franks, a. d. 351, Northeast Gaul. (Gibbon 19: 20; 36: 5.) 

3. The Burgundians, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) Lo- 
cated in Burgundy, a. d. 420. (Gibbon 31: 39.) 

4. The Vandals, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) Located 
in Spain, a. d. 409. (Gibbon 31: 36.) Settled in Africa, a. d. 429. 
(Gibbon 33: 35.) 

5. The Suevi, December 31, a. d. 406. (Gibbon 30: 17.) In Spain, 
a. d. 409. (Gibbon 31: 36.) 

6. The Visigoths, a. d. 408. (Gibbon 31: 2, 14.) In southwest Gaul, 
a. d. 419. (Gibbon 31: 39.) In Spain, a. d. 467. (Gibbon 36: 22; 
38: 2, 29.) 

7. The Saxons entered Britain, a. d. 449. (Gibbon 31: 41, 42; 38:33; 
Greene's England 1: 17; Knight's England 5:6.) 



TEN KINGDOMS 595 



8. The Ostrogoths, in Pannonia, a. d. 453. (Gibbon 35: 16.) In 
Italy, a. d. 489; final conquest, a. d. 493. (Gibbon 39: 7, 8.) 

9. The Lombards, a. d. 453, in Pannonia and Norricum, banks of 
Danube. (Weber's "Universal History," sec. 180; Gibbon 42: 2; Ency- 
clopedia Britannica, art. "Lombards.") In Lombardy, a. d. 567-8. 
(Gibbon 45: 5-7; Machiavelli's "History of Florence," chaps. 1, 2.) 

10. The Heruli, in Italy, a. d. 475-6. (Gibbon 36: 28-33.)— " The 
Sure Word of Prophecy," M. H. Brown, pp. 54, 55. Mountain View: 
Pacific Press Publishing Association. 

Note. — The figures immediately preceding the colon give the number of the 
chapter, and those which immediately follow the colon, the number of the para- 
graph. — Eds. 

Ten Kingdoms, Dr. Elliott's Two Enumerations of. — It will be 
obviously inconsistent with the requirements of the vision to antedate 
the list before the extinction of the Western Empire, a. d. 476, by 
Odoacer; for it was then first that a barbaric horn established its rule 
in the central province of Italy. Again it seems equally inconsistent to 
post-date the list near a century after Odoacer, and include the Greek 
exarchate of Ravenna, then at length established, as one of the ten 
horns of the Romano-Gothic beast. In fact the irruption of the Greek 
imperial army among the Gothic horns, a. d. 533, whence the exarchate 
arose, and striking down two of them, the Vandal and the Ostrogothic, 
in Africa and Italy, appears to me to form almost as marked a chron- 
ological limit on the one side, as the establishment of Odoacer's Italic 
kingdom on the other. Between the two there lies but the interval of 
57 years. And I think there presents itself in the history of the Franks 
that which yet further narrows the interval for investigation. For 
they, — the most noted afterward, and perhaps most important of all 
the nations of the beast, — could scarce be said to have formed a horn 
on the territory of the Western Empire, until, emerging from their 
Batavian island, they had under Clovis conquered in 486 Syagrius, " the 
(so-called) king of the Romans," but in fact the then ruler of the 
natives and barbarians of Soissons and its neighborhood. On the 
whole, after consideration of all the circumstances of the case, I con- 
clude to prefer the terminating point of this 47 years' interval, i. e., 
a. d. 532 or 533, as the chronological epoch at which to make my 
enumeration. ... At the same time a list of ten kingdoms may be 
made with reference to the commencing point of the interval, i. e., 
a. d. 486-490. [pp. 116, 117] . . . 

From about the year 486 then to 490, the following were the exist- 
ing barbaric kingdoms, formed by the invaders within the limits of the 
Western Empire: Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Allemans, Burgundians, Visi- 
goths, Suevi, Vandals, Heruli, Bavarians, Ostrogoths; ten in all. . . . 

I next take the sera that immediately preceded Belisarius's invasion 
of Africa and Italy: that of a. d. 532, or the beginning of 533. . . . 

Thus, in fine, there existed at the epoch of a. d. 532 the following 
ten kingdoms on the platform of the Western Roman Empire; viz., the 
Anglo-Saxons, the Franks of central, Alleman-Franks of eastern, and 
Burgundic-Franks of southeastern France, the Visigoths, the Suevi, the 
Vandals, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Bavarians, and the Lombards: still 
ten in all. The most important difference between this and the former 
list is that there the Heruli had place among the ten, here the Lom- 
bards: the latter being numerically, though not as yet geographically, 
in the stead of the former. 

Such then is my second list, and that to which I conceive the sacred 
prophecy to have had respect, from the circumstances of the epoch 
being otherwise, as I shall soon have to show, very notable. — " Horw 
Apocalypcicw," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 116-122, 3d edition. 



596 



TEN KINGDOMS 



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TEN KINGDOMS 597 

Ten Kingdoms, Catholic Recognition of. — Even the Romanists 
themselves admit that the Roman Empire was, by means of the incur- 
sions of the northern nations, dismembered into ten kingdoms (Calmet 
on Revelation 13: 1; and he refers likewise to Berengaud, Bossuet, and 
DuPin. See Newton, p. 209); and Machiavelli ("History of Florence," 
1,4), with no design of furnishing an illustration of this prophecy, and 
probably with no recollection of it, has mentioned these names: 1. The 
Ostrogoths in Mcesia; 2. the Visigoths in Pannonia; 3. the Sueves and 
Alans in Gascoign and Spain; 4. the Vandals in Africa; 5. the Franks in 
France; 6. The Burgundians in Burgundy; 7. the Heruli and Turingi in 
Italy; 8. the Saxons and Angles in Britain; 9. the Huns in Hungary; 
10. the Lombards at first upon the Danube, afterward in Italy. — " Gom- 
mfintary," Rev. Albert Barnes, on Daniel 7, p. 322. New York: Leavitt 
and Allen, 1859. 

Ten Kingdoms, " Thoughts on Daniel " on the Thkee " Plucked 
Up." — Elliott, in his " Horse Apocalypticse," makes two enumerations of 
the ten kingdoms which rose out of the Roman Empire, varying the 
second list from the first according to the changes which had taken 
place at the later period to which the second list applies. His first list 
differs from that mentioned in remarks on chap. 2: 42, only in that he 
put the Alemanni in place of the Huns, and the Bavarians in place of 
the Lombards, a variation which can be easily accounted for. But out 
of this list he names the three that were plucked up before the Papacy, 
in these words: " I might cite three that were eradicated from before 
the Pope out of the list first given; namely, the Heruli under Odoacer, 
the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths." (Vol. Ill, p., 152, Note 1.) 

Although he prefers the second list, in which he puts the Lombards 
instead of the Heruli, the foregoing is good testimony that if we make 
the enumeration of the ten kingdoms while the Heruli were a ruling 
power, they were one of the horns which were plucked up. 

From the historical testimony above cited [see " Daniel and the Rev- 
elation," pp. 145-153], we think it clearly established that the three horns 
plucked up were the powers named; viz., the Heruli in a. d. 493, the 
Vandals in 534, and the Ostrogoths in 553. — "Daniel and the Revela- 
tion," Uriah Smith, p. 153. Washington: Review and Herald Publishing 
Association, 1907. 

Ten Kingdoms, Elliott on the Three " Plucked Up." — For if it 
needed that the imperial power ruling at Rome should be removed, in 
order to the primary actual development of the Antichrist (agreeably 
with St. Paul's wonderful prophecy), the same necessity would obviously 
require the removal, in order to its fuller development, of such of the 
ten horns as might have established themselves in the immediate neigh- 
borhood of Rome, and be in a condition, with the plenitude of their 
royal power, to oppress or overawe it. 

Now then, in looking at the list [the second list] given in my fourth 
chapter, we may mark three of the ten kings as thus characterized.! 



1 1 might cite three that were eradicated from before the Pope out of the list 
first given ; viz., the Heruli under Odoacer, the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths. 
But it is needless ; the second list being, as I believe, the true one. Moreover, 
though the neighborhood of Odoacer could not but be unpleasant to the Pope, 
he does not appear to have overawed him, like Theodoric or the Lombards. 
A letter from Pope Gelasius, of the date 494, speaks of having successfully re- 
sisted Odoacer's wishes on certain ecclesiastical matters : " Odoacro barbaro 
hwretico, cum aliqua non facienda prmciperet, Deo prwstante, nulla tenus per- 
mississe manifestum est." — Hard. ii. 914. Other expositors (as Peyrani, the 
Vaudois minister, in his work on the Vaudois, p. 54) have supposed the Herulian, 
Ostrogothic, and Lombard horns to be the three meant. But they were not 
contemporarily existent as horns of the beast. The Herulian had been destroyed, 
ere the Lombard had risen within the limits of the Roman Empire. 



598 TITHING 

First the Vandals, as rulers, within the Roman Bishop's own diocese, 
of Corsica and Sardinia; secondly the Ostrogoths, the successors of 
Odoacer in the kingdom of Italy; and thirdly, the Lombards: which 
last although in the year a. d. 533 referred to far distant in Pannonia, 
were some thirty or forty years after destined to conquer Lombardy, and 
afterward to extend their conquests to the very neighborhood of Rome. 

The manner in which these several powers overawed the Roman 
bishops is matter of history. It was such as to make it evident that 
their removal from before it was essential to the full glory and ex- 
pansion of the papal spiritual power. And accordingly their removal 
constitutes one of the most prominent topics in the next pages of the 
history of Western Christendom. First, in 533, just after Justinian's 
decretal epistle before quoted, the horn of the Vandals in Africa, Cor- 
sica, and Sardinia, and presently after, that of the Ostrogoths in Italy 
was rooted up by Justinian's forces under Belisarius. After which, and 
the establishment of the Greek exarchate at Ravenna (a power that can 
never properly, I conceive, be reckoned among the ten horns of the pro- 
phetic beast, emerging as the latter are said to have done, one and all, 
out of the barbarian invading flood), the Lombards came in; just as if 
to neutralize the Greek emperor's power in that country, and prevent 
its domineering over the Pope at Rome, so as over the Patriarch at 
Constantinople: and for some years so divided the empire of Italy with 
them, as to allow of Gregory the Great and others acting independently 
the part of king, as well as of Pope, at Rome. 

At length in the course of the eighth century, the Lombard power 
altogether preponderating, and after the conquest of the exarchate, 
a. d. 752, acting like its predecessors in Italy to overawe the Roman see, 
the assistance of the Franks was called in by Popes Stephen II and 
Adrian I, from their devoted Gaulic province. And then the Lombard 
horn was eradicated through the instrumentality of Pepin and Charle- 
magne, just like those of the Vandals and the Ostrogoths previously, 
never again to be heard of in Christendom: and the exarchate of Ra- 
venna, together with other of the Lombard conquests, attached forever 
to the Roman see, under the very singular appellation of the Patrimony 
of Peter. — " Horce Apocalypticce," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 
140-143, 3d edition. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Theodoric— Pages 381, 473, 478-480, 483, 484. 

Theodosius — Pages 107, 154, 234, 263, 355-358, 471, 477. 

Three Angels' Messages. — Pages 23-25. 

Tiara.— Page 608 (Triple Crown). 

Tithing, Recognition of God's Ownership of All. — Tithing is an 
expression of our stewardship in giving. We tithe in recognition of 
God's ownership of the whole, just as a tenant pays rent in recognition 
of the landlord's ownership of, or rights in, the house or farm. Paying 
rent entitles the tenant to use the house or farm, but it does not con- 
stitute him the owner of it. The tithe is paid not simply because it is 
the Lord's but because all one has or acquires is his. Paying tithes 
does not constitute a man the owner of the nine tenths that are left. 
God's rights in the remainder are just the same as before the tenth 
is paid. He owns it. It is written, " The tithe is the Lord's." It is 



TITHING 599 

also written, " The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof," and 
" the silver is mine, and the gold is mine, saith the Lord of hosts." — 
" Stewardship and Missions," Charles A. Cook, p. 118. Philadelphia: 
The Judson Press, copyright 1908. 

Tithing, Universal Obligation of. — We are not under obligation 
to tithe simply because the Jews did. Tithing was practised by men 
long before the Jewish nation had an existence. " The law did not 
create tithes, it recognized them. Before law commanded tithes, tith- 
ing was wrought into the nature of things." It is in the fact that tith- 
ing was recognized as binding on men before the Jewish laws on 
tithing were given, that we find one of the strongest reasons for tith- 
ing today. Let us, therefore, go back of the history of the people of 
Israel, and study an instance of tithing that stands out clear from all 
the special Jewish laws concerning it. 

The giving of one tenth of all by Abraham to Melchizedek is the 
first recorded instance of tithing in the Old Testament. It is the 
model for us. Abraham's tithing is free from all the objections that 
are made against tithing on the ground that it is a Jewish institution. 
Abraham's tithing emphasizes the fact that it was a moral obligation. 
It was not as some new thing that Abraham did when he gave a tenth 
of all to Melchizedek, but as a duty universally recognized by the na- 
tions in Abraham's time, and long before. " Traces of it as something 
old and well understood, appear in the earliest historic times among 
nations having little or no intercourse with the Jews or with each 
other. To suppose that so many people all hit upon the tenth, is out of 
the question, and the only reasonable conclusion is that they all got it, 
like the altar and the sacrifices for sin, from a common source; that it 
was a part of God's moral law originally revealed to man, and as 
such was obej^ed by Abraham and afterward incorporated by Moses in 
the Levitical code." (J. P. Hobson, a lawyer, in "What We Owe.") 

Abraham's fithing was the highest order of tithing of which we 
have any record. It was a higher order of tithing than was practised 
by the Jewish nation. The fact that Melchizedek was of a higher order 
of priests than that of the Levites, that he was a kine;-priest, made like 
unto the Son of God, and that it is written, " And Levi who received 
tithes paid tithes in Abraham," places this instance of tithing in the 
very highest rank. It is indeed definitely connected with Christ in the 
reference that is made to it in the epistle to the Hebrews. The Leviti- 
cal priesthood may be said to have been parenthetical, and so also may 
it be said of the tithing associated with that priesthood. But Abra- 
ham's tithing is distinctly said to be associated with a perpetual priest- 
hood, and therefore it also is to be perpetual. The fact that it is such 
a high order of tithing, and is so clearly linked with Christ, is a good 
reason why it should have a place in the practice of Christian stew- 
ardship. 

It is said sometimes that we are living in the dispensation of grace, 
and therefore we are not under obligation to any such law as tithing. 
But this tithing was by a man who lived his life on the basis of grace 
and faith. In the fourth chapter of the epistle to the Romans, Abraham 
is held up before us as the great and striking instance of all previous 
history of how men are saved, not by works of righteousness which they 
have done, but by grace through faith. If there was nothing incompat- 
ible with Abraham's life of faith in the giving of tithes, there can be 
nothing incompatible with the fact that we are living in the dispensa- 
tion of grace when we give tithes to Christ. Since tithing was prac- 
tised in the first instance recorded in the Bible under the principles of 
grace and faith, surely the proportion is not to be less when the dispen- 



600 TITHING 

sation of grace and faith and love has fully come in. " Were it hot 
that we are so bent on keeping our money at any Cost, w§ would never 
offer such a senseless excuse to the Lord for falling short of our duty, 
as when we say, ' We are not living under the law, but under grace.' " — 
" Stewardship and Missions" Charles A. Cook, pp. 123-125. Phila- 
delphia: The Judson Press, copyright 1908. 

Tithing, Blessing in Practice of. — So far as known to the writer, 
there is but one evangelical denomination in the world which accepts 
the tithe as a church tenet and belief, and regards the law of the tithe 
as of the same binding force as the law of the Sabbath. I refer to the 
Seventh-day Adventists. While the percentage of their growth in church 
membership has been large, having increased in all the world from 5,440 
in 1870 to 104,526 in 1910, the financial results of their recognition of 
the law of the tithe are far more remarkable. — " What We Owe, and the 
Results of Paying It" p. 21 fa tract bound with others in pamphlet en- 
titled, " Tithing and Tithing Reminiscences," A Layman). Chicago. 
1912. 

Tithing, As a Test of Chakactee. — The supreme purpose of the 
tithe is to develop character and test our loyalty to God. The payment 
of the tithe when there is no compulsion and no pressure brought to 
bear, when it is a matter of a clear conscience between yourself and God, 
will develop in you those sterling qualities that will make you worth 
while in the kingdom. 

The Bible designates two sources of revenue, — tithes and free-will 
offerings. The tithe is the Lord's, whether we keep it or pay it to him, 
not because he needs it in his business, but because it is dishonest to 
keep what does not belong to us. 

The tithe is our just debt to God, and should be paid promptly and 
cheerfully, like any other debt. God has no need of our money (seeing 
all is his), but requires his share just to remind ug that we are in 
partnership with him. Just as the tribute money paid to Caesar was a 
recognition of his authority, so the tithe is the recognition of God's in- 
terest in every dollar we receive. — " Tithing," tract compiled by C. Ver- 
non Fox, M. D., p. 4. Chicago: The Methodist Book Concern. 

Tohacco. — Pages 221-225. 

Toleration, Relation of Maria Theresa of Austria to. — Educa- 
tion, trade, religious toleration, the emancipation of the agricultural 
population from feudal burdens — all had her [Maria Theresa's] ap- 
proval up to a certain point. She would favor them, but on the dis- 
tinct condition that nothing was to be done to weaken the bonds of 
authority. She took part in the suppression of the Jesuits, and she 
resisted the Pope in the interest of the state. Her methods were those 
of her cautious younger son, Leopold II, and not of her eldest son and 
immediate successor, Joseph II. She did not give her consent even to 
the suppression of torture in legal procedure without hesitation, lest 
the authority of the law should be weakened. — The Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Vol. XVII, art. " Maria Theresa," p. 709, 11th edition. 

Toleration, Maria Theresa of Austria Opposed to. — It was, how- 
ever, only with reluctance that Maria Theresa agreed to carry out the 
papal bull suppressing the Society of Jesus; and, while declaring her- 
self against persecution, she could never be persuaded to accept the 
views of Kaunitz and Joseph [her son, who succeeded her on the 
throne] in favor of toleration. — The Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 
Ill, art. "Austria-Hungary" p. 11, 11th edition. 



TOLERATION 601 



Toleration, Gkowth of. — Collegialism was the way in which the 
state began the restoration of the social independence inherent in both 
the Roman Catholic and the Protestant church. Viewing both churches 
as unions of religious interests, the state could without prejudice de- 
termine under what conditions, based on its general interests, it could 
and would permit a plurality of such unions of religious interests to 
coexist. Thus the state reached the standpoint of modern tolerance, as 
it now prevails in Germany. Yet this point of view was reached only 
gradually. The Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg . . . permit- 
ted the Arminians to hold private worship in 1683, and three years later 
allowed the Reformed refugees from France to have public religious 
services. But what was allowed by the empire to Prussia was forbidden 
in the smaller states. Thus when Count Ernest Casimir of Runkel and 
Isenburg promised religious freedom to all who should settle at Biidin- 
gen (March 29, 1712), even though they might not be either Roman 
Catholics, Lutherans, or Reformed, he was fined and obliged to retract 
his offer. — The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge, Vol. VI, art. "Liberty, Religious," p. 480. 

Note. — Collegialism is a term used to designate the hypothesis that re- 
ligion is a matter of individual freedom, even under the state, and entitled to 
the protection of the state. — Eds. 

Tradition, Jewish. — Shammai and Hillel [in the century before 
Christ] were the first to speak of the written and the oral law as 
equally authoritative. — The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, art. " Oral 
Law," p. 424. 

Traditions were laws, or precepts of men, which they [the Jews] 
said had been handed down by word of mouth from past generations. 
. . . They were often treated as of more authority than the laws of 
God. — " The New Testament, with Introductions, Notes, and References, " 
note on Matt. 15:2 (pocket ed.J. New York: American Tract Society,- 
1906. 

Tradition. — From being transcribers and expounders of the law, 
they [the Sopherim, " scribes "] supplied, after the captivity, the place 
of the prophets and inspired oracles, which had ceased; and from 
them arose those glosses and interpretations which our Lord rebukes 
under the term " traditions." These became so numerous that they 
were collected by the Rabbi Judah (a. d. 200) into six books, called the 
Mishna (Repetition of the oral law), to which was subsequently added 
a book of comments (Gemara), which completed the whole traditionary 
doctrine of the Jewish church. The Mishna and the Gemara together 
constitute the Talmud, of which there are two, one by the Jews in 
Judea (called the Jerusalem Talmud), the other by those in Babylon 
(called the Babylonian). — Oxford Sunday School Teacher's Bible, art. 
"Jewish Sects, Parties, etc.," sec. on the Sopherim (Scribes). 

Tradition, Defined by Roman Catholics. — Tradition ( TrapdSocris 
[paradosis] ) means properly the act of handing down, and thus the 
doctrine so handed down. In its widest sense it includes all truths 
or supposed truths handed down from one generation to another; and 
in all societies which have no literature tradition is, with all its manifold 
imperfections, the great bond between the present and the past, and one 
of the great distinguishing marks between man and the brutes, which 
latter have no tradition, and therefore no history. — "A Catholic Dic- 
tionary," William E. Addis and Thomas Arnold (R. C), art. " Tradi- 
tion," p. 882. New York: Benziger Brothers, 1893. 



602 TRADITION, MEANING OF 

By tradition we do not mean a mere report, a hearsay, wanting 
sufficient evidence to deserve belief; or a local tradition started by 
men, and therefore merely human, as were those traditions of the 
Pharisees condemned by our Lord; but we mean a tradition first com- 
ing from God, continually taught, recorded, and in all desirable ways 
kept alive by a body of trustworthy men successively chosen in a di- 
vine, or divinely appointed manner, well instructed, and who are, as a 
body, protected by God from teaching what is wrong, or handing down 
unfaithfully to others the doctrine committed to them. — " Catholic 
Belief," Joseph Fad di Bruno, D. D. (R. C.J, pp. 39, 40. New York: Ben- 
ziger Brothers, copyright 1884. 

The objectivity of Christianity would have necessarily disappeared, 
if, besides the Bible, there had not been a rule of faith, to wit, uni- 
versal tradition. Without this rule, it would ever be impossible to 
determine with positiveness, safety, and general obligation, the peculiar 
doctrines of Christianity. — " Symbolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. 
(R. C.J, p. 284. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

The truths of Christian revelation were made known to the apostles 
either by Christ himself or by the Holy Ghost. They constitute what 
is called the Deposit of Faith, to which nothing has been added since 
the apostolic age. . . . The Bible, as the inspired record of revelation, 
contains the word of God; that is, it contains those revealed truths 
which the Holy Ghost wishes to be transmitted in writing. However, 
all revealed truths are not contained in the Bible. . . . Though the inspi- 
ration of any writer and the sacred character of his work be antecedent 
to its recognition by the church, yet we are dependent upon the church 
for our knowledge of the existence of this inspiration. She is the ap- 
pointed witness and guardian of revelation. From her alone we know 
what books belong to the Bible. At the Council of Trent she enumer- 
ated the books which must be considered " as sacred and canonical." — 
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II, art. "Bible," p. 543. 

Tradition, Definition of. — What then is tradition? The peculiar 
Christian sense existing in the church, and transmitted by ecclesiastical 
education; yet this sense is not to be conceived as detached from its 
subject matter — nay, it is formed in and by this matter, so it may be 
called a full sense. Tradition is the living word, perpetuated in the 
hearts of believers. To this sense, as the general sense, the interpreta- 
tion of Holy Writ is intrusted. The declaration which it pronounces on 
any controverted subject, is the judgment of the church; and, therefore, 
the church is judge in matters of faith (judex controversiarum) . Tra- 
dition, in the objective sense, is the general faith of the church through 
all ages, manifested by outward historical testimonies; in this sense, 
tradition is usually termed the norma — the standard of Scriptural 
interpretation — the rule of faith. — " Symbolism," John Adam Moehler 
(R. C.J, p. 279. London: Thomas Baker, 1906. 

Tradition, Novelties and Abuses Established by. — Now for the 
first time the Roman Church became conscious of the full significance 
of tradition, so that, if they surrendered it in its character of an infalli- 
ble transmission of God's word, they would surrender themselves; for 
all the ordinances against which the Reformation protested as novel- 
ties and abuses, established their divine claims from this tradition. — 
" Handbook to the Controversy with Rome," Karl von Hase, Vol. I, p. 
117. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1909. 



TRADITION, AUTHORITY OF 603 

Tradition, Cyprian on. — Whence comes that tradition? Does it 
descend from the authority of our Lord and the Gospels? Does it 
come from the commands and epistles of the apostles? God testifies 
that we must do the things that are written, saying to Joshua, " The 
book of the law shall not depart from thy mouth, but thou shalt 
meditate in it day and night, that thou mayest observe to do all 
that is written in it." Likewise, the Lord, when he sent his apos- 
tles, commanded them to baptize all nations, and to teach them to 
observe whatsoever he commanded. If, therefore, it is commanded, 
either in the Gospels or in the apostolic epistles, or in the Acts, 
that those coming from any heresy should not be baptized, but only 
hands laid on them, then this is a divine tradition, and let it be 
observed; but if in these books heretics are called nothing but ad- 
versaries and antichrists; if we are told to avoid them as perverse 
and self-condemned, why should we not condemn those who, the apos- 
tle witnesses, are self-condemned? — Cyprian, Ep. 74, Ad Pompeium; 
cited in " The Infallibility of the Church,' 9 George Salmon, D. D., p. 145. 
New York: E. P. Button & Co., 1914. 

Tradition, Roman Catholic Estimate of. — " Without tradition," 
says Collier, " we could not prove that the Old, any more than the New 
Testament contains the word of God." " Tradition, not Scripture," 
Lessing says, " is the rock on which the church of Jesus Christ is 
built." — " Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. 
A. Nampon, 8. J. (R. C), p. 157. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 
1869. 

Tradition, Safer Than the Bible. — Like two sacred rivers flowing 
from Paradise, the Bible and divine tradition contain the word of God, 
the precious gems of revealed truths. Though these two divine streams 
are in themselves, on account of their divine origin, of equal sacred- 
ness, and are both full of revealed truths, still, of the two, tradition 
is to lis more clear and safe. — " Catholic Belief," Joseph Fad di Bruno, 
D. D. (R. C.J, p. 45. New- York: Benziger Brothers, copyright 1884. 

Tradition, Of Same Authority as the Scriptures. — The sacred and 
holy, ecumenical and general Synod of Trent, lawfully assembled in 
the Holy Ghost, . . . seeing clearly that this truth and discipline [of 
the gospel] are contained in the written books, and the unwritten tra- 
ditions which, received by the apostles from the mouth of Christ him- 
self, or from the apostles themselves, the Holy Ghost dictating, have 
come down even unto us, transmitted as it were from hand to hand; 
(the synod), following the examples of the orthodox Fathers, receives 
and venerates with an equal affection of piety and reverence all the 
books both of the Old and of the New Testament, — seeing that one 
God is the author of both, — as also the said traditions, as well those 
appertaining to faith as to morals, as having been dictated either by 
Christ's own word of mouth or by the Holy Ghost, and preserved in 
the Catholic Church by a continuous succession. — " Dogmatic Canons 
and Decrees" pp. 7, 8. New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1912. 

Note. — This decree was celebrated in the fourth session of the council of 
Trent, April 8, 1546. — Eds. 

Tradition, Authority of, Proved by the Change of the Sabbath. 
— Finally, at the last opening on the eighteenth of January, 1562 
[Council of Trent], their last scruple was set aside; the Archbishop 
of Reggio made a speech in which he openly declared that tradition 
stood above Scripture. The authority of the church could therefore 
not be bound to the authority of the Scriptures, because the church 



604 TRADITION, UNCERTAINTY OF 

had changed Sabbath into Sunday, not by the command of Christ but 
by its own authority. With this, to be sure, the last illusion was de- 
stroyed, and it was declared that tradition does not signify antiquity, 
but continual inspiration. — " Canon and Tradition," Dr. J. H. Holtzman, 
p. 263. 

Such is the condition of the heretics today that they appeal to no 
other matter more than they, under the pretense of the word of God, 
overthrow the authority of the church; as though the church, which is 
the body of Christ, could be opposed to this word, or the head to the 
b^dy. Yea, the authority of the church is most gloriously set forth in 
the Holy Scriptures; for while on the one hand she recommends them, 
declares them divine, offers them to us to be read, in doubtful matters 
explains them faithfully, and condemns whatever is contrary to them; 
on the other hand, the legal precepts in the Scriptures taught by the 
Lord have ceased by virtue of the same authority. The Sabbath, the 
most glorious day in the law, has been changed into the Lord's day, 
circumcision enjoined upon Abraham and his seed under such threaten- 
ing that he who had not been ' circumcised would be destroyed from 
among his people, has been so completely set aside that the apostle 
could assert, " If ye be circumcised, ye have fallen from grace, and 
Christ shall profit you nothing." These and other similar matters have 
not ceased by virtue of Christ's teaching (for he says he has not come 
to destroy the law, but to fulfil it), but they have been changed by vir- 
tue of the authority of the church. Should this authority cease (since, 
there must be heresies), who would then witness for truth, and con- 
found the obstinacy of the heretics? All things will be confused, and 
heresies which have been condemned by the authority of the church, 
will spring up again. — Extract from an Address oy Caspar del Fossa. 
Archbishop of Reggio (R. C). in the Council of Trent, Jan. 18 ', 1562; 
printed in " History of the Councils," Laooe and Cossart, Vol. XIV, cols. 
1258, 1254. 

Tradition, Uneeliable Character of. — If all the testimony of 
Christ were to be resolved into those who heard some say that others 
told them, that they had it from such, who saw those who conversed 
with them who saw Christ in the flesh — at such a distance the author- 
ity of a testimony is extremely lessened — which is not like a river 
which grows greater by running; but like a mineral water, which loses 
its strength by being carried too far. — Extract from a Sermon oy Bishop 
Stilingfleet, preached at the Guildhall Chapel (London), Nov. 27, 1687 ; 
cited in "Romanism: A Doctrinal and Historical Examination of the 
Creed of Pope Pius IV," Rev. R. C. Jenkins, M. A., p. 68. London: The 
Religious Tract Society. 

Tradition, The Bible and the Ancients. — Thus while we leave 
the Bible to gad after the traditions of the ancients, we hear the ancients 
themselves confessing that what knowledge they had at this point was 
such as they had gathered from the Bible. 

Since therefore antiquity itself hath turned over the controversy to 
that sovereign book which we had fondly straggled from, we shall do 
better not to detain this venerable apparition of Leontius [the represent- 
ative of apostolical tradition] any longer. — " The Works of John Mil- 
ton in Verse and Prose," Vol. Ill, " Of Prelatical Episcopacy," pp. 76, 77. 
Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851. 

You may take it as a general rule that there is not a Father who, 
if his own belief is demanded for something not contained in Scrip- 
ture which he is not disposed to accept, will, not reply in some such 



TRADITION, NOT APOSTOLIC 605 

language as St. Jerome: " This, because it has not authority from 
the Scriptures, is with the same easiness despised as approved." " As 
we accept those things that are written, so we reject those things that 
are not written." " These things which they invent, as if by apostolic 
tradition, without the authority of Scripture, the sword of God smites." 
You will see, then, that if^we were at the desire of the Romish advo- 
cates to leave the Scriptures and resort to the Fathers of the early 
church for a decision^of our controversies, these very Fathers would 
send us back to the Scriptures as the only guide to truth, the only 
safeguard against heresy. — " The Infallibility of the Church," George 
Salmon, D. D., p. 147. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1914. 

Tradition, Protestants Charged with Inconsistency Concerning. 
— But is it not the fact that Protestants are obliged to allow, at least 
by their practice, that the absolute rejection of tradition is absurd and 
impracticable? They admit the Scriptures and a multitude of doc- 
trinal or moral truths, which, as Luther acknowledges, they could not 
have received except from tradition. Whence do they learn that the 
Old and New Testaments are inspired? — From tradition. Who taught 
^hem that a multitude of texts of Scripture are to be understood in a 
sense quite opposed to their literal meaning? for instance, that Sunday 
is to be set apart for the worship of Cod, and not the Sabbath; that 
receiving the eucharist is not absolutely necessary for the salvation of 
infants, notwithstanding those words of our Saviour: "Except you eat 
the flesh of the Son of man . . . you shall not have life in you; " that 
baptism conferred on infants even by heretics is valid, although Jesus 
Christ has associated baptism and faith as inseparable means of sal- 
vation: "He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; " that the 
washing of feet is not obligatory, in spite of that formal precept: 
" You also ought to wash one another's feet; " and that terrible sanc- 
tion, " If I wash thee not, thou shalt have no part with me." 

Who has told them that the command to abstain from eating blood 
and things strangled, which was published by the apostles at the 
Council of Jerusalem, no longer affects us? — Tradition. The Prot- 
estants called Episcopalians regard episcopacy as a divine institution, 
and by divine right superior to the priestly order: from what source 
have they derived this doctrine? — From tradition. In reality it is 
tradition alone which has given Protestants all they yet possess of 
Christianity. They cannot then reject this same tradition without 
placing themselves in flagrant contradiction with themselves. — " Cath- 
olic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent," Rev. A. Nampon, 
8. J. (R. C.J, pp. 152, 158. Philadelphia: Peter F. Cunningham, 1869. 

Tradition, Not Apostolic — There is not the slightest historical 
evidence that the apostles transmitted to posterity any rule, but what 
is recorded in the New Testament. The Fathers therefore are precisely 
on the same footing with respect to the authority of their interpreta- 
tions, as the commentators of the present age. Nor in fact are they 
uniform in their interpretations even in regard to doctrine, notwith- 
standing the agreement alleged by the Church of Rome; though some 
commentators may be selected, as well ancient as modern, which agree 
on particular points. The regula fidei [rule of faith], therefore, set up 
by the Church of Rome, was justly discarded by our Reformers, who 
contended for the right of Biblical interpretation unfettered by the 
shackles of tradition. — "A Course of Lectures," Herbert Marsh, D. D. y 
F. R. S., part 3, pp. 13, 14.. Boston: Cummings and miliar d, 181$^ 



606 TRADITION, RULE OF FAITH 

Whatever be the rule of faith adopted by any Protestant com- 
munity, it is so far from being considered as independent of Scripture, 
or as resting on authority derived through another channel, that its 
validity is acknowledged on the sole condition of its being a fair and 
legitimate deduction from Scripture. This total and absolute depend- 
ence of the regula fldei [rule of faith] on the Bible (not the refusal to 
admit one at all) is that which characterizes Protestants. — "A Course 
of Lectures," Herbert Marsh, D. D~, F. R. 8., part 3, p. 15. Boston: Cum- 
mings and Hilliard, 1815. 

Tradition, Foundation of Roman Catholic Faith. — In the words 
of the Roman author [Perrone] just quoted, " The Tridentine Fathers 
knew well that there are certain articles of faith which rest on tra- 
dition alone; they sanctioned tradition as a rule and foundation of 
faith wholly distinct from Scripture." — " Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. 
Wordsworth, D. D., p. 131. London: Francis and John Rivington, 1848. 

Tradition, A Second Bible. — Let me entreat you to reflect, whether 
the Church of Rome, by assigning equal and independent authority to 
tradition, of which she herself is the only channel, or rather the only 
source, has not only developed a second, unwritten Bible, but invali- 
dates the first written one? whether what Tertullian says of the here- 
tics of his day is not true of her, " Gredis sine Scripturis, ut credas 
contra Scripturasf " [You believe without the Scriptures, in order that 
you may believe contrary to the Scriptures], and whether in this way 
also she does not abrogate the laws of God, and impose her own in their 
place? — Id., p. 133. 

Tradition, Word of God vs. Word of the Devil. — Cardinal Hosius 
says, " That which the Church [of Rome] teaches is the express word 
of God; and that which is held contrary to the sense and consent of 
the church, is the express word of the devil." — Id., p. 158. 

Tradition, Necessity of. — The objectivity of Christianity would 
have necessarily disappeared, if, besides the Bible, there had not been a 
rule of faith, to wit, universal tradition. Without this rule, it would 
ever be impossible to determine with positiveness, safety, and general 
obligation, the peculiar doctrines of Christianity. The individual, at 
best, could only hazard the assertion, This is my view, my interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, or in other words, without tradition there would be 
no doctrine of the church, and no church, but individual Christians 
only; no certainty and security, but only doubt and probability. — "Sym- 
bolism," John Adam Moehler, D. D. (R. G.), p. 284. London: Thomas 
Baker, 1906. 

Tradition, Church of England's Article Against. — It is not law- 
ful for the church to ordain anything that is contrary to God's Word 
written; neither may it so expound one place of Scripture, that it be 
repugnant to another. Wherefore, although the church be a witness and 
a keeper of Holy Writ, yet as it ought not to decree anything against 
the same, so, besides the same, ought it not to enforce anything to be 
believed for necessity of salvation. — Article XX of the XXXIX Arti- 
cles of the Church of England, " Homilies," pp. 576, 577. London, 1817. 

Tradition, Protestant Appeal to. — The first precept in the Bible 
is that of sanctifying the seventh day: "God blessed the seventh day, 
and sanctified it." Gen. 2: 3. This precept was confirmed by God in the 
ten commandments. " Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 
The seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God." Exodus 20. Od 



TRADITION, PROTESTANT 607 

the other hand, Christ declares that he is not come to destroy the law, 
but to fulfill it. Matt. 5: 17. He himself observed the Sabbath: "And, 
as his custom was, he went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day." 
Luke 4: 16. His disciples likewise observed it after his death: "They 
rested on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment." Luke 
23: 56. Yet with all this weight of Scripture authority for keeping the 
Sabbath or seventh day holy, Protestants of all denominations make 
this a profane day, and transfer the obligation of it to the first day of 
the week, or the Sunday. Now what authority have they for doing 
this? None whatever, except the unwritten word, or tradition, of the 
Catholic Church, which declares that the apostles made the change in 
honor of Christ's resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Ghost on 
that day of the week. — " The End of Religious Controversy," Rev. 
John Milner, D. D. (R. C), p. 71. New York: P. J. Kenedy. 

Tradition, Protestant Acceptance of, as to Foot-Washing. — 
I will confine myself to one more instance of Protestants' abandoning 
their own rule, that of Scripture alone, to follow ours, of Scripture 
explained by tradition. If an intelligent pagan, who had carefully pe- 
rused the New Testament, were asked which of the ordinances mentioned 
in it is most explicitly and strictly enjoined, I make no doubt but he 
would answer that it is "the washing of feet." To convince you of 
this, be pleased to read the first seventeen verses of St. John 13. 
Observe the motive assigned for Christ's performing the ceremony 
there recorded, namely, his "love for his disciples: " next, the time 
of his performing it, namely, when he was about to depart out of this 
world. Then remark the stress he lays upon it, in what he said to 
Peter: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me." Finally, his 
injunction at the conclusion of the ceremony, " If I, your Lord and 
Master, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's 
feet." I now ask, On what pretense can those who profess to make 
Scripture alone the rule of their religion totally disregard this in- 
stitution and precept? Had this ceremony been observed in the church 
when Luther and the other first Protestants began to dogmatize, there is 
no doubt but they would have retained it; but, having learned from her 
that it was only figurative, they acquiesced in this decision, contrary 
to what appears to be the plain sense of Scripture. — Id., pp. 71, 72. 

Tradition, A Roman Catholic View of. — The Fathers had spoken 
of the unwritten teaching of the apostles, which was to be sought in 
the churches they had founded, of esoteric doctrines, and views which 
must be of apostolic origin because they are universal, of the inspira- 
tion of general councils, and a revelation continued beyond the New 
Testament. But the Council of Trent resisted the conclusions which 
this language seemed to countenance, and they were left to be pursued 
by private speculation. One divine deprecated the vain pretense of 
arguing from Scripture, by which Luther could not be confuted, and 
the Catholics were losing ground; and at Trent a speaker averred that 
Christian doctrine had been so completely determined by the School- 
men that there was no further need to recur to Scripture. 

This idea is not extinct, and Perrone uses it to explain the infe- 
riority of Catholics as Biblical critics. If the Bible is inspired, says 
Peresius, still more must its interpretation be inspired. It must be 
interpreted variously, says the Cardinal of Cusa, according to necessity; 
a change in the opinion of the church implies a change in the will of 
God. One of the greatest Tridentine divines declares that a doctrine 
must be true if the church believes it, without any warrant from 
Scripture. According to Petavius, the general belief of Catholics at a 



608 TRIPLE CROWN 

given time is the work of God, and of higher authority than all antiq- 
uity and all the Fathers. Scripture may be silent, and tradition con- 
tradictory, but the church is independent of both. Any doctrine which 
Catholic divines commonly assert, without proof, to be revealed, must 
be taken as revealed. The testimony of Rome, as the only remaining 
apostolic church, is equivalent to an unbroken chain of tradition. - In 
this way, after Scripture had been subjugated, tradition itself was de- 
posed;, and the constant belief of the past yielded to the general con- 
viction of the present. — " The History of Freedom," John Emerich Ed- 
ward Dalberg-Acton (R. C.J, pp. 513, 514. London: Macmillan & Co., 
1909. 

Triple Crown. — Three periods may be distinguished in the develop- 
ment of the tiara. The first period extends to the time when it was 
adorned with a royal circlet or diadem; in this period the papal orna- 
ment for the head was, as is clear from the "Constitutum Constantini " 
and from the ninth Ordo of Mabillon (ninth century), merely a helmet- 
like cap of white material. . . . During the pontificate of Boniface VIII a 
second crown was added to the former one. . . . What led Boniface VIII 
to make this change, whether merely love of pomp, or whether he desired 
to express by the tiara with two crowns his opinions concerning the 
double papal authority, cannot be determined. . . . The earliest repre- 
sentation of a tiara with three crowns ... is offered by the effigy 
of Benedict XII (d. 1342), the remains of which are preserved in the 
museum at Avignon. . . . Since the fifteenth century the tiara has 
received no changes worthy of note. — The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 
XIV, art. " Tiara," pp. 714, 715. 

Turkish Empire.— Pages 155-167, 544-553. 

Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years, Sir Isaac Newton on. — Three 
times and a half; that is, for 1260 solar years, reckoning a time for a 
calendar year of 360 days, and a day for a solar year. After which the 
judgment is to sit, and they shall take away his dominion, not at once, 
but by degrees, to consume, and to destroy it unto the end. — " Observa- 
tions upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John" 
Sir Isaac Newton, part 1, chap. 8, p. 114. London: J. Darby and T. 
Browne, 1733. 

Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years, Bishop* Newton on. — We must 
therefore compute the time according to the nature and genius of the. 
prophetic language. A time, then, and times, and half a time are three 
years and a half; and the ancient Jewish year consisting of twelve 
months, and each month of thirty days, " a time and times and half a 
time," or three years and a half, are reckoned in the Revelation (11: % 
3; 12: 6, 14), as equivalent to "forty and two months, or "a thousand 
two hundred and threescore days: " and a day in the style of the 
prophets is a year: " I have appointed thee each day for a year," saith 
God to Ezekiel (4: 6); and it is confessed that "the seventy weeks" 
in the ninth chapter of Daniel are weeks of years; and consequently 
1260 days are 1260 years. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies" Thomas 
Newton, D. D., p. 247. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Notes. — The beginning of the seventy weeks, or 490 years of Dan. 9 : 24, 
25, fixes also the beginning of the 2300 years of Dan. 8 : 14. The angel had 
come to Daniel, in the eighth chapter, to explain the vision of which the 2300 
years was part. Daniel fainted before the time period was reached in the ex- 
planation. Still the angel was under the command of God to explain the vision. 
So as he came to Daniel in the ninth chapter, he said he had now come to give 
Daniel understanding, and asked him to "consider the vision" (verse 23), — of 



TWENTY-THREE HUNDRED DAYS 609 

necessity, the vision whose explanation had been interrupted a few months before. 
The marginal dates in the Authorized Version show fifteen years between these 
chapters. That was because it was formerly supposed that Belshazzar, in whose 
third year the vision was given, was the Nabonidus of history, who reigned seven- 
teen years. The discovery of the buried records, however, has shown that Bel- 
shazzar was the son of Nabonidus, associated with him as king in the last years 
of his reign. Hence the explanation of Daniel 9 may have followed but a few 
months after the vision of Daniel 8. — Eds. 

The angel's explanation began with the time period, which had been left 
unexplained ; and it was said that seventy weeks, or 490 years, were " cut off " 
and allotted to the Jewish people. The only inference is that this time was 
cut off from the 2300 year period, which was to be explained ; and therefore the 
starting-point of the seventy weeks, a. d. 457, must of necessity be the starting- 
point of the 2300 days. — Eds. 

Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years. — Pages 17, 393. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Of Dan. 8: 14; The Correct Text 
Assured. — There is no number in the Bible whose genuineness is better 
ascertained than that of the 2300 days. It is found in all the printed 
Hebrew editions, in all the MSS. of Kennicott and De Rossi's colla- 
tions, and in all the ancient versions, except the Vatican copy of the 
Septuagint, which reads 2400, followed by Symmachus; and some copies 
noticed by Jerom, 2200; both evidently literal errors in excess and 
defect. — "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography" Rev. William 
Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 512, footnote. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 
1830. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Symbolic Time. — It is plain at once 
that this [the 2300 days] is not the usual and literal expression for a 
space of between six and seven years. There are only three instances 
in all Scripture history where a period of above forty days is expressed 
in days only. Gen. 7: 3 [24]; Neh. 6: 15; Esther 1: 4. And it is with- 
out any precedent in Scripture, or in common usage, that periods of 
more than one year should be thus described. — " First Elements of 
Sacred Prophecy," Rev. T. R. Birks, chap. 13, p. 357. London: William 
Edward Painter, 1843. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Prophetic Time. — The days, with- 
out doubt, are to be taken, agreeably to the style of Daniel in other 
places, not for natural, but for prophetic days, or years; and as the 
question was asked, not only how long the daily sacrifice shall be taken 
away and the transgression of desolation continue, but also how long 
the vision shall last; so the answer is to be understood, and these two 
thousand and three hundred days denote the whole time from the be- 
ginning of the vision to the cleansing of the sanctuary. — " Dissertations 
on the Prophecies" Thomas Newton, D. D., p. 290. London: B. Blake, 
1840. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Time of Commencement of. — As 
both the 2300 years of chapter 8 and the " seventy weeks " of chapter 
9 start from the Persian period of Jewish history, in other words, as 
they both date from the Restoration era which followed the Babylonian 
captivity, their starting points must be either identical or closely re- 
lated, chronologically. — " Light for the Last Days," Mr. and Mrs. H. 
Grattan Guinness, p. 183. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Apparently the Earliest Works 
Fixing Common Beginning with Seventy Weeks, b. c. 457. — I have 
lately seen a small pamphlet, which was first published in America, 
39 



610 TWENTY-THREE HUNDRED DAYS 



by the Rev. William E. Davis, South Carolina, and republished in 
1818, at Workington in the north of England. This author asserts 
that the two thousand three hundred days commenced with Daniel's 
seventy weeks which are mentioned in chap. 9: 24. In this opinion 
I am constrained to concur. . . . Having mentioned my obligation to 
this author, I shall now endeavor to avail myself of the ideas which he 
has suggested. — " Two Essays on Daniel's Prophetic Number of Two 
Thousand Three Hundred Days, and on the Christian's Duty to Inquire 
into the Church's Deliverance," Archibald Mason (minister of the gospel, 
Wishawton, Scotland), p. 9. Newburgh: printed from the Glasgow edi- 
tion, Ward M. Gazlay, 1820. (British Museum Library.) 

Notes. — Until this book came over the sea to America, in 1842, William 
Miller's associates had never heard of Mr. Davis's book (Midnight Cry, June 15, 
1842; cited in "Great Second Advent Movement," p. 87). On inquiry they de- 
cided that " Davis's book must have been written about 1810." Archibald Mason 
expected the fall of the Papacy and the cleansing of the church in 1843-44. — Eds. 

It is to be noted that 2300 full years from within b. c. 457 must end 
within a. d. 1844. The exact month need not be considered in these periods 
that deal with years. However, the Scripture record gives two definite seasons 
within the year 457, connected with tne going forth of the decree of Artaxerxes, 
— the first month, April, when Ezra's expedition started, and the fifth month, 
August, when he reached Jerusalem. Ezra 7 : 9. Soon after arriving, the im- 
portant incident of Ezra 8 : 36 must have occurred : " They delivered the king's 
commissions unto the king's lieutenants, and to the governors on this side 
the river : and they furthered the people, and the house of God." Certainly not 
later than this official delivery of the decree, in the autumn of 457, the com- 
mandment may be considered as having fully gone forth or into effect. — Eds. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Explained by " Seventy "Weeks." — 
This chronological prophecy [seventy weeks] . . . was evidently de- 
signed to explain the foregoing vision, especially in its chronological 
part of the 2300 days. — " A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography," 
Rev. William Hales, D. D., Vol. II, p. 517. London: C. J. G. & F. Riv- 
ington, 1830. 

Note. — Dr. Hales, who wrote this in the 18th century, says that he got the 
idea of the seventy weeks " as forming a branch of the 2300 days " from a com- 
mentary on the " Revelation of St. John," by Hans Wood, of Ireland, published 
in London, 1787 (Hales, Vol. II, p. 518, footnote). But these early writers failed 
to see that the beginning of the period was the going forth of the decree to re- 
store and build Jerusalem. Dr. Hales arrived at the date of the beginning of 
the periods by the rough method of counting back 490 years from the fall of 
Jerusalem, a. d. 70. " The destruction of Jerusalem, therefore, divides the whole 
period into two unequal parts ; the former consisting of 490 years, beginning 
b. c. 420 ; the latter, of 1810 years, ending a. d. 1880." (Hales, Vol. II, p. 518.) 
In that early time the idea of the seventy weeks as an explanation of the 
2300 days was thus beginning to dawn upon the minds of students of prophecy, 
to be seized upon and properly applied as the days of 1844 drew near. — Eds. 

Twenty-three Hundred Days, Beginning of. — Pages 40, 554, 630. 
Twenty-three Hundred Days, Close of. — Pages 17, 22. 

Two Evenings, Law of, Fulfilled by Christ. — The Jews reckoned 
two evenings: the former began at the ninth hour of the natural day, 
or third after noon; the latter began at sunset, and was called ecnrtpa 
[hespera] ("evening"). Acts 4:3. The former, irpbseairtpav [pros 
hesperan] ( "toward evening" ). Luke 24: 29. . . 

By the law of Moses, the paschal lamb was required to be sacrificed 
^•JJpriira ("between the evenings"). Ex. 12: 6; Num. 9: 3; and else- 
where. " At even, at the going down of the sun," including both. Deut. 



TWO EVENINGS 611 

16: 6. . . . "Christ, our : Passover," therefore, critically fulfilled the law 
when he expired about the ninth hour (Matt. 27: 46), and was taken 
down from the cross, at the first evening (Mark 15: 42-45), and was in- 
terred before the second evening, or sunset (Luke 23: 54). — "A New 
Analysis of Chronology and Geography;' Rev. William Hales, D. D., 
Vol. I, p. 15. London: C. J. G. & F. Rivington, 1830. 

Two Evenings, Time of Offering- the Passover Lamb. — So these 
high priests, upon the coming of that feast which is called the Passover, 
when they slay their sacrifices, from the ninth hour till the eleventh, 
but so that a company not less than ten belong to every sacrifice (for it 
is not lawful for them to feast singly by themselves), and many of us 
are twenty in a company, found the number of sacrifices was two hun- 
dred and fifty-six thousand five hundred; Which, upon the allowance of 
no more than ten that feast together, amounts to 2,700,200 persons that 
were pure and holy. — Josephus, "Wars of the Jews" Whiston's transla- 
tion, book 6, chap. 9. Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company. 

Two Laws.— Pages 300, 301, 306. 

Two Witnesses, Old Expositor (1619) on the Period and Their 
Identity. — It is common with the Holy Ghost in prophecies to set down 
a day for a year, so Antichrist must reigne 1260 yeares. — "A Revelation 
of the Revelation" Thomas Mason, p. 46. London: G. Eld, 1619. (Brit- 
ish Museum Library.) 

The two witnesses are the Olde and New Testaments, and all that 
preach and teach them all the time of Antichrist. — Ibid. 

Two Witnesses, The Old and New Testaments. — Where then shall 
we find in the world the "two witnesses " here introduced by the angel? 
For they must be of great antiquity; they must be only two in number, 
and these two must have but one " mouth," and be the witnesses of 
God, or of his revealed word and will to mankind. They are, I will 
venture to pronounce, and can be nothing else, but the two Testaments, 
the Old and New. These two holy prophets and oracles of God, alone, 
among all the variety of things upon the earth, can satisfy and fulfil the 
figurative description of the text. . . . Have not these " two witnesses " 
alone given the clearest testimony of his omnipotence, his infinite wis- 
dom, his justice and mercy? — "Brief Commentaries on Such Parts of 
the Revelation and Other Prophecies as Refer to the Present Times," 
Joseph Galloway, Vol. I, pp. 46, 47. London: Hatchard and Rivingtons, 
1802. 

Two Witnesses, As Dr. Goodwin Foresaw Events by the Prophecy 
(in 1639). — The saints and churches belonging to the kingdom of 
France, God hath made a wonder to me in all his proceedings, first and 
last; and there would seem to be some great and special honor reserved 
for them yet at the last. . . . They bore and underwent the great heat 
of that morning of persecution, which was as great, if not greater, than 
any since. . . . And so as that kingdom had the first great stroke [of 
persecution], so now it should have the honor to have the last great 
stroke in the ruining of Rome. — " The French Revolution Foreseen in 
1639," p. 12, being extracts from the writings of Thomas Goodwin, D. D. 
London: J. Johnson, 1796, (British Museum Library.) 



612 TWO WITNESSES 



I believe that some one kingdom or state will more eminently be 
made the seat of this war, the field of this battle, the shambles of this 
slaughter; for where the witnesses rise from their dead conditions, there 
an earthquake shakes the tenth part of the city, or one of those ten 
European states that have given up their kingdoms to the beast, but 
shall now in this slaughter, begin to fall from, and cease to be a part 
of the city, no longer belonging to the jurisdiction of Rome. — " Exposi- 
tions of the Famous Divine, Thomas Goodwin, D. D." p. 661. London: 
Simptin, Marshall & Co., 1842. (Dr. Goodwin died in 1680.) 

The voice which calls these witnesses up to heaven may yet proceed 
from the throne of France, where the witnesses have ever prophesied in 
sackcloth; so that that kingdom may have the first stroke in the ruin 
of Rome. — Id., p. 670. 

Two Witnesses, " The Geeat City," in Early Expositors. — In 
respect of the place, our Lord Jesus was crucified at Jerusalem; but 
if we respect the power and authority that put him to death, he was 
crucified at Rome: for Christ was put to death by a Roman judge, by 
Roman laws, by Roman authority, by a kind of death proper only to 
the Romans, and in a place which then was within the Roman Empire; 
and for this cause it is here said that Christ was crucified at Rome. — 
" The Ruine of Rome" Arthur Dent (Preacher of the Word of God at 
South Shoobury in Essex), p. 185. London: John Waterson, 1656. 
(British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, Jurieu (1687) on "Tenth Part of City." — "The 
bodies " of the " two witnesses shall lie in the street of the great city." 
'Tis to be observed that in the text 'tis not "in the streets," in the plural, 
as the French translation reads; 'tis "in the street," in the singular. 
And I cannot hinder myself from believing that this hath a particular re- 
gard to France, which at this day is certainly the most eminent country 
which belongs to the popish kingdom. Her king is called the eldest son 
of the church, the most Christian king, i. e., the most popish, according 
to the dialect of Rome. The kings of France have by their liberalities 
made the popes great at this day; it is the most flourishing state of 
Europe. It is in the middle of the popish empire, betwixt Italy, Spain, 
Germany, England, exactly as a street or place of concourse is in the 
middle of a city. 'Tis also foursquare, as such a place, i. e., almost as 
long as broad. In a word, 'tis the place or "street of the great city." 
And I believe that 'tis particularly in France that the witnesses must 
remain dead, i. e., that the profession of the true religion must be 
utterly abolished. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies,'" 
Peter Jurieu (of the French Church at Rotterdam), part 2, chap. 12, 
pp. 247, 248. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, Mather (1710) on France as Scene of. — At the 
time when the second woe passeth away there is to be a great earth- 
quake. In that earthquake one of the ten kingdoms over which Anti- 
christ has reigned, will fall. There is at this day a great earthquake 
among the nations. May the kingdom of France be that tenth part of 
the city which shall fall, may we hear of a mighty Revolution there; we 
shall then know that the kingdom of Christ is at hand. — "Discourse 
Concerning Faith and Fervency in Prayer," Dr. J. Mather, p. 97, London, 
1710; cited in " The Signs of the Times; or, The Overthrow of the Papal 
Tyranny in France," J. Bicheno, M. A., part 2, p. 85. London: Johnson. 
Matthews, Knott, 1799. (British Museum Library.) 



TWO WITNESSES 613 

Two Witnesses, Early Expositor (1742) on Prance as Scene of. 

— Before Antichrist's fall, one of the ten kingdoms which supported the 
beast shall undergo a marvelous Revolution. Rev. 11: 13. "The same 
hour there was a great earthquake, and the tenth part of the city fell." 
By which tenth part, is to be understood one of the ten kingdoms into 
which the great city Romish Babylon was divided. This many take to 
be the kingdom of France, it being the tenth and last of the kingdoms 
as to the time of its rise, and that which gave to Rome the denomination 
of a beast with ten horns, and also its being the only one of the ten 
that was never conquered since its rise. However unlikely this and 
other prophesied events may appear at the time, yet the almighty hand 
of the only wise God can soon bring them about when least expected. 
-r-"A Prophecy of the French Revolution," Rev. John W. Willison, Min- 
ister at Dundee, p. 23, reprinted from the original, first published in 
1742. London: J. Forbes, 1793. (British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, An Interpretation of 1748. — And the tenth part 
of the city, or of the Romish jurisdiction, shall fall; that is, one of its 
ten horns, kings or kingdoms belonging to it, and perhaps the kingdom 
of France is meant, and seven thousand men of name will be slain. — 
Sermon by Dr. Gill, 1748; cited in " Second Advent Library" No. I, 
Jan. 1, 1842. Boston. 

Two Witnesses, Sir Isaac Newton's Conjecture as to Part of 
Atheism in Marking End of Papal Supremacy. — Sir Isaac Newton 
had a very sagacious conjecture, which he told Dr. Clarke, from whom 
I received it, that the overbearing tyranny and persecuting power of 
the anti-Christian party, which had so long corrupted Christianity, and 
enslaved the Christian world, must be put a stop to, and broken to pieces 
by the prevalence of infidelity, for some time, before primitive Chris- 
tianity could be restored; which seems to be the very means that is now 
working in Europe, for the same good and great end of Providence. 
Possibly he might think that our Saviour's own words implied it: 
" When the Son of man cometh shall he find faith on the earth? " — 
" Essay on the Revelation," William Whiston, M. A., p. 321. London, 
1744. 

Note. — Whiston was Newton's successor in Mathematics at Cambridge. 

— Eds. 

Two Witnesses, The Atheistic Uprising from " the Bottomless 
Prr." — I stand convinced of the importance and necessity of disclosing 
to the world the dark recesses from whence it burst into being. — " Mem- 
oirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism," Abbe Burruel, Vol. I, "Pre- 
liminary Discourse," p. xi. London, 1797. 

Were France, like hell, a bottomless pit, impenetrable to every 
voice, . . . still it is not too late to acquaint other nations of their 
danger. — Id., p. xviii. 

When the ignorant people no longer saw God between them and 
annihilation, they plunged into the bottomless abyss of atheism. — 
"Atheism Among the People," Alphonse de Lamartine, p. 41. Boston, 
1850. 

We are now, therefore, got to that black precipitous abyss, whither 
all things have long been tending. — " French Revolution," Thomas Car- 
lyle, book 7, chap. 1. 

Two Witnesses, The Spirit from the " Bottomless Pit." — The 
talent developed was too great, the wickedness committed too appalling, 



614 TWO WITNESSES 



to be explained on the usual principles of human nature. It seemed 
rather as if some higher powers had been engaged in a strife in which 
man was the visible instrument; as if the demons of hell had been let 
loose to scourge mankind, and the protection of Heaven for a time 
withdrawn. — "History of Europe," Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., F. R. 
8. E., "Introduction;' par. 7 (Vol. I, p. 3), 9th edition. Edinburgh: Wil- 
liam Blackwood and Sons, 1854. 

Two Witnesses, The Scriptures " Slain." — a. d. 1793. The Bible 
had passed out of the hands of the people, in all the dominions of 
popery from the time of the supremacy. The doctrines had perished, 
and left their place to human reveries. The converts were martyred. 
At length, the full triumph of the old spirit of corruption and persecu- 
tion terribly arrived. In the year 1793 twelve hundred and sixty years 
from the letter of Justinian declaring the Pope " Universal Bishop," the 
gospel was, by a solemn act of the legislature and the people, abolished 
in France. The indignities offered to the actual copies of the Bible were 
unimportant after this; their life is in their doctrines, and the extinc- 
tion of the doctrines is the extinction of the Bible. By the decree of 
the French government, declaring that the nation acknowledged no God, 
the Old and New Testaments were slain throughout the limits of repub- 
lican France. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George Groly, A. M., 
pp. 175, 176, 2d edition revised. London: G. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Put to Death in Symbol. — That the prophecy re- 
specting the conquest and death of the two witnesses might literally, as 
well as figuratively, be fulfilled, the commissioners of the Convention 
dressed up an ass, and loading it with the symbols of Christianity, led , 
it in mock procession, with the Old and New Testaments tied to its tail, 
and burned them to ashes, amidst the blasphemous shouts and accla- 
mations of the deluded multitude. — " Brief Commentaries on Such Parts 
of the Revelation and Other Prophecies as Refer to the Present Times" 
Joseph Galloway, Vol. I, pp. 93, 94. London: Hatchard and Rivingtons, 
1802. 

Two Witnesses, Slaying the Witnesses. — On the 10th of Novem- 
ber [1793] an ass, dressed out in a sacerdotal habit, was led in proces- 
sion through the town by two sans culottes, carrying a sacred cup, out 
of which they gave the animal drink; and when they arrived at one of 
the public edifices, Bibles, books of devotion, etc., were piled up in a 
heap, which was set on fire amidst horrid shouts from a vast concourse 
of people, " Long live the Sans Culottes! "... 

Wherever a Bible could be found it might be said to be persecuted 
to death; so much so that several respectable commentators interpret 
the slaying of the two witnesses in the eleventh chapter of the Apoca- 
lypse, of the general suppression, nay, destruction, of the Old and New 
Testaments in France at this period. The fall of the witnesses is to be 
accompanied with national rejoicings; and it is a remarkable circum- 
stance that twenty-six theaters in Paris were open and filled to over- 
flowing at a season when, in a single month (July, 1794) not less than 
eight hundred persons of chief consideration, perished by the guillotine 
in the metropolis alone. — "An Historical Sketch of the Protestant 
Church of France" J. G. Lorimer, pp. 530-532. Edinburgh: John John- 
stone, 1841. 

Two Witnesses, Frenzied Festivities. — A very remarkable and 
prophetic distinction of this period was the spirit of frenzied festivity 
which seized upon France. The capital and all the republican towns 



TWO WITNESSES 615 

were the scene of civic feasts, processions, and shows of the most ex- 
travagant kind. The most festive times of peace under the most expen- 
sive kings were thrown into the shade by the frequency, variety, and 
extent of the republican exhibitions. Yet this was a time of perpetual 
miseries throughout France. The guillotine was bloody from morn till 
njght. — "The Apocalypse of St. John" Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 176, 
2d edition. London: G. & J. Rivington, 



Two Witnesses, Believees Suffered with the Word. — Indeed, the 
Protestants who would not go the length of the Revolutionists were sub- 
jected to the crudest treatment. In the department of Gard alone the 
slaughter was widespread. During the Reign of Terror the Protestants 
were as much oppressed and persecuted as the Roman Catholics. This 
is apparent from the religious profession of those who were guillotined. 
Of one party of sufferers Lauze de Paret gives the following summary: 
91 Roman Catholics, 46 Protestants, and 1 Jew. . . . Out of 150 guillo- 
tined in the district of Gard 117 were Protestants. — "An Historical 
Sketch of the Protestant Church of France," J. G. Lorimer, pp. 504, 531. 
Edinburgh: J. Johnstone, 1841. 

Two Witnesses, Spiritual Egypt and Sodom. — Rome is called 
spiritually Zodome because they exceed Zodome in the sinnes thereof, 
and it is called Egypt, because they have oppressed the children of God 
more than the Egyptians did the Israelites; and Christ was slain in 
Rome, in that Pilate a Romane judge condemned him, and the Romane 
officers crucified him. — "A Revelation of the Revelation," Thomas Ma- 
son, p. 49. London: G. Eld, 1619. (British Museum Library.) 

Two Witnesses, Slain, but Not Buried. — The Truth shall be slain, 
but it shall not be buried. Burial is a degree beyond death, and is 
always joined with a total corruption and destruction. And so 'tis not 
an office of charity, which is denied to these two witnesses; but a degree 
of ruin, from which they are exempted. And observe who they are who 
hinder their burial; they are not the same with those who killed them. 
Those who killed them are the inhabitants of the street of the great city, 
i. e., those who dwell in the most eminent part of the popish kingdom; 
which at this day is France. Those who hinder their burial are the 
tribes, languages, people, and nations, i. e., several neighbor nations. — 
" The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," Peter Jurieu, part 
2, chap. 12, p. 248. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, Jurieu on Three and a Half Years. — I am per- 
suaded that these three days and a half are three years and a half; a 
day standing for a year, as the three years and a half are 1260 years, 
taking a year for a day. ' Tis therefore three years and a half, during 
which the external profession of the truth must be altogether sup- 
pressed; and after which it shall be raised again to life. — Id., part 2, 
chap. 13, p. 252. 

Two Witnesses, Camille Jordan's Declaration for Religious Free- 
dom. — Declaring that religion should no longer be proscribed, but pro- 
tected, he [in National Convention, June 15, 1797] reiterated the solemn 
promise that worship should be free in France. In his peroration he 
called for the restoration of all the outward symbols of faith. — " French 
Revolution and Religious Reform" W. M. Sloane, p. 229. 

Two Witnesses, Revived after Three and a Half Years. — a. d. 
1797. On the 17th of June, Camille Jordan, in the " Council of Five 
Hundred," brought up the memorable report on the " Revision of the 



616 TWO WITNESSES 

laws relative to religious worship.'' It consisted of a number of propo- 
sitions, abolishing alike the republican restrictions on popish worship, 
and the popish restrictions on Protestant, [p. 181] . . . 

From that period the church [Protestant] has oeen free in France, 
and it now numbers probably as large a population as before its fall. 
It is a striking coincidence, that almost at the moment when this great 
measure was determined on, the French army under Bonaparte was 
invading and partitioning the papal territory. The next year 1798, saw 
it master of Home, the popedom a republic, and the Pope a prisoner 
and an exile. 

The church and the Bible had been slain in France from November, 
1793, till June, 1797. The three years and a half were expended, and 
the Bible, so long and so sternly repressed before, was placed in honor, 
and was openly the Book of free Protestantism! — " The Apocalypse of 
St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., pp. 181-183, 2d edition revised. 
London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Exalted Before All. — Infidelity, produced in a 
great measure by the unfaithfulness of the church, is pictured forth in 
blood before her eyes. The event is sanctified to many. Thousands 
begin to turn to God for safety, and to think seriously of religion. . . . 
The consequence is that at the very time when Satan is hoping for, 
and the timid are fearing, an utter overturn of true religion, there is 
a revival, and the gospel expands its wings and prepares for a new 
flight. It is worthy of remembrance that the year 1792, the very year 
of the French Revolution, was also the year when the Baptist Mission- 
ary Society was formed, a society which was followed during the suc- 
ceeding, and they the worst, years of the Revolution, with new societies 
of unwonted energy and union, all aiming, and aiming successfully, at 
the propagation of the gospel of Christ, both at home and abroad. What 
withering contempt did the great Head of the church thus pour upon the 
schemes of infidels! And how did he arouse the careless and instruct 
his own people, by alarming providences, at a season when they greatly 
needed such a stimulus! — "An Historical Sketch of the Protestant 
Church of France," J. G. Lorimer, p. 522. Edinburgh: J. Johnstone, 1841. 

Two Witnesses, Greater Liberty. — The death of Christianity was 
local and limited; no nation of Europe joined in the desperate guilt of 
the French Republic; and within three years and a half, the predicted 
time, it was called up from the grave to a liberty which it had never 
before enjoyed; the church in France was proclaimed free. — " The Apoc- 
alypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 427, 2d edition revised. 
London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, The Scriptures to the World. — The stupendous 
endeavors of one gigantic community [British Bible Society organized 
1804] to convey the Scriptures in every language to every part of the 
globe, may well deserve to be considered as an eminent sign even of 
these eventful times. Unless I be much mistaken, such endeavors are 
preparatory to the final grand diffusion of Christianity; which is the 
theme of so many inspired prophets, and which cannot be very far 
distant in the present day. — "Dissertation on the Prophecies," George 
Stanley Faber, D. D., Vol. II, p. 406. London, 1814. 

Two Witnesses, The Sackcloth Stage Passed. — The papal hostil- 
ity to the church was, from the 13th century, exerted in two ways, — 
the suppression of the Scriptures, and the torture and death of their 
preachers and converts by the Inquisition. The French Revolution was 



TWO WITNESSES 617 

the close of its power in both. The French armies abolished the Inquisi- 
tion in Rome (1798), and in Spain (1808); it has been revived, but is 
inactive. The extraordinary circulation of the Scriptures commenced 
during the French Revolution, and they are now beyond suppression 
by man. — " The Apocalypse of St. John," Rev. George Croly, A. M., p. 
210, 2d edition revised. London: C. & J. Rivington, 1828. 

Two Witnesses, Political Earthquake and French Break with 
Rome Long Foreseen. — " There shall be an earthquake," and " a tenth 
part of the city shall be overturned." Mark that the earthquake, i. e., the 
great alteration of affairs in the land of the Papacy, must for that time 
happen only in the tenth part of the city that shall fall : for this shall be 
the effect of this earthquake. 

Now what is this tenth part of this city, which shall fall? In my 
opinion we cannot doubt that 'tis France. This kingdom is the most 
considerable part, or piece, of the ten horns, or states, which once made 
up the great Babylonian city. . . . This tenth part of the city shall 
fall, with respect to the Papacy; it shall break with Rome, and the 
Roman religion. — " The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies," 
Peter Jurieu, part 2, chap. 13, pp. 264, 265. London, 1687. 

Two Witnesses, The "Earthquake" Preparing. — "Already," it was 
said by Mr. Burke in the year 1790, " in many parts of Europe there is 
a hollow murmuring under ground; a confused movement that threat- 
ens a general earthquake of the political world." — " Horw Apocalypticw," 
Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, p. 300, 3d edition. London: Seeley, 
Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Two Witnesses, Fall of Feudalism as by Earthquake. — " In a 
single night," said the Moniteur, " the whole fabric of feudal power has 
fallen to the ground, and the glorious edifice of general liberty emerged 
in its stead." It has been truly said that this night [Aug. 4, 1789] 
changed the political condition of France. It delivered the land from 
feudal domination, the person from feudal dependence, secured the 
property of the poor from the rapacity of the rich, the fruits of indus- 
try from the extortion of idleness. . . . The odious distinctions of noble 
and roturier, patrician and baseborn, the relics of Gothic conquest, were 
forever destroyed. Had these changes been introduced with caution, 
or had they gradually grown out of the altered condition of society, 
there can be no doubt that they would have been highly beneficial; but 
coming as they did, suddenly and unexpectedly, upon the kingdom, they 
produced the most disastrous consequences. . . . Nothing could be re- 
garded as stable in society after such a shock; the chimeras of every 
enthusiast, the dream of every visionary, seemed equally deserving of 
attention with the sober conclusions of reason and observation, when all 
that former ages had done was swept away in the very commencement 
of improvement. All that the eye had rested on as most stable, all that 
the mind had been accustomed to regard as most lasting, disappeared 
before the first breath of innovation. — "History of Europe," Sir Archi- 
bald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 5, pars. 31, 32 (Vol. I, p. 294), 9th 
edition. Edinburgh: William BlacTcwood & Sons, 1853. 

Two Witnesses, Names of Dignities Annihilated. — In the fervor 
of innovation [1790] titles of honor could not long be maintained. 
M. Lamboin proposed, and Charles Lameth seconded a decree, " That 
the titles of duke, count, marquis, viscount, baron, and chevalier, should 
be suppressed." " Hereditary nobility," said the latter, " wounds equally 
reason and true liberty. There can be no political equality, no virtuous 



618 TWO WITNESSES 

emulation, where citizens have other dignities than those belonging to 
their office, or arising from their virtues." " Let us annihilate," said 
M. de Noailles, " those vain titles, the arrogancy of pride, and ignorance, 
and vanity. It is time that we should have no distinctions save those 
arising from virtue. What should we say to Marquis Franklin, Count 
Washington, Baron Fox? Will such titles ever confer the luster attach- 
ing to the simple Franklin, Fox, Washington? I give my warmest sup- 
port to the motion, and would add to it that liveries should be abol- 
ished." " A nobility," replied the Abbe Maury, " is part of our con- 
stitution: destroy the nobility, and there is no monarchy." So deter- 
mined were the Assembly to extinguish honors, that the decree was 
passed in an evening sitting with very little discussion. The noblesse 
and the clergy made vain efforts to prevent the sacrifice; but it was 
carried by an overwhelming majority. — "History of Europe," Sir Archi- 
bald Alison, Bart., F. R. S. E., chap. 6, par. 35 (Vol. I, p. 330), 9th edition. 
Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1853. 

Two Witnesses, Titles Abolished. — 1. Hereditary nobility is for- 
ever abolished; in consequence the titles of prince, duke, count, marquis, 
viscount, vidame, baron, knight, messire, ecuyler, noble, and all other 
similar titles shall neither be taken by any one whomsoever nor given 
to anybody. . . . 

2. A citizen may take only the true name of his family; no one may 
wear liveries nor cause them to be worn, nor have armorial bearings. . . . 

3. The titles of monseigneur and messeigneurs shall not be given to 
any society nor to any person; likewise, the titles of excellency, high- 
ness, eminence, grace, etc. — Law of June 19, 1790, Lois I, 217, 218, 
in J. B. Duvergier's " Collection complete des lois, decrets, etc.," Vol. I: 
31, Paris, 1834; cited in " Constitutions and Select Documents Illustra- 
tive of the History of France," Sir Robert Anderson, p. 33. 

Two Witnesses, Old Author (1663) on the "Names of Men." — 
Whence we may understand what is meant by these " seven thousand 
names of men; " for neither seven nor thousand signify and deter- 
minate number, but only the nature or property of these names of men 
that are said to be slain, namely, that they are titles, dignities, offices, 
or orders of men belonging to the state of Christendom" — Dr. H. Moore, 
1663 ; quoted in Appendix to "Apocalyptical Key," Robert Fleming, p. 
122. London: W. Baynes, 1809. 

An earthquake signifies political commotions and change of af- 
fairs, is obvious to any one to note; and that whore of Babylon is noth- 
ing but the body of the idolatrous clergy. — Ibid. 

Two Witnesses, Earthquake Convulsion. — The state system that 
in its pursuit of absolute power had ruined the institutions of the past, 
was in its turn threatened with ruin when the sudden outbreak in 
France transformed a progressive revolution into a cataclysm which 
overwhelmed, in a marvelously brief space of time, the whole European 
order. Beginning as a national movement, the French Revolution took 
the form of a great convulsion. — " Historical Development of Modern 
Europe," Charles M. Andrews, Vol. I, p. 9. 

Two Witnesses, The " Great Convulsion " Long Shook Europe. — 
Its [the Holy Roman Empire, 1806] fall in the midst of the great con- 
vulsion that changed the face of Europe marks an era in history, an 
era whose character the events of every year are further unfolding: 



TYPES, MEANING OF 619 

an era of the destruction of old forms and systems and the building 
up of new. — " The Holy Roman Empire" James Bryce, D. C. L., p. 392. 
London: Macmillan d Co., 1892. 

Types, Explanation of. — A loose use of the word " type " makes 
it refer to some person, institution, or event in the Old Testament that 
merely resembles some person, institution, or event in the New Testa- 
ment. 

The strict use of the term makes the type refer to a person, insti- 
tution, or event in the Old Testament that was designed to foreshadow 
a corresponding person, institution, or event in the New Testament. 
In one case there is an accidental resemblance; in the other, a pre- 
figuring. 

The type was preparatory in its nature, teaching the Old Testament 
saints the doctrines that were to be more clearly revealed in the New 
Testament, such as the doctrine of vicarious atonement. We are not, 
then, to hold that all resemblances are types, but that those institutions 
which taught in the early times certain great truths of religion were 
typical of institutions in the later revelation which teach more perfectly 
the same great truths. Mere resemblance in form is not typical. 
(Joseph at thirty, David at thirty, Jesus at thirty, merely accidental.) 
Resemblance between type and antitype must be in the truth conveyed. 
" As Moses lifted up the serpent," etc. Both type and antitype show the 
value of faith. Foreshadowing examples are typical. It is essential 
to the type that it should prefigure something. — "Syllabus for Old Tes- 
tament Study," John R. Sampey, D. D., LL. D., p. 49. Louisville, Ky.: 
Baptist World Publishing Company, 1908. 

Types, The Tabernacle. — The tabernacle exhibiting the kingdom 
of G-od not only in the stage of development in which it theni existed, 
but as destined to pass into higher stages, was necessarily prophetic. 
All its symbols were signs of future things either in the sense that the 
truths they exhibited were truths of Christianity as well as of Mosaism, 
or in the sense that they exhibited truths peculiar to Christianity. The 
institution signified in general that the living God removes from peni- 
tent sinners the sentence of death incurred by transgression of his law, 
and treats them as if they had been obedient, receiving them as children 
to his favor and fellowship. But this theology belongs to Christianity 
as much as to Mosaism, and the tabernacle exhibited it as a truth of the 
future, as well as of the time then present. In its relation to Chris- 
tianity, therefore, the tabernacle was a symbol of future things, or a 
type. 

In this sense not only the institution as a whole, but also its 
several elements, were typical; for Christianity contains all the ideas 
inculcated by Mosaism. When, by the slaughter of an animal as a sin 
offering, it represented that a sinner could live unto God by means of 
a death; when by the sprinkling of the symbol of life it represented 
that the soul of the sinner, having vicariously passed through death, 
was now alive unto God, — it symbolized truths which are parts of the 
Christian, as well as of the Mosaic system. 

It must be confessed, however, that this conception of a type does 
not allow it the fulness of significance to which it is justly entitled. 
Strictly, a type symbolizes not merely something which is to have 
existence in the future, but something whose existence is only in the 
future. The tabernacle is a type, nevertheless, even in this restricted 
sense; for as God dwelt in it among the Hebrews, so since the incar- 
nation he dwells in Christ as a tabernacle of meeting. 

The sacred tent constructed at Sinai represented him as present 



620 UNLEAVENED BREAD, FEAST OF 

with the holy nation; but in the temple of Christ's body he is Emmanuel 
to all nations. He is with us as he was with them, and for the same 
ends; namely, that he may be our God and Saviour, providing expiation 
for our sins, and receiving us to his fellowship as members of his house- 
hold. But the Christian tabernacle of meeting is superior to that of 
the Hebrews, as the substance is superior to the shadow; for while the 
latter is a symbol representing in outward forms that God dwells with 
men as a father with his children, Christ is really the manifestation of 
God dwelling with his people, providing for them an expiation not sym- 
bolic, but real, and admitting them to fellowship not in outward forms, 
but in spirit and in truth. Christ is therefore in the Christian system 
what the tabernacle was a symbol of in the Mosaic. It prophesied of him, 
and was dependent on him for its symbolic significance; he is its anti- 
type. Accordingly, when, in the fulness of time, the kingdom of God 
passed from its first to its second stage of development, and Christ be- 
came the tabernacle of meeting between God and men, the reason for 
maintaining the typical sanctuary with its typical sacrifices ceased, and 
it was soon allowed to pass away never to be re-established. Our Lord 
recognized expressly the symbolic relation of the temple to himself, and 
implicitly that of the tabernacle, when he said, " Destroy this temple, and 
in three days I will raise it up;" speaking not, as his auditors supposed, 
of the symbol, but of that which it symbolized. — " History and Signifi- 
cance of the Sacred Taoernacle of the Hebrews," Edward E. Atwater, pp. 
399-401. New York: Dodd and Mead, 1875. 

Unitarian Church.— Page 149. 

Universalist Church.— Pages 149, 180. 

Unleavened Bread, Feast of. — The Feast of Unleavened Bread 
may be said not to have quite passed till fifty days after its commence- 
ment, when it merged in that of Pentecost, or of Weeks. According 
to unanimous Jewish tradition, which was universally received at the 
time of Christ, the day of Pentecost was the anniversary of the giving 
of the law on Mt. Sinai, which the Feast of Weeks was intended to 
commemorate. Thus, as the dedication of the harvest, commencing 
with the presentation of the first omer on the Passover, was completed 
in the thank offering of the two wave loaves at Pentecost, so the memo- 
rial of Israel's deliverance appropriately terminated in that of the giv- 
ing of the law — just as, making the highest application of it, the Pass- 
over sacrifice of the Lord Jesus may be said to have been completed in 
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. Jewish tra- 
dition has it that on the second of the third month, or Sivan, Moses had 
ascended the mount, that he communicated with the people on the third, 
reascended the mount on the fourth, and that then the people sanctified 
themselves on the fourth, fifth, and sixth of Sivan, on which latter day 
the ten commandments were actually given them. Accordingly the days 
before Pentecost were always reckoned as the first, second, third, etc., 
since the presentation of the omer. Thus Maimonides beautifully ob- 
serves:. "Just as one who is expecting the most faithful of his friends 
is wont to count the days and hours to his arrival, so we also count 
from the omer of the day of our exodus from Egypt to that of the giving 
of the law, which was the object of our exodus, as it is said: ' I bare 
you on eagle's wings, and brought you unto myself.' And because this 
great manifestation did not last more than one day, therefore we annu- 
ally commemorate it only one day." 

Full seven weeks after the paschal day, counting from the presenta- 
tion of the omer on the sixteenth of Nisan, or exactly on the fiftieth 



WAR, DECLARATIONS OF 621 

day, was the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, " a holy convocation," in 
which " no servile work " was to be done, when " all males " were to 
" appear before Jehovah " in his sanctuary, and the appointed sacrifices 
and offerings to be brought. The names, " Feast of Weeks " and " Feast 
of the Fiftieth Day," or " day of Pentecost," bear reference to this inter- 
val from the Passover. Its character is expressed by the terms " Feast 
of Harvest " and " day of first fruits," while Jewish tradition designates 
it as " Chag ha Azereth," or simply " Azereth " (the " Feast of the Con- 
clusion," or simply "conclusion"), and the "Season of the giving of 
our Law." — " The Temple, Its Ministry and Services, as They Were at 
the Time of Jesus Christ," Rev. Dr. Edersheim, pp. 225*227. Boston: 
Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

War, Dates of Declarations and Severance of Relations in the 
Great War of 1914-1918 — 

Declarations of War 

Austria against Belgium Aug. 28, 1914 

Austria against Japan Aug. 27, 1914 

Austria against Montenegro Aug. 9, 1914 

Austria against Russia Aug. 6, 1914 

Austria against Serbia July 28, 1914 

Belgium against Germany Aug. 4, 1914 

Brazil against Germany Oct. 26, 1917 

Bulgaria against Rumania Sept. 1, 1916 

Bulgaria against Serbia Oct. 14, 1915 

China against Austria Aug. 14, 1917 

China against Germany Aug. 14, 1917 

Costa Rica against Germany May 23, 1918 

Cuba against Austria Dec. 16, 1917 

Cuba against Germany April 7, 1917 

France against Austria Aug. 12, 1914 

France against Bulgaria Oct. 16, 1915 

France against Germany Aug. 3, 1914 

France against Turkey Nov. 5, 1914 

Germany against Belgium Aug. 4, 1914 

Germany against France Aug. 3, 1914 

Germany against Portugal March 9, 1916 

Germany against Rumania Aug. 28, 1916 

Germany against Russia Aug. 1, 1914 

Great Britain against Austria Aug. 13, 1914 

Great Britain against Bulgaria Oct. 15, 1915 

Great Britain against Germany Aug. 4, 1914 

Great Britain against Turkey Nov. 5, 1914 

Greece against Bulgaria Nov. 28, 1916 

(Provisional government) 
Greece against Bulgaria July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 
Greece against Germany Nov. 28, 1916 

(Provisional government) 
Greece against Germany July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 

Guatemala against Germany April 21, 1918 

Haiti against Germany July 15, 1918 

Honduras against Germany July 19, 1918 

Italy against Austria May 24, 1915 

Italy against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 

Italy against Germany Aug. 28, 1916 



622 WAR, DECLARATIONS OF 

Italy against Turkey Aug. 21, 1915 

Japan against Germany Aug. 23, 1914 

Liberia against Germany Aug. 4, 1917 

Montenegro against Austria Aug. 8, 1914 

Montenegro against Germany Aug. 9, 1914 

Nicaraugua against Austria May 6, 1918 

Nicaraugua against Germany May 6, 1918 

Panama against Austria Dec. 10, 1917 

Panama against Germany April 7, 1917 

Portugal against Germany Nov. 23, 1914 

(Resolution passed authorizing military intervention 
as ally of England) 
Portugal against Germany May 19, 1915 

(Military aid granted) 
Rumania against Austria Aug. 27, 1916 

(Allies of Austria also consider it a declaration) 

Russia against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 

Russia against Germany Aug. 7, 1914 

Russia against Turkey Nov. 3, 1914 

San Marino against Austria May 24, 1915 

Serbia against Bulgaria Oct. 16, 1915 

Serbia against Germany Aug. 6, 1914 

Serbia against Turkey Dec. 2, 1914 

Siam against Austria July 22, 1917 

Siam against Germany July 22, 1917 

Turkey against Allies Nov. 11, 1914 

Turkey against Rumania Aug. 29, 1916 

United States against Germany April 6, 1917 

Severance of Diplomatic Relations 

Austria against Japan Aug. 26, 1914 

Austria against Portugal March 15, 1916 

Austria against Serbia July 26, 1914 

Austria against United States April 8, 1917 

Belgium against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Bolivia against Germany April 14, 1917 

Brazil against Germany April 11, 1917 

China against Germany March 14, 1917 

Costa Rica against Germany Sept. 21, 1917 

Ecuador against Germany Dec. 7, 1917 

Egypt against Germany Aug. 13, 1914 

France against Austria Aug. 11, 1914 

France against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Germany against Italy May 23, 1915 

Great Britain against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Greece against Austria July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 
Greece against Turkey July 2, 1917 

(Government of Alexander) 

Guatemala against Germany April 27, 1917 

Haiti against Germany June 16, 1917 

Honduras against Germany May 17, 1917 

Japan against Austria Aug. 25, 1914 

Liberia against Germany May 8, 1917 

Nicaraugua against Germany May 19, 1917 

Peru against Germany Oct. 5, 1917 

Rumania against Bulgaria Aug. 30, 1916 

Russia against Bulgaria Oct. 19, 1915 



WAR, LOSSES IN 623 

Russia against Rumania Jan. 28, 1918 

Russia against Turkey Oct. 30, 1914 

Santo Domingo against Germany June 8, 1917 

Turkey against United States April 20, 1917 

United States against Germany Feb. 3, 1917 

Uruguay against Germany Oct. 7, 1917 

— Compiled from the Official United States Bulletin, and Current History. 

Peace Preliminaries 

Armistice for thirty days, asked for by the Germans and granted by 
the Allies, became effective at 11 o'clock, a. m., Paris time, Nov. 11, 1918. 

Dec. 14, 1918, the armistice was renewed at the request of the Ger- 
mans, until 5 o'clock a. m., Jan. 17, 1919. — United States Government 
Official Bulletin. 

War, Casualties of the Nations. — In this table, showing the 
men in arms, the lives lost, and the total casualties of the leading na- 
tions involved in the war, the list of killed follows, in general, figures 
gathered by the New York Evening Post. The other lists follow the 
compilation of a writer in the New York Tribune, and both lists have 
been corrected by official reports issued since the original estimates were 
made. All the totals, except those of the United States, Great Britain, 
Italy, and Germany, are unofficial: 

Total 
Men in Arms Lives Lost Casualties 

United States 3,764,700 58,478 262,723 

Great Britain 7,500,000 658,665 3,049,991 

France 6,000,000 1,100,000 4,000,000 

Italy 5,000,000 500,000 2,000,000 

Russia 14,000,000 3,500,000 5,000,000 

Belgium 350,000 50,000 300,000 

Serbia 300,000 150,000 200,000 

Rumania 600,000 200,000 300,000 

Germany 11,000,000 1,580,000 4,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 7,500,000 2,000,000 4,500,000 

Turkey 1,500,000 250,000 750,000 

Bulgaria 1,000,000 50,000 200,000 

Totals '58,514,700 10,097,143 24,562,714 

— Literary Digest, Dec. 7, 1918. 

SEVEN EIGHTHS OF THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD AT WAR 

Entente 

British Empire 422,000,000 

France and colonies 94,000,000 

Russian Empire 171,000,000 

Italy and colonies 36,800,000 

Belgium and Kongo 23,000,000 

Japan 67,000,006 

Portugal 5,958,000 

Serbia 2,900,000 

Montenegro 516,000 

Rumania 7,000,000 

United States and colonial possessions 113,201,027 

Cuba 2,511,098 

Panama 427,000 

Siam 6,000,000 



624 WARS, COST OF 

Liberia 2,060,000 

Chinese Empire 419,000,000 

Brazil 24,308,219 

Total 1,397,681,344 

Central Powers 

German Empire 78,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 49,500,000 

Turkey 31,580,000 

Bulgaria 4,500,000 

Total 163,580,000 

Population of nations at war 1,561,261,344 

World's population 1,721,426,000 

— " The World War," A. G. Daniells, p. 11. 

COST OF WARS OF FORMER TIMES 

Dates Countries Engaged Cost 

1793-1815 England and France $6,250,000,000 

1812-1815 France and Russia 450,625,000 

1828 . Russia and Turkey 100,000,000 

1830-1840 Spain and Portugal (civil war) 250,000,000 

1830-1847 France and Algeria 190,000,000 

1848 Revolts in Europe 50,000,000 

( England 371,000,000 

\ France 332,000,000 

1854-1856 ■< Sardinia and Turkey 128,000,000 

{ Austria 68,600,000 

1 Russia 800,000,000 

f France 75,000,000 

1859 ^ Austria 127,000,000 

[ Italy 51,000,000 

1864 Denmark, Prussia, and Austria 36,000,000 

1866 Prussia and Austria 330,000,000 

1864-1870 Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay 240,000,000 

1865-1866 France and Mexico 65,000,000 

1 870 1 871 S Germany 954,400,000 

±»fu-±aa j France 1,580,000,000 

187R 1877 5 Russi a 806,547,489 

1870-18 1 1 j Turkey 403,273,745 

1900-1901 Transvaal Republic and England 1,000,100,000 

1904-1905 Russia and Japan 2,500,000,000 

Total $17,158,546,234 

Cost of Balkan wars 1,264,000,000 

UNITED STATES IN FORMER WARS 

War of 1812 with Great Britain, from June 18, 1812, to Feb. 17, 1815 

Total War Navy 

1812 $20,280,000 $11,817,000 $3,959,000 

1813 31,681,000 - 19,652,000 6,446,000 

1814 34,720,000 20,350,000 7,311,000 

1815 32,943,000 14,794,000 8,660,000 

War with Mexico, from April 24, 1846, to July 4, 1848 

1846 $27,261,000 $10,413,000 $6,455,000 

1847 54,920,000 35,840,000 7,900,000 



WAR, COST OF 625 



1848 
1849 


47,618,000 
43,499,000 


27,688,000 
14,558,000 


9,408,000 
9,786,000 




Civil War, from 1861 to 1865 




1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 


$ 63,201,000 

66,650,000 

469,569.000 

718,733,000 

864,968,000 

1,295,099,000 


$ 16,472,000 

23,001,000 

389,173,000 

603,314,000 

690,391,000 

1,030,690,000 


$ 11,514,000 
12,387,000 
42,640,000 
63,261,000 
85,705,000 
122,617,000 




Spanish-American War, 


from April 21, 1898, to Dec. 10, 1898 


1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 


$365,774,000 
443,368,000 
605,071,000 
487,713,000 


$ 48,950,000 

91,992,000 

229,841,000 

134,774,000 


$34,561,000 
58,823,000 
63,942,000 
55,953,000 



War, Cost of, 1914-1918. — Estimates of the cost of the war are 
naturally somewhat conjectural, yet they are of interest when made hy 
economists of repute. Prof. Ernest L. Bogart, professor of economics in 
the University of Illinois, in his recent hook, "War Costs and Their 
Financing" (Appleton), puts the total cost to all belligerents at $208,- 
305,851,222. Professor Bogart was once trade adviser to the State De- 
partment at Washington, and was associated with the War Trade Board 
during the war. The Wall Street Journal finds his estimate of particu- 
lar value because of its conservatism. Professor Bogart's figures differ 
considerably from those prepared by Mr. Fred A. Dolph and presented 
to the United States Senate by Senator Spencer, of Missouri. In par- 
ticular it will be noticed that Professor Bogart puts down the expendi- 
tures of the United States at a much lower figure than did Mr. Dolph 
— $32,000,000,000 as against $44,000,000,000. The Wall Street Journal 
takes from Professor Bogart's book a table showing the respective costs 
of the war to the principal belligerents, and quotes the author as saying: 
" It should be noted that these are the gross expenditures, and include 
loans made to their Allied by the United States, Great Britain, France, 
and Germany, amounting in all to about $22,072,214,125, If this sum be 
subtracted to avoid duplication, net expenditures are found to be, in 
round numbers, $186,000,000,000." These are the Bogart estimates: 

United States $32,080,266,968 

Great Britain 44,029,011,868 

Canada -. 1,665,576,032 

Australia 1,423,208,040 

New Zealand 378,750,000 

South African Union 300,000,000 

India 601,279,000 

Crown Colonies and dependencies 125,000,000 

France 25,812,782,800 

Russia in Europe 22,593,950,000 

Italy 12,313,998,000 

Belgium 1,154,467,914 

Servia 399,400,000 

Rumania 1,600,000,000 

Greece Q,7 0,000,000 

Japan 40,000,000 

Other Entente Allies 500,000,000 

Total $145,287,690,622 

40 



626 WAR, COST OF 

Germany $40,150,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 20,622,960,600 

Turkey 1,430,000,000 

Bulgaria 815,200,000 

Total $63,018,160,600 

Grand Total $208,305,851,222 

For purposes of comparison we reprint from our issue of April 2, 
Mr. Dolph's figures of war-cost totals as presented to the Senate by 
Mr. Spencer, in March: 

Nation Gross Cost Credit German Indemnity Final Loss 

United States $44,173,948,225 $2,300,000,000 $41,873,948,225 

Great Britain 51,052,634,000 9,850,000,000 41,202,634,000 

France 54,272,915,000 16,000,000,000 38,272,915,000 

Italy 18,680,847,000 3,500,000,000 15,180,847,000 

Belgium 8,174,731,000 5,700,000,000 2,474,731,000 

China 565,376,000 100,000,000 465,376,000 

Japan 481,818,000 250,000,000 231,818,000 

Total $177,402,269,225 $37,700,000,000 $139,702,269,225 

— The Literary Digest, July 2, 1921. 

War, Cost of. — In the first year of peace $30,000,000,000 were added 
to Europe's public debts; and in the second, just ended, no less than 
$45,000,000,000. Paper currency increased in the European countries 
$11,000,000,000 in 1919, and by the almost unbelievable sum of $26,000,- 
000,000 in 1920. These huge additions to debt burdens and currency 
inflation have been largely caused by budget deficits. The governmental 
machinery, maintained with a greatly depreciated currency, is almost 
hopelessly expensive as compared with pre-war costs, while the interest 
charges alone on the national debts run to more than a billion dollars 
a month. — The American Review of Reviews, January, 1921, p. 14. 

War, Net Loss by. — The estimated net loss suffered by the nations 
of the world in the European War is approximately $140,000,000,000, 
according to a statement submitted to the Senate yesterday by Senator 
Spencer (Missouri), Republican. America will bear the greatest burden 
by nonparticipation in the German indemnities, her final loss totaling 
$41,874,000,000. Japan's net losses are the lowest, totaling about 
$232,000,000. 

Approximate net losses of other nations show Great Britain, $41,- 
202,634,000; France, $38,273,000,000; Italy, $15,181,000,000; Belgium, 
$2,475,000,000; China, $465,376,000. 

In estimating gross costs, France leads with $54,272,915,000, fol- 
lowed by Great Britain, $51,052,634,000; America, $44,173,948,225; Italy, 
$18,680,847,000; Belgium, $8,174,731,000; China, $565,376,000; and Japan, 
$481,818,000. The reduction in gross costs to various nations is due to 
indemnities. 

" These totals include total military cost," the Spencer statement 
said, " civilian cost and damage, relief contributions, loans and credits 
extended, estimated pensions and insurance to be paid, together with 
indemnity paid and to be paid by Germany, with credit for indemnity 
allowed, and as matters now stand, with inter-loans and interest un- 
paid." — The Washington Post, March 6, 1921. 



WAR, LOSSES IN 627 

MOBILIZED STRENGTH AND CASUALTY LOSSES OF THE BELLIGERENTS 
United States and Associated Nations 

Prisoners Total 

Nation Mobilized Dead Wounded or Missing Casualties 

United States 4,272,521 67,813 192,483 14,363 274,659 

British Empire 7,500,000 692,065 2,037,325 360,367 3,089,757 

France 7,500,000 1,385,300 2,675,000 446,300 4,506,600 

Italy 5,500,000 460,000 947,000 1,393,000 2,800,000 

Belgium 267,000 20,000 60,000 10,000 90,000 

Russia 12,000,000 1,700,000 4,950,000 2,500,000 9,150,000 

Japan 800,000 300 907 3 1,210 

Rumania 750,000 200,000 120,000 80,000 400,000 

Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 100,000 450,000 

Montenegro 50,000 3,000 10,000 7,000 20,000 

Greece 230,000 15,000 40,000 45,000 100,000 

Portugal 100,000 4,000 15,000 200 10,000 

Total 39,676,864 4,869,478 11,075,715 4,956,233 20,892,226 

Central Powers 

Germany 11,000,000 1,611,104 3,683,143 772,522 6,066,769 

Austria-Hungary 5,500,000 800,000 3,200,000 1,211,000 5,211,000 

Bulgaria 400,000 201,224 152,399 10,825 264,448 

Turkey 1,600,000 300,000 570,000 130,000 1,000,000 

Total 19,500,000 2,912,328 7,605,542 2,124,347 12,542,217 

Grand total 59,176,864 7,781,806 3 8,681,257 7,080,580 33,434,443 

— From an article by Mr. Walter Littlefield, in Current History, February, 
1919. The figures are practically all from official data. 

THE KILLED IN SOME FORMER WARS 

American Civil War 1,000,000 

Crimean War 485,000 

Franco-Prussian War 290,000 

Spanish- American War 2,910 

Boer War 12,000 

Russo-Japanese War 555,900 

War, Numbers and Losses in Some Former Wars. — The famous 
" Battle of the Nations," fought in 1813, was won by 300,000 Prussians, 
Austrians, Russians, and Swedes against 180,000 French under Napoleon, 
and the total killed and wounded did not exceed 100,000. 

Tennyson characterized Waterloo a " world-earthquake," yet Well- 
ington led to battle not more than 67,000 troops, Bliicher adding 56,000, 
while the French numbered only 72,000, the losses all told being 57,000. 

Henderson calls Sadowa, V one of the greatest battles of history," 
remarking that " seldom indeed have two such colossal armies stood 
over against each other." The fighting arrayed 222,000 against 221,000, 
and the losses totaled 50,000. 

In the Franco-Prussian War over 1,000,000 men were called out by 
the Prussians, but not more than half of them were actively engaged in 
the field. Bazaine is described as retreating on Metz " with his huge 
army of 170,000," while the battle fought outside Sedan is called "the 
most impressive spectacle that man could well devise." The losses 
amounted to 23,000 killed and wounded. 

At the close of our Civil War the Federal army numbered about 
1,000,000, and at least 1,000,000 had been enrolled during the struggle by 
the Confederates. At the first battle of Bull Run 28,000 Federals under 
McDowell faced 30,000 Confederates under Beauregard, and the losses 
were about 5,000; at the second, Lee had about 46,000 men, Pope about 
35,000, the Confederates losing 8,400, the Federals 15,000. The forces 
engaged in the three days' battle at Gettysburg numbered not more than 



628 WHITED SEPULCHERS 

from 70,000 to 80,000 a side; the Federals lost 23,186, the Confederates 
31,621. And the whole losses in the " tremendous " struggle between 
Russia and Japan in 1904-05 did not exceed 600,000. — The Boston Her- 
ald, quoted in the. Washington Herald, Aug. 18, 1916. 

Week. — Pages 106, 107. 

Whited Sepulchers, Pkobable Origin of the Expression. — In gen- 
eral, cemeteries were outside the cities; but any dead body found in the 
field was (according to an ordinance which tradition traces up to 
Joshua) to be buried on the spot where it had been discovered. Now, 
as the festive pilgrims might have contracted " uncleanness " by unwit- 
ting contact with such graves, it was ordered that all " sepulchers " 
should be " whitened " a month before the Passover. It was, therefore, 
evidently in reference to what he actually saw going on around him at 
the time he spoke, that Jesus compared the Pharisees " unto whited 
sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full 
of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness." — " The Temple, Its Min- 
istry and Services, as They Were at the Time of Jesus Christ," Rev. Dr. 
Edersheim, p. 185. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., copyright 1881. 

Williams, John.— Page 337. 

Year-Day Principle, General Nature or. — It may be summed up 
in these maxims: 

1. That the church, after the ascension of Christ, was intended of 
God to be kept in the lively expectation of his speedy return in glory. 

2. That, in the divine counsels, a long period of near two thousand 
years was to intervene between the first and the second advent, and 
to be marked by a dispensation of grace to the Gentiles. 

3. That, in order to strengthen the faith and hope of the church 
under the long delay, a large part of the whole interval was prophet- 
ically announced, but in such a manner that its true length might not 
be understood, till its own close seemed to be drawing near. 

4. That, in the symbolical prophecies of Daniel and St. John, other 
times were revealed along with this, and included under one common 
maxim of interpretation. 

5. That the periods thus figuratively revealed are exclusively those 
in Daniel and St. John, which relate to the general history of the church 
between the time of the prophet and the second advent. 

6. That, in these predictions, each day represents a natural year, 
as in the vision of Ezekiel; that a month denotes thirty, and a time 
three hundred and sixty years. — "First Elements of Sacred Prophecy," 
Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 311. London: William Edward Painter, 1843. 

Year-Day Principle, The Key to. — The beast's predicted period of 
1260 days reminds us that the time is now come for considering the 
propriety of that principle on which I have hitherto proceeded in my 
explanations of the several numerically expressed chronological periods 
enunciated in the Apocalyptic prophecy; viz., of regarding a day as 
meant to signify a year. The satisfactoriness of the historical solu- 
tions given by me on this principle, (supposing them to have been ap- 
proved as such by the reader,) will of course have furnished evidence to 
his mind, of all other the most convincing, of the truth of the principle 
itself, [pp. 221, 222] . . . 

In such prophecies it were surely reasonable to expect, even prior to 
investigation, that a certain propriety and proportion of scale between 
the symbol and the thing symbolized would be observed in respect of 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE 629 

the time, as of other circumstantials, noted in the picture. Could it be 
supposed that Sacred Scripture would quite neglect that canon of 
propriety which natural taste has inculcated on the poet and the 
painter? I am speaking just now, it will be understood, of the observ- 
ance of chronological proportion in a general way, not of the particu- 
lar year-day scale of proportion, [p. 223] . . . 

When considering the question at the present stage of the world's 
history, — centuries not a few after the breaking up of Daniel's fourth 
great empire, the Roman, from its old form, and its reconstruction into 
a new form, answering in all natural and reasonable views of things to 
the predicted decem-regal form that was to last even till the time of 
the consummation, — how can we possibly calculate the 1260 days, 
which was to be the measure of this its last form of existence, literally; 
or indeed on any other than an immensely larger scale of meaning? 
[p. 225] . . . 

There has further been furnished us a determinate precedent, as 
parallel as it is striking, in the prophetic history of Ezekiel. I allude 
of course to those two most remarkable symbolic actions of that prophet, 
which have been so frequently referred to in the year-day controversy 
by former commentators. He was on one occasion commanded by God 
to lie 390 days on his left side before the people; thereby to typify, in 
the symbolic character of their representative, the 390 years of the 
iniquity and concomitant debasement of the nation of Israel; on an- 
other, to lie 40 days on his right side, thereby to typify the 40 last years 
of Judah's iniquity. And the meaning of these mystical days was 
declared by God himself. " I have laid upon thee the years of their 
iniquity, according to the number of the days, 390 days. .... I have ap- 
pointed thee each day for a year." [See Eze. 4: 5, 6.] 

A precedent more clear and complete than this could scarce be 
desired, as a probable key and guide to the meaning of the days in the 
symbolic visions that we have under consideration. And I think it 
deserving of remark that it was acted out publicly, in the midst of the 
captivity in which Daniel was included; and not very many years 
before the communication to him of the earlier of his prefigurative 
visions. So that already the key was provided, ere the visions were 
given, wherewith to unlock at the fit time the secrets (if such there 
were) of all the mystic periods involved, [pp. 226, 227] — " Horw Apoca- 
lyptic®," Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Vol. Ill, pp. 221-227, 3d edition. Lon- 
don: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847. 

Year-Day Principle, Established by the Prophecy of the Seventy 
Weeks. — The prophecy of the seventy weeks has always held the fore- 
most place in the direct arguments for the year-day system. The reason- 
ing is very simple in its nature. The word "week," or shabua, is used 
elsewhere in Scripture to denote seven days; but in this prophecy it de- 
notes seven years. Hence the words of time are enlarged beyond their 
literal or usual sense, in the proportion of a year to a day. And since 
all these predictions of time bear one common character, occur in the 
same prophets, and have the same general object, they ought to be ex- 
plained by one common rule. In the one instance, which is decisively 
fulfilled, the proportion holds of a year to a day; and therefore it must 
be applied, in consistency, to all the rest. — "First Elements of Sacred 
Prophecy;' Rev. T. R. Birks, p. 333. London: William Edward Painter, 
1843. 

It is evident that in order to be intelligible, these measures of time 
must all be interpreted on one scale. What scale is it? Is it the grand 
divine scale of " one day is with the Lord as a thousand years "? or is 



630 YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE 



it an hour for a day? or a day for a month? or a day for a year? or 
what is it? 

The great answer to this important query is found in the fact that 
one of these periods has been fulfilled, and therefore supplies the key 
to all the rest. The seventy weeks of Daniel 9 elapsed between the 
decree of Artaxerxes and the advent of Messiah. That period was 
actually 490 years, the prophecy announced it as 490 days, or " seventy 
weeks," and we are therefore led to conclude that in all the above 
analogous passages, where time is predicted in miniature and in mys- 
tery, in harmony with the miniature and mysterious nature of the 
symbols by which the prophecy is conveyed, a year is represented by a 
day, seven years by a week, thirty years by a month, 360 years by a 
" year," and so on. This principle once admitted, the chronology of 
these prophecies becomes simple and accurate, and available for our 
present study of the periodicity of human history. — " The Approaching 
End of the Age," H. Grattan Guinness, D. D., pp. 302, 303. London: 
Hodder and Stoughton, 1880. 

Year-Day Principle, Calendar of Sacred Times. — Four terms are 
employed in almost every nation, in the ordinary calendar of time — the 
day, the week, the month, and the year. These form a natural and 
ascending series, by which all periods are most conveniently expressed, 
and complete the system of popular and colloquial measurement of time. 
The case was evidently the same among the Jews as with ourselves. 
Now of these four periods, the day, the month, and the year (Dan. 12: 
11; Rev. 9: 5; 11: 2; 9: 15), occur elsewhere in these dates of the sym- 
bolical prophecies. But the week occurs here only [Dan. 9: 25]. It is 
evidently needful to complete the system; and being added, it does 
complete a regular calendar of sacred and prophetic times. But the 
week, whether we render it a week or a seven, does not denote a common 
week, but a period of seven years. And since it forms one element in 
this fourfold ascending scale, it does, by a natural inference, raise all 
the others in the same proportion. The prophetic dates, which otherwise 
would remain a heap of disjointed fragments, by this key become at 
once united into a consistent and harmonious scheme, mysterious yet 
definite, and combining the precision of a human calendar with the 
magnificent grandeur of a divine revelation. 

This gradation of the prophetic periods will be more apparent, if 
we subjoin them in regular arrangement, according to the terms in 
which they are conveyed. 

1. Three days and a half twice repeated (Revelation 11). 
Tribulation of ten days (Rev. 2: 10). 

Twelve hundred and sixty days (Revelation 11, 12). 
Twelve hundred and ninety days (Dan. 12: 11). 
Thirteen hundred and five and thirty days (Dan. 12: 11). 

2. A week and half week (Dan. 9: 27). 
Seven weeks (9: 25). 
Threescore and two weeks (9: 25). 
Seventy weeks (9: 24). 

3. Five months (Rev. 9: 5, 10). 

Forty and two months (Rev. 11: 2; 13: 5). 

4. Day, month, and year (Rev. 9: 15). 

A time txpovos [chronos] ) (Rev. 6: 11; 10: 6). 
A time, times, and half (Dan. 7: 25; 12: 7; Rev. 12: 14). 
[5. Six hundred and sixty-six, unit undetermined (Rev. 13: 8). 

Two thousand three hundred, the same (Dan. 8: 14).] 
There are all the marks in this list of a connected and regular 
series. And since the weeks are sevens of years, the conclusion can 



YEAR-DAY PRINCIPLE 631 

scarcely be avoided, that the others also are to be reckoned, consistently 
with this pattern, and on the same scale. — "First Elements of Sacred 
Prophecy" Rev. T. R. Birks, pp. 336-338. London: William Edward 
Painter, 1843. , 

The year-day theory, as applied to the time, times, and a half, first 
appeared about the year 1200. — Id., p. 402. 

Year-Day Principle, Bishop Newton on. — >" They shall be given 
into his hand, until a time, and times, and the dividing of time." A 
time, all agree, signifies a year; and " a time, and times, and the divid- 
ing of time," or half a time, are three years and a half. So long and no 
longer, as the Romanists conceive, the power of Antichrist will con- 
tinue; but it is impossible for all the things which are predicted of 
Antichrist to be fulfilled in so short a space of time; and neither is 
Antichrist, or the little horn, a single man, but a kingdom. Single men 
are not the subjects of this prophecy, but kingdoms. The " four kings " 
(verse 17) are not four single kings, but kingdoms; and so the "ten 
horns" or kings (verse 24) are not ten single kings, but kingdoms; 
and so likewise " the little horn " is not a single king, but a kingdom, 
not a single man, but a succession of men, exercising such powers and 
performing such actions as are here described. We must therefore com- 
pute the time according to the nature and genius of the prophetic lan- 
guage. A time, then, and times, and half a time are three years and 
a half; and the ancient Jewish year consisting of twelve months, and 
each month of thirty days, " a time and times and half a time," or three 
years and a half, are reckoned in the Revelation (11: 2, 3; 12: 6, 14) as 
equivalent to " forty and two months " or " a thousand two hundred 
and threescore days:" and a day in the style of the prophets is a year: 
" I have appointed thee each day for a year," saith God to Ezekiel 
(4: 6); and it is confessed that "the seventy weeks" in the ninth 
chapter of Daniel are weeks of years; and consequently 1260 days are 
1260 years. — " Dissertations on the Prophecies," Thomas Newton, D. D., 
pp. 246, 247. London: B. Blake, 1840. 

Year-Day Principle, General Acceptance of. — It is a singular fact 
that the great mass of interpreters in the English and American world 
have, for many years, been wont to understand the days designated in 
Daniel and the Apocalypse, as the representatives or symbols of years. 
I have found it difficult to trace the origin of this general, I might say 
almost universal, custom. — "Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy" 
Moses Stuart, p. 74. Andover: Allen, Morrill, and War dwell, 1842. 

Year-Day Principle, Effect of Rejecting. — That entire rejection 
of all prophetic chronology, which follows, of course, on the denial of 
the year-day, is most of all to be deplored, from its deadly and paralyz- 
ing influence on the great hope of the church. . . . The prophetic times, 
indeed, when separated from the context and viewed in themselves 
only, are a dry and worthless skeleton: but when taken in connection 
with the related events, clothed with historical facts, and joined with 
those spiritual affections which should attend the study of God's 
providence; like the bones in the human frame, they give strength to 
what was feeble, and union to what was disjointed, and form, and 
beauty, and order, to the whole outline and substance of these sacred 
and divine prophecies. — "First Elements of Sacred Prophecy," Rev. 
T. R. Birks, pp. 415, 416. London: William Edward Painter, 1843. 

Zinzendorf. — Page 338. 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX 



GENESIS 

1 to 11: 9 202 

1 : 13 104 

1 : 20, 21, 24, 30 

346,347 

2:1-3 491,493 

2:2, 3 502 

2:3 ... 493, 494, 

495, 496, 498, 606 
2:7 346, 348 

2 : 7, 19 347 

2 : 15 499 

3:8 104 

3 : 15 280 

3 : 17-19 499 

3 : 19 344 

4 : 3, 4 497 

6:3 349 

6 : 17 348 

7:3 609 

7 : 14 348 

8:7-12 491,498 

8 : 10 106 

9 : 4, 5 348 

9 : 10, 12, 15, 16 . 347 

11:4 65 

12 : 1, 2 95 

12 : 5 347 

14 : 21 347 

15 : 5 95 

15 : 12-17 ... 566 

17 : 5 95 

17:14 347 

18 : 1 104 

19 : 17, 19, 20 347 

21 : 12 566 

22 : 18 280 

23 : 8 347 

25 : 8, 17 347 

28 : 12 281 

29 : 21 312 

29 : 27 106 

29:27,28 491,498 

35 : 29 347 

37 : 21 348 

37 : 31 75 

37 : 35 350 

46 : 18 347 

49 : 10 468 

49 : 26 351 

49 : 33 347 

EXODUS 

6 : 16 567 

10 : 13 543 

12 396,397 

12: 2 108 

12:6 187,610 

12 : 11, 14, 43 398 

12 : 15 347 

12: 15, 18, 19, 20, 

22, 42 396 

12 : 39 108 

12:40 566,567 

12 : 43-48 397 



12 : 46 186 

13 : 3, 6, 7 396 

13:4 108,396 

14 : 3 170 

14 : 21 134 

14 : 24 104 

15 : 23-25 134 

16 491,492 

16 : 22-30 491, 493, 498 
19 : 4 620 

19 : 10 76 

20 107,492,606 

20:8 498,501 

20 : 8-11 492, 493 

22 : 18, 20 101 

23 : 9 347 

23:12 491,493 

23:15 396,397 

23:16 184,187 

24 518 

25 : 13-15, 16 42 

27 : 1-8, 12, 14 ... 42 

28 : 39 42 

29 : 4 76 

29 : 38 42 

29 : 38-42 518 

29 : 41 43 

30 : 1-10, 18 ..... 43 

30 : 7 42 

30 : 7, 8 519 

30 : 10 41 

31 : 12-18 493 

31 : 14 347 

31 : 16, 17 .493 

31 : 17 491 

34 : 18 396 

34 : 18, 25 . 397 

34 : 21 581 

34 : 22 184 

34 : 23, 24, 26 187 

LEVITICUS 

4:2 347 

4 : 7, 12 43 

5:5 43 

5:15 347 

7 : 27 347 

8 518 

8:6 76 

11 : 10, 46 . 347 

14 : 4-7 41 

16 41, 42, 45, 519 

16:1 187 

16 : 3-28 41 

16 : 4-16 42 

16:5,8,11,21 ... 44 

16:8 45 

16: 12 519 

16 : 16-18, 20-22, 24, 

25, 27 43 

16 : 29, 31 41 

17 : 11, 14 348 

18: 31 572 

20 : 6, 27 572 

20 : 8 495 

20 : 27 101 



21 : 8 495 

21 : 11 347 

23 107 

23 : 1 398 

23 : 2, 4, 37, 44 ... 514 
23 : 5. 8, 10-14, 23-33, 

36 187 

23 : 6 396 

23 : 10-14 518 

23 : 10-16 396 

23 : 15, 16, 34-43 . 186 

23 : 17-20 518 

23 : 26-32 41 

23 : 30 348 

23 : 33, 36 187 

23 : 34-43 186 

23 : 34, 40, 43 184 

24 : 5, 9 518 

24 : 15, 16 101 

24 : 17, 18 347 

25 107,280 

NUMBERS 

1 : 45, 46 549 

6:6 347 

9 : 1, 6, 9 397 

9 : 1-13 186 

9:3 610 

9 : 9-11 398 

10 : 36 549 

15 : 20, 21 519 

15 : 30-36 102 

16 : 22 349 

18 : 19 125 

19 : 13, 16, 17 43 

22 to 25 526 

23 : 7, 18 395 

23:10 347,348 

24 : 3 395 

27 : 16 349 

28 518 

28: 9, 10 518 

28: 11 to 29: 39.. 518 

28:15,22, 30 519 

28 : 16-25 396, 397 

28 : 16-31 187 

28 : 17 396 

29 184,518 

29 : 1-6, 35 187 

29 : 5, 16, 19, 22, 25, 

28,31,34, 38. . 519 
29:7-11 ...41,42,187 

29 : 11, 24, 25 43 

31 : 13-16 526 

31 : 19, 28 347 

DEUTERONOMY 

5 : 14, 15 491 

5: 22 136 

6:1 300 

6:5 500 

13: 6 101 

14 : 2 95 

16 : 1 396 

16: 1-8, 11-16 187 

633 



634 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX 



16 : 2, 5 397 

16:3 396 

16:6 396,611 

16: 11-15 186 

16 : 13-15 187 

16: 16 398 

17:2 101 

18: 10, 11 101 

18: 11 572 

19 : 6 348 

22: 23 312 

22 : 26 348 

25 : 1 291 

26: 1-11 519 

26: 5-10 186 

27 : 25 348 

28 : 53 275 

28 : 68 276 

29 : 29 17 

JOSHUA 

5: 10 397 

10 : 28, 30, 39 348 

10: 30, 32,35,37,39 347 

11:17 47 

15 : 8 351 

24 : 2, 15 95 

JUDGES 

3:3 46 

6:5 543 

7:3-5 547 

7 : 19 104 

16 : 30 348 

RUTH 
3, 4 280 

1 SAMUEL 

9 : 20 193 

10 : 12 395 

22 : 23 347 

23 : 20 193 

24 : 13 395 

28 : 3, 7-9 572 

2 SAMUEL 

7 : 19 278 

1 KINGS 

1 : 12 347 

6:1 108 

8:2 108 

16: 32 46 

18 : 19 46 

18 : 26, 28 47 

19 : 10 348 

20 : 32 348 

2 KINGS 

1:2 ;. .. 46 

5 : 14 75 

10:19,26,27 .... 46 
10 : 22 47 

10 : 20 495 

11 : 18 46 

18: 13-16 268 

18: 17 53 

20 : 9, 10 104 

21 : 6 572 

23 : 10 351 

23 : 21 397 



23 : 24 572 

23 : 29 40 

25 : 3-8 563 

25 : 13-17 52 

1 CHRONICLES 
1:1 [25] 86 

10: 13 572 

16: 22 279 

2 CHRONICLES 

1:11 347 

7 : 20 395 

13:5 125 

20 : 17 86 

30 397 

33 : 6 572 

36 : 22 563 

EZRA 

1:1 563 

1:2 326 

1:2-4 328 

3:4 187 

4: 8 to 6: 18 95 

4: 14 125 

6:15 108,563 

6: 19 397 

6 : 22 40 

7:7-9 435 

7 : 7-10 39 

7:9 610 

7 : 10 300 

7: 12, 21 515 

7:12-26 554 

7 : 21 86 

8.: 36 610 

9:9 555 

NEHEMIAH 

1:1 39,435 

2:1 39,108,435 

2:6 514 

6:15 108,609 

8 : 14-17 187 

8: 15, 16 184 

9:7 95 

13 : 6 555 

13:15-22 493 

ESTHER 

1:2 330 

1:4 609 

2 : 16 108 

3:7 108,330 

7:3 347 

8:9 108 

9 : 27, 31 514 

9 : 31 347 

JOB 

3:11 347 

9 : 31 75 

10: 18 347 

11 : 20 347 

13 : 19 347 

14 : 10 347 

15 : 30 348 

18:4 348 

19 : 25-27 280 

26 : 4 349 

27 : 3 348 

29 85 



30 : 15 347 

33 : 18, 20, 22 347 

33 : 22 348 

PSALMS 

2:6 280 

10:3 193 

16:10 ...348,350,351 

18 : 8 534 

19:7 305 

21 : 2 193 

22 : 29 348 

23:29 348 

27 : 12 347 

34 : 21 186 

35 : 6 469 

35 : 13 348 

45 : 5 531 

49 : 14, 15 347 

51 : 4 291 

59 : 3 348 

72 280 

72 : 14 348 

78 : 2 395 

78 : 18 347 

81 : 6 417 

89 : 48 847 

94 : 21 348 

102 : 10 193 

104 : 29, 30 348 

105 : 17, 18 348 

106: 28 571 

107:17,18 348 

113, 114 398 

114 : 30 348 

115 to 118 398 

116 : 7 499 

117 85 

118:8 85 

118:25 184 

119: 6 304 

119 : 96 305 

131 : 2 348 

137: 17 348 

146 : 4 348 

PROVERBS 

1:6 395 

1 : 19 347 

2:16 469 

4 : 18 104 

6:26 347 

7:23 347,348 

12 : 10 347 

16 : 25, 26 347 

20 : 27 349 

23 : 2 347 

28 : 17 348 

ECCLESIASTES 

1:4 351 

3:1 514 

3 : 19, 20 348 

8:8 348 

12:7 348 

ISAIAH 

1 : 13 504 

2:6 571 

4:2 281 

7 : 14-16 280 

8:19 572 

8 : 20 91 

9:6 280,285 

10:18 347 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX 



635 



10 : 33, 34 281 

11 : 1 281 

12 : 3 184 

13 : 10 136 

13 : 19 64 

14 : 4 51 

14:4,23 64 

19 : 3 572 

21 : 1-10 326 

21 : 4, 5 61 

29 : 4 572 

30 : 10 303 

31 : 5 397 

32 : 1 280 

38: 17 347 

40 : 3-8 280 

40 : 28 493 

42 : 1-7 280 

42 : 5 348 

44 : 28 328 

47 : 1 66 

47 : 4 280 

47 : 8 65 

47 : 14 347 

49:1-12 280 

50 : 4-9 280 

51 : 3 350 

52 : 13-15 280 

52 : 33 281 

53 280 

53 : 2 281 

53 : 10 348 

54 : 2, 3 334 

56 : 2-7 493 

57 : 16 347 

58 44 

58 : 3, 5 42 

58 : 13, 14 493 

JEREMIAH 

5:1 246 

7:9 47 

10 : 11 95 

11 : 13 46 

17 : 21-27 493 

18 : 20 348 

19 : 5 47 

23:5 280,281 

23 : 6 280 

25 : 1-12 563 

29 : 10 563 

30 : 9 .280 

32 : 29 46 

36 : 22 108 

38: 6 .348 

44 : 7 276 

44 : 30 54 

49 : 34-39 326 

50 : 10, 16. 26 51 

50 : 26 64 

50 : 39 65 

51 : 6 67 

51 : 7 70 

51 : 7, 13 51 

51 : 30-32 60,61 

51 : 37, 58 64 

52 : 6-12 563 

LAMENTATIONS 

1 : 19 347 

2 : 19 104 

EZEKIEL 

2:6 543 

4 : 5, 6 629 



4:6 608,631 

12 : 22 395 

17 : 4 52 

20:12,13 493 

20 : 49 395 

22 : 26-31 493 

23 : 42 546 

32 : 7, 8 136 

34 : 23 280 

47 : 9 347 



DANIEL 



7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9: 

9 

9 

9: 
9 
9: 

11 

11 : 

11 : 

11 

11 

11 : 

11 

11 

11 



8 



4 to 7 : 28 

12-14 

38 

43 

44 

1 

19 

23 

30 

1,30,31 ... 

30 

6, 9, 13 [5, 

12] 



126 

460 

95 

53 

51 

593 

352 

51 

53 

113 

69 

63 



515 
324 

10, 11 126 

14-17 53 

30,' 426,' 460,' 594, 597 

7 462 

8 309 

8, 11, 20, 21 . . 31 

9, 10 23 

12 307,592 

13 126,280 

15-28 13 

17, 24 631 

20 309 

21, 25-27 310 

25 24,310, 

393, 395, 514, 
515, 516, 630, 631 

26 308 

26, 27 310 

609 

1 63 

4 327 

8 207,209 

9 465,466 

11 23 

13 286 

13, 14 18 

14 554.608,609, 630 

16 126 

22 209 

609, 630 

2 .563 

23-25 608 

24 

393. 554, 610. 631 

24, 25, 27 630 

25 .18,280,556. 630 

27 630 

467 

2 329,330 

4 208,209 

5 211 

5-7 213 

10, 11, 13, 15 . 214 

16 466 

17 461 

20 467 



11 : 21, 22 .- 469 

11:35 190,531 

11 : 37 192 

11 : 44 166 

11 : 45 167 

12:1 126 

12:1-13 246 

12 : 2, 3 126 

12:4 246,247,529 

12 : 4, 10 245 

12 : 7 308 

12 : 7, 11 630 

12:12 18 

HOSE A 

8 : 13 276 

9:3 276 

11 : 4, 5 276 

JOEL 

1 : 14 495 

2 : 15 495 

2 : 28-32 20 

2 : 31 136 

JONAH 

1 to 4 44 

3:3 279 

MICAH 

3 : 12 276 

5:2 468 



NAHUM 
3:15,16 



547 



HABAKKUK 
2:8 52 

HAGGAI 

2:8 599 

2 : 18, 19 563 

ZECHARIAH 

1:4 98 

1:7 108 

3:8 281 

5 : 5-11 41 

6 : 12 281 

7:1 108 

7 : 7, 12 98 

8: 17 96 

9:9 280 

13 : 6, 7 280 

14 : 9 280 

MALACHI 

2:7 417 

3:1-4 280 

4:2 280 

4:4 300 

1 MACCABEES 

1:1 203 

1 : 10 213 

2 MACCABEES 

5 : 5-10 215 

10 : 7 184 

12:43-45 437 

16 : 36 108 



636 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX 



MATTHEW 

2 : 20 348 

2 : 23 281 

3:6 . 75, 76 

3 : 11 556 

5:17 305,607 

5 : 17, 18 305 

5: 18 136 

5 : 19 304 

5 : 22, 29, 30 351 

6 : 25 348 

7:7 88 

8 : 16 500 

10 : 28 348, 351 

10 : 39 348 

11 : 2 560 

11 : 3 279 

11 : 23 351 

11 : 29 348 

12 560 

12 : 18 348 

12 : 32 437 

12:43 44 

13 : 24-30 262 

14 560 

14 : 15 560 

15:2 601 

16:15,16 138 

16 : 17 344 

16:18 351,420 

16:19 418 

17 : 24-27 467 

18 : 9 351 

19 : 27 306 

20 : 1 et seq 104 

20 : 28 348 

21 : 8, 9 184 

22: 40 500 

23 : 15, 33 351 

23 : 27 628 

24 13,18,33 

24 : 5 561 

24 : 14 19 

24 : 15 560 

24 : 20 505 

24 : 21 273 

24 : 27, 30 12 

24:29 177,178 

24 : 29, 30 14, 136 

24 : 32 395 

25 : 31 534 

26 : 26 313 

26 : 30 399 

27:37 288 

27 : 45 104 

27 : 46 611 

27 : 50 349 

27:51 281,560 

27 : 62 500 

27 : 63 454 

28:1 106.509, 

510, 574, 575, 576 

MARK 

1 : 15 559 

1 : 32 500 

2-27 504 

3:4 348 

3 : 17 . 80 

6:13 170 

9 : 43, 45, 47 351 

9:50 125 

13:14 273 

13:24 ,,,.• 134 



13:26 12 

13 : 35 104 

14 : 12 575 

14 : 26 399 

14 : 58 454 

14 : 62 12 

15 : 25, 33 104 

15 : 26 288 

15 : 42 500 

15 : 42-45 611 

16 : 2 106 

16 : 9 576 

16 : 16 605 

LUKE 

1 : 18 281 

1 : 32 352 

2:3-5 468 

2 : 11 350 

3:1 556,558 

3 : 15 561 

4 : 16 607 

4 : 23 395 

5 : 20 122 

5 : 26 350 

7 : 48 122 

9 : 26 11 

9 : 54-56 348 

10 : 15 351 

11 : 24 44 

12 : 5 351 

12 : 19, 20 348 

12 : 19-23 347 

12 : 33 21 

14 : 14 345 

16 : 17 305 

16: 23 351 

16 : 29 98 

18: 12 576 

19:11 561 

21 : 28 16 

22:19 313 

22 : 20 398 

22 : 34 350 

22 : 48 304 

23 : 2, 38 288 

23 : 42, 43 350 

23 : 42-44 95 

23 : 44 104 

23:54 ...500,510,611 

23 : 56 607 

24 : 1 106 

24 : 27 98 

24 : 29 610 

24 : 44 98 

JOHN 

1:9 286 

1:12 284 

1:14 281 

1:41 279 

1:51 281 

2 : 13 560 

2-19 454,620 

2 : 19-21 281 

2-20 269, 561 

3 : 3 344 

3 : 29, 30 104 

i;f. :::::::::: 5 6 g 

5:39 »8 

6 : 4-10 560 

6 : 32 286 

6:68 ,.,,.,..., 345 



7 : 2, 37, 39 184 

7 : 28 286 

7: 17 21 

7:37 187 

8 : 16 286 

8 : 58 282 

10 : 27 86 

11 : 35 86 

11 : 49, 50 586 

12 : 25 348 

12:46 171 

13 : 1-17 607 

13 : 5-10 188 

13 : 8 605 

13 : 14 189, 605 

15 : 1 286 

17 : 3 286 

17 : 5 282 

18 : 28 104 

18: 36 457 

19 : 14 104 

19 : 14, 31, 42 500 

19 : 19 288 

19 : 22 287 

19 : 30 349 

19 : 36 186 

20 : 1 106 

20 : 21 345 

20 : 23 296, 418 

ACTS 

1:11 11 

1 : 21, 22 •. . . 562 

2 561 

2:1 400 

2 : 1-40 186 

2:27 348,351 

2 : 31 351 

2:41 116,348 

2:47 116 

4:3 610 

5 : 14 116 

5 : 29 441 

5 : 41 448 

7:6 566 

8 : 9, 10 270 

9 : 1-18 562 

10 : 25, 26 520 

11 : 24 116 

12:4 152,153 

14 : 13-15 520 

15: 10 532 

15 : 26 348 

17:17 86 

19 : 4 279 

20 : 7 573 

20 : 10 348 

20 : 16 400 

20 : 26 350 

22 : 3 350 

24 : 14 98 

24 : 21 350 

26 : 1 8 503 

26 : 29 350 

27 : 9 41 

ROMANS 

1:1-6 199 

1 : 16 to 8 : 39 . . 199 

1: 17 439 

1 : 23 345 

2:7 345 

3:2 95 

3:3 ,,,,...,... 174 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX 



637 



3 : 28 294 

3 : 31 503 

5:8 291 

5:9 293 

6:4 77 

6 : 23 345 

7 : 12, 14 305 

7 : 13 303 

8 : 29 284 

10:16,17 87 

11 : 3 348 

13, 14 86 

14 : 5 503 

15 : 4 98 

1 CORINTHIANS 

3: 11 115 

3 : 11-15 437 

5:7 152,186 

7 : 14 78 

8:6 282 

9 : 25 345 

10 : 4 184 

10 : 28 . 599 

11 : 24 314 

13 96 

15 : 20-23 345 

15 : 22, 23 11 

15 : 42, 50, 53, 54 . 345 

15:45 347,348 

15 : 45-47 279 

15 : 50-53 345 

15:51,52 12 

15 : 55 351 

16:2 573,574 

GALATIANS 
1 : 3, 4, 15, 16 ... 199 

1:5 351 

2:4,5. 15-21 199 

2: 13 to 6: 16 . .. 199 

2: 20 319 

3: 2-14, 23-26 ... 199 

3 : 14, 17 566 

3 : 15 86 

3 : 28 to 4:9, 26, 

31 199 

4 : 6, 7 199 

4 : 21 98 

5:1 532 

5 : 2, 3 305 

5 : 4, 5, 16-25 199 

5 : 22 . . 174 

6 : 8, 14, 15 199 

EPHESIANS 

1 : 10 282 

2:8 293 

2 : 16 305 

5 : 32 293 

6 : 24 345 

PHILIPPIANS 
2:9-11 282 

3 : 20 7 

COLOSSIANS 

1 : 16, 17 282 

2:9 281 

2 : 14 305 

2 : 16 504 

3:1-4 345 

1 THESSALONIANS 

3 : 13 9 

5 : 23 9 



2 THESSALONIANS 

2 30 

2:3 12 

2 : 3, 4 35 

2:7 69,516 

1 TIMOTHY 

1 : 17 345 

3 : 16 291 

4 426 

4:1 35 

4:5 503 

5: 10 189 

6:1 532 

6 : 14 9 

6 : 16 345 

2 TIMOTHY 

1 : 10 345 

3:16,17 89,91 

4: 1, 2, 8 "9 

TITUS 

2:7 345 

2 : 12, 13 9 

3:7 344 

HEBREWS 

1 : 2, 8 282 

2:6-9 282 

3 : 12 35 

4 : 14 7 

7 : 9, 11 305 

7 : 27 41 

9:9 395 

9: 16, 17 125 

9 : 26 521 

9:27 139 

10:1 305,521 

10 : 20 281 

10 : 35-37 9 

11 : 1 174 

12 : 9, 23 349 

JAMES 

2:10 302,304 

2 : 19 294 

2: 24 175 

2 : 26 348 

3:6 351 

4 : 11 304 

5 564 

5:8 9 

5:16 122 

1 PETER 

1 : 4, 23 345 

1 : 12 423 

2:9 147 

2 : 21 284 

3:4 345 

3:15 503 

3: 19 349 

5:1-4 12 

5:2-4 9 

5: 13 67 

2 PETER 

1:4 293 

1 : 21 97 

2:4 351 

3:8 , 629 



1 JOHN 

2 : 18, 22 28 

3 : 16 347 

4:3 28 

2 JOHN 

7 28 

12 87 

REVELATION 

1:3 245,246,457 

1:7 11 

1:8 282 

1 : 12-20 522 

1 : 18 351 

2:1 522 

2:7 350 

2 : 10 630 

2: 13 72 

3:1 529 

3:4 531 

3:7 73 

3 : 14 282 

5 : 11, 12 282 

6:5 532 

6:8 351 

6:9 347 

6:11 630 

6: 12 136 

6: 13 177 

7 : 9, 10 184 

8:3-5 534 

8:7 535 

8:9 347, 53* 

9:1 544 

9:5 630 

9 : 5, 10, 15 630 

9 : 10 630 

9 : 11 547 

9 : 15 630 

9 : 20 553 

10 : 6 630 

11 630 

11 : 2 630 

11:2,3 608,631 

11 : 8 612 

11:13 613,617 

11 : 15 352 

12 630 

12:6,14 608,631 

12:14 608,630 

13 363 

13 : 1 597 

13 : 5, 8 630 

14 23, 24, 25 

14 : 6, 7 20 

14 : 6-14 23 

14 : 7 19 

16:3 347,348 

17 72,363 

17 : 2, 4, 5 69 

17: 5 72 

17 : 9, 10 66 

17 : 16 593 

18 : 3 69 

18:4 14,67 

19 : 5 73 

19 : 10 520 

20 : 4, 5 347 

20 : 13, 14 351 

22 : 8, 9 520 

22 : 17, 20 9 

22:20 6.10,11 

22 : 20 14 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1805-77), 
an American Congregational clergy- 
man and historical writer. 

Acton, Lord John Emerich Edward 
Dalberg (1834-1902). an English his- 
torian, only son of Sir Richard Acton, 
seventh baronet, and grandson of the 
Neapolitan admiral, Sir J. P. E. Ac- 
ton. He was one of the most deeply 
learned men of his time. 

Adams, John Qttincy (1735-1826), sec- 
ond President of the United States, 
who, after a long and brilliant polit- 
ical career, devoted himself to literary 
work, relating chiefly to the history of 
his own times. 

Addis, William E. (b. 1844), a clergy- 
man of the Church of England, who 
became a convert to the Roman Cath- 
olic faith and a member of its priest- 
hood, but subsequently returned to the 
Church of England. He is author of 
several valuable works, among them 
"A Catholic Dictionary," published in 
London in 1883. 

Adolphus, John Leycester (1705- 
1862), a well-known London barrister 
and author. He wrote a " History of 
England to 1783 " and a " History of 
France from 1790." 

^schylus (b. c. 525-456), a Greek 
tragic poet and dramatist. 

Alexandra, Queen (b. 1844), wife of 
the late King Edward VII of England. 

Alford, Dean Henry (1810-71), an Eng- 
lish scholar and poet, remembered 
chiefly for his Greek Testament. 

Alison, Sir Archibald (1792-1867), a 
son of Sir Archibald Alison (1757- 
1839), a British lawyer and writer. 
His principal work is the " History of 
Europe," in ten volumes. 

Ambrose (340-397), one of the Fathers 
of the Latin or Roman Church. While 
still a civilian and unbaptized, he was 
elected Bishop of Milan, in 374. 

Anderson, Sir Robert (1841-1921), a 
well-known English author, originally 
a barrister. 

Andrew op C^esarea, metropolitan of 
Caesarea in Cappadocia, and author of 
a commentary on the book of Reve- 
lation. 

Andrews, Charles M., professor of 
American history, Yale University, 
since 1910 ; author of numerous his- 
torical works. 

Andrews, Bishop E. G. (1825-1907). a 
Methodist Episcopal bishop. 

638 



Andrews, John Nevins (1829-83), an 
American Seventh-day Adventist cler- 
gyman and author. 

Appian, a native of Alexandria, who 
lived in Rome during the reigns of 
Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, 
and wrote a Roman history. 

Aquinas, Thomas, born at Aquino, 
Italy, about 1226 ; died March 7, 1274. 
He received the elements of his edu- 
cation in the monastery of Monte 
Cassino, and afterward studied under 
the celebrated Albertus Magnus at 
Cologne. Was graduated as bachelor 
of theology at Paris, and was made a 
professor at Naples. His greatest 
work is the " Summa Theologian," a 
doctrinal standard of Roman Cathol- 
icism. 

Armitage, Thomas (1819-96), born in 
England. He became a Methodist 
preacher at the age of sixteen. He 
came to America in 1838, and ten 
years later joined the Baptists, and 
was for years pastor of the Fifth Ave- 
nue Baptist Church, New York City. 
He published a number of works, but 
is probably most widely known by his 
" History of the Baptists." 

Arnold, Thomas (1795-1842), an Eng- 
lish clergyman, author, and educator : 
head master of the famous Rugby 
school. 

Arrian, a Greek historian of the early 
part of the second century a. d., a pu- 
pil of Epictetus. 

Athanasius, born in Alexandria, of 
Christian parents, in 298 or 299 ; died 
there, May 2 or 3, 373. Received a 
common school education of his time ; 
studied Greek philosophers and poets ; 
was made a deacon by Bishop Alex- 
ander, and played a most prominent 
part at the Council of Nicaea, in the 
definition of the creed named after 
that council. 

Augsburg, Confession of. In June. 
1530, the Diet of Augsburg met, 
Charles V of Germany being present. 
Charles, in alliance with the Pope, 
was prepared to attempt a settlement 
of the religious difficulties in Germany. 
The Protestants were anxious for rec- 
onciliation, and this desire was ex- 
pressed in the Confession of Augs- 
burg, which was presented to the diet. 
The aim of the Confession, composed 
for the greater part by Melanchtbon, 
was to show that Luther's opinions 
were not heretical. 

Augustine, Aurelius, bishop of Hippo- 
Kegius ; son of Patricius, a heathen, 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



639 



and Monica, a devout Christian ; born 
at Tagaste in Numidia, Nov. 13, 353 ; 
died at Hippo, North Africa, Aug. 28, 
430. 

Augustinus Triumphus (Augustinus de 
Ancona) (d. 1328), listed by the 
Catholic Encyclopedia (art. " Her- 
mits ") among " Notable Theolo- 
gians." 

Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), a cele- 
brated English philosopher, jurist, 
statesman, and author, one of the 
most remarkable men of any age. 

Bagster, Samuel (1772-1851), an Eng- 
lish publisher of Bibles, chiefly poly- 
glot, and New Testaments in Syriac 
and Hebrew. He also issued the 
famous "English Hexapla " (1827). 

Ball, Sir Robert, an English astron- 
omer, author of " The Cause of the 
Great Ice Age" (1893) and other 
scientific works. 

Bancroft, George (1800-91), an Amer- 
ican historian, statesman, and diplo- 
mat ; born in Worcester, Mass. He 
was graduated (1817) at Harvard, 
and studied for five years at the uni- 
versities of Gottingen, Leipzig, Berlin, 
and Heidelberg, specializing in his- 
tory. His " History of the United 
States " shows much diligent and skil- 
ful research. 

Barker, J. Ellis (b. 1870 in Cologne), 
lecturer, author, and journalist. 

Barker, William B., author of " Lares 
and Penates : or Galicia and Its Gov- 
ernors " (1853), and a "Practical 
Grammar of the Turkish Language " 
(1854), 

Barnes, Albert, an American clergy- 
man and Bible commentator ; born at 
Rome, N. Y., in 1798; died at Phila- 
delphia, Dec. 24, 1870. Studied theol- 
ogy at Princeton Seminary, and in 
1830 became pastor of the First Pres- 
byterian Church at Philadelphia. His 
reputation rests mainly on his com- 
mentaries and notes on different books 
of the Bible, his " Notes on the New 
Testament," in eleven volumes, hav- 
ing had a circulation of over one mil- 
lion volumes. 

Baronius, Caesar, born at Sora, in Na- 
ples, Oct. 31, 1538; died in Rome, 
June 30, 1607. This most learned 
and laborious historian of the Roman 
Church was educated at Veroli ; was 
appointed cardinal (1596), and libra- 
rian of the Vatican (1597). His dem- 
onstration of the historical identity 
of the Western with the primitive 
church is elaborated in his famous 
" Annales Ecclesiastici," which first 
appeared in Rome in twelve volumes, 
1588-1607. 

Barry, William (b. 1849), an eminent 
English Roman Catholic clergyman, 
educator, and author. 



Barton, George A. (b. 1859, in Canada), 
a well-known American educator and 
author. 

Basil the Great, Saint (329-379), 
bishop of Caesarea, one of the most 
distinguished doctors of the Catholic 
Church. 

Bates, Joseph (1792-1872), a New Eng- 
land Christian sea captain, who, after 
retiring from the sea, became active 
in every good work, including the 
temperance and antislavery move- 
ments. Becoming interested, in 1839, 
in the doctrine of the second advent 
of our Lord, he participated in the 
1843-44 Advent Movement under Wil- 
liam Miller, and was later one of the 
first to accept the light on the sanc- 
tuary and Sabbath questions as 
brought out at that time. He be- 
came an able advocate of the views 
he 'had espoused, and was ifor a 
quarter of a century or more an or- 
dained Seventh-day Adventist minis- 
ter and writer. 

Bloomfield, S. T., D. D., an English 
divine and scholar ; born about 1790. 
Published an edition of Dr. Robin- 
son's " Greek and English Lexicon of 
the New Testament," also a Greek 
" Testament with English Notes, Criti- 
cal, Philological, and Explanatory," 
and other valuable works of the kind. 
Died in 1869. 

Bower, Archibald, born at Dundee, 
Scotland, Jan. 17, 1686; died in Lon- 
don, Sept. 3, 1766. Was educated at 
Douay ; went afterward to Italy ; be- 
came a Jesuit, and a member of the 
Inquisition of Macerata. In 1726 he 
returned to England, and became a 
member of the Established Church ; 
was made librarian to the queen in 
1748. His principal work is his 
" History of the Popes." 

Buck, Charles (b. 1771). He labored 
in the ministry of the Independents 
of England until his death, in 1815. 
Author of a " Theological Dictionary," 
a work which is so admirably com- 
posed that it cannot become entirely 
out of date. 

Baudrillart, Alfred, rector of the Cath- 
lic Institute of Paris, early in the 
present century. His book, " The 
Catholic Church ; the Renaissance and 
Protestantism," published in London 
in 1908, has a prefatory note by E. H. 
Cardinal Perraud and the Imprimatur 
of Gulielmus, Episcopus Arindelensis, 
Vicarius Generalis. 

Baxter, Richard (1615-91), a noted 
English nonconformist divine, author 
of several religious works. 

Beecher, Rev. Charles (1815-1900), a 
Congregationalist clergyman, author, 
and educator ; of American birth. 

Bellarmine (Bellarmino), Robert 
Francis Romulus (1542-1621), a 



640 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



Roman Catholic theologian, born in 
Tuscany. He became a Jesuit, and 
was made cardinal in 1599, and arch- 
bishop of Papua in 1601. One of the 
greatest theologians that the Roman 
Catholic Church has produced. 

Bengel, Johann Albrecht, an eminent 
Lutheran theologian ; born at Win- 
nenden, in Wurtemberg, Germany, in 
1687. Finished his studies in the 
theological college at Tubingen ; was 
employed for many years as pastor at 
Denkendorf, and about 1749 became 
prelate at Alpirsbach. His edition 
of the Greek Testament, published in 
1734, is esteemed a standard work. 
His great contribution to exegetic 
scholarship was his " Gnomon Novi 
Testamenti," published in 1742. He 
died in 1752. 

Benjamin of Tudela (died after 1173 
a. d.), a Spanish Hebrew traveler; 
author of " Masaoth " (excursions), 
written in Hebrew, but translated into 
Latin in 1575, and into English in 
1784. 

Berosus, a Babylonian historian of the 
third century b. c. 

Besant, Mbs. Annie (b. 1847), a noted 
English lecturer on socialism and 
Theosophy ; for a time joint editor 
with Charles Bradlaugh on his paper, 
the National Reformer. 

Bicheno, J., a theological writer of the 
latter part of the eighteenth century. 

Bliss, Sylvester, a theologian and chro- 
nologist of the middle of the nine- 
teenth century. 

Binney, Amos, a Methodist clergyman, 
author of Binney's " Theological Com- 
pend." 

Birks, Rev. T. R., M. A., an English 
expositor. 

Blaikie, William Garden (1820-99), a 
Scottish divine, educator and writer. 
He was the founder of the Presby- 
terian Alliance. 

Blunt, Wilfred Scawen (1840), an 
English traveler and author. 

Blunt, John James (1794-1855), an 
English divine and ecclesiastical 
writer. 

Botsford, George Willis (b. 1862), 
an American historian and educator, 
author of a number of historical text- 
books. 

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne (1627-1704), 
a French divine, ecclesiastic, orator, 
and author, Bishop of Meaux from 
1681 to 1704. 

Boyle, Robert (1627-91), physicist and 
chemist, born at Lismore Castle, Ire- 
land. Founder of the " Boyle Lec- 
tures," " to prove the truth of the 
Christian religion against atheists, 
deists, pagans, Jews, and Mohamme- 
dans." 



Brerewood, Edward (1565-1613), an 
English mathematician and antiquary. 

Brewer, David J. (1837-1910), an Amer- 
ican jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia 
Minor. One of the justices of the 
United States Supreme Court. 

Briggs, Dr. Charles Augustus, a Pres- 
byterian theologian ; professor of He- 
brew and the cognate languages in 
Union Theological Seminary. 

Brown, John Newton (1803-68), an 
American clergyman, pastor of Bap- 
tist churches in New York and other 
Eastern States, and professor of the- 
ology and ecclesiastical history in the 
Theological Institution at New Hamp- 
ton, N. Y. 

Bruno, Rev. Joseph Faa di, a Roman 
Catholic ecclesiastic and author ; 
" Rector General of the Pious Society 
of Missions," Rome ; and later pastor 
of St. Peter's Italian church, London. 
His book, " Catholic Belief," was 
published in 1844. 

Bryce, James (b. 1838), a British jurist, 
historian, and diplomat. He was 
British ambassador to the United 
States from 1907 to 1913. He is 
widely known in this country by his 
books, " The Holy Roman Empire " 
(1864) and " The American Common- 
wealth " (1888). 

Burnet, Dr. Thomas (1635-1715), an 
English author. 

Bury, John Bagnell (b. 1861), a noted 
British historian and linguist. 

Bush, Prof. George (1796-1859), an 
American theologian and Biblical 
scholar, Presbyterian ; professor of 
Hebrew and Oriental Literature in 
the University of New York, 1831- 
1847 ; author of a " Hebrew Gram- 
mar," " Illustrations of the Holy 
Scriptures," and a series of Bible 
Commentaries in eight volumes. 

Butler, Joseph (1692-1752), an Eng- 
lish divine, philosopher, and author ; 
bishop of Durham. 

Calvin, John, born at Noyon, in Pic- 
ardy, France, July 10, 1509 ; died at 
Geneva, Switzerland, May 27, 1564. 
Entered the college of the Capettes, 
where he displayed extraordinary pre- 
cocity. At the age of twelve he be- 
came chaplain to the chapel of the 
Gesine. He next entered (1523) the 
college of La Marche. While in Paris 
he wrote in support of the " new re- 
ligion ; " but persecution became too 
strong, and he had to flee to Basel, 
where, in 1536, he wrote his " Insti- 
tutes of the Christian Religion." He 
next went to Geneva and then to 
Strassburg, and was appointed pas- 
tor of a church and professor of the- 
ology in both places. 

Campbell, Alexander, founder of the 
denomination known as the Disciples 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



641 



of Christ ; born near Ballymena, Ire- 
land, Sept. 12, 1788 ; died at Bethany, 
W. Va., March 4, 1866. Was educated 
at Glasgow University, and immigrated 
to the United States (1809). He was 
famous as a debater, and earnestly 
opposed religious establishments and 
Sunday legislation. 

Canton, William (b. 1845), an English- 
man, author of " The Bible and the 
Anglo-Saxon People" (1914), "His- 
tory of the British and Foreign Bible 
Society" (1904-10), "The Invisible 
Playmate : A Story of the Unseen " 

(1894), "Songs of England's Glory" 

(1902). 

Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881), an Eng- 
lish historian, biographer, and essay- 
ist. 

Cathcart, William (1826-1908), a Bap- 
tist pastor, author, and editor ; born 
and educated in Ireland, and came to 
the United States in 1853. 

Challoner, Richard (1691-1781), an 
English Roman Catholic divine, bishop 
of Debra and vicar apostolic of London. 

Chapman, Ervin S. (b. 1838), an Ameri- 
can clergyman especially prominent 
as a temperance advocate. He is 
probably best known through the 
Searchlight, the official organ of the 
Anti-Saloon League, and of which he 
was editor from 1898 to 1914. 

Charlemagne, or Charles the Great (c. 
742-814), Roman emperor from Dec. 
25, 800, to Jan. 28, 814. 

Chillingworth, William (1602-44), a 
noted English divine and controver- 
sialist. 

Chrysostom, Joannes, born at Antioch, 
347 ; died at Comana, in Pratas, in 
407. The most famous of the Fathers 
of the Greek or Eastern Church. 
Monasticism attracted him powerfully 
soon after his conversion, and he 
joined a society of hermits in the 
mountains outside of Antioch, living 
thus about six years, until failing 
health compelled him to return to 
civilization. He returned to Antioch 
in 380, and was ordained a deacon 
by Meletius. In 398 he removed to 
Constantinople ; by force was com- 
pelled to accept the patriarchal or- 
dination from Theophilus of Alexan- 
der, and thus found himself head of 
the whole Greek Church. Shortly be- 
fore his death he was banished in 
consequence of various charges made 
against him. Separate editions of his 
single works are numerous. 

Clarke, Adam, commentator ; born at 
Moybeg, north of Ireland, 1760 or 
1762 ; died in London, Aug. 26. 1832. 
From 1782 to 1805 he traveled as a 
Methodist itinerant ; from 1805 to 
1815 he held an appointment in Lon- 
don. From 1815 till his death he de- 
voted himself to literary work. 



Clay, Albert Tobias (b. 1866), arche- 
ologist ; a Lutheran clergyman and 
instructor in Hebrew in the University 
of Pennsylvania ; also instructor in 
Old Testament theology, and lecturer 
on Hebrew, Assyrian, and Semitic 
archeology in other universities of the 
United States. 

Clerke, Agnes Mary (1842-1907), a 
British astronomical writer. 

Clinton, H. F. (1781-1852), a British 
classical scholar and chronologist ; of 
his chief work the Encyclopedia 
Britannica says : " The value of his 
' Fasti,' which set classical chronol- 
ogy on a scientific basis, can scarcely 
be overestimated." 

Cobern, Rev. Camden McCormack (b. 
1855), an American Methodist Epis- 
copal clergyman, archeologist, Biblical 
critic, and author. 

Coleman, Lyman (1796-1882), an Amer- 
ican educator and theological writer ; 
professor of Latin and Greek at La- 
fayette College, 1861-68, and of Latin, 

1868-82. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), 
an eminent English poet, critic, and 
speculative genius. 

Collett, Sidney, an English writer, au- 
thor of " The King's Declaration — 
a Protest and Warning," " All About 
the Bible," etc. 

Comte, M., a French editor. 

Confucius (c. 550 to 478 b. a), China's 
most famous sage and philosopher. 

Constantine, surnamed The Great, Ro- 
man emperor from 306 to 337 ; born 
in 274, at Naissus, in Upper Moesia. 
After the death of his father he was 
proclaimed emperor by the legions of 
Gaul. His victory over Maxentius, 
near Rome, in 312, gave him posses- 
sion of Italy. In 330 he founded 
Constantinople. 

CONYBEARE AND HOWSON (ReV. W. J. 

Conybeare and Rev. J. S. Howson), 
joint authors of " The Life and Epis- 
tles of the Apostle Paul," first pub- 
lished in London in 1851. 

Cooley, Thomas McIntyre (1824-98), 
an eminent American jurist. 

Copinger, Walter Arthur (1847-1901), 
barrister ; author of " The First Half 
Century of the Latin Bible," and sev- 
eral books on history and biography. 

Cormack, George, a Scotch traveler and 
author. 

Cormenin, Louis Marie de, a French 
Roman Catholic author whose " His- 
tory of the Popes " was translated 
from the French into English and 
printed in 1851. 

Cotterill, Rev. Henry, theological tutor 
in Brighton College, England. 



642 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



Coverdale, Miles (1488-1568), an Eng- 
lish Augustinian friar, a friend of Rob- 
ert Barnes and Thomas Cromwell, and 
the first to translate the entire Bible 
into the English language. 

Cowper, William (1731-1800), an Eng- 
lish poet. 

Cox, Robert, a fellow of the Society of 
Antiquarians of Scotland, not a clergy- 
man, but a barrister, who in 1865 
gave to the world two volumes of 
" Literature on the Sabbath Question," 
the work being designed, as explained 
by the author in his preface, " chiefly 
as a help to those who study the 
Sabbath question in a thorough and 
impartial manner." 

Crafts, Wilbur Fisk (b. 1850), an 
American clergyman ; born at Frye- 
burg, Maine. Was graduated in 1869 
at Wesleyan University. From 1883 
to 1888 he was pastor of the First 
Union Presbyterian Church of New 
York. He founded the American Sab- 
bath Union in 1889, and the Inter- 
national Reform Bureau in 1895. His 
chief work is " The Sabbath for Man." 

Cranmer, Thomas (b. 1489), archbishop 
of Canterbury, England. He abjured 
his allegiance to Rome in 1535, and 
was tried and sent to the stake for 
heresy under " Bloody Mary." 

Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd (1812- 
78), an English jurist and historian. 
At the time of his death he was chief 
justice of Ceylon. 

Creighton, Mandell (1843-1901). an 
English historian and Bishop of Lon- 
don. 

Crolt, Rev. George (1780-1860), a 
British author ; rector of St. Stephen's, 
Walbrook, where he gained a reputa- 
tion for his eloquence. 

Cumming, John (1807-81), a Scottish 
clergyman and writer. His works in- 
•clude " Apocalyptic Sketches," " The 
Great Tribulation," and " Destiny of 
Nations." 

CUNINGHAME, WILLIAM (1805-61), a 

Scottish clergyman, theologian, and 
author ; one of the founders of the 
Free Church of Scotland. 

Curtis, Rev. William Alexander, born 
1876 at Thurso, Caithness, Scotland ; 
professor of systematic theology in the 
University of Aberdeen. In 1911 he 
published " A History of Creeds and 
Confessions of Faith in Christendom 
and Beyond." 

Cyprian, Thascius Cecilius (about 
200-258), one of the church Fathers. 
A pagan by birth, and of wealthy 
parentage, he became a teacher of 
rhetoric at Cartbage. He was at one 
time head of the whole African church. 
In 257 persecution broke out under 
Valerian, and Cyprian was banished, 
and in 258 he suffered martyrdom. 



Dale, Robert William (1829-95), an 
English Congregational clergyman ; 
author of " Sermons on the Ten Com- 
mandments," " The Atonement," etc. 

D'Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle, born at 
Eaux-Vives, near Geneva, Aug. 16, 
1794 ; died at Geneva, Oct. 20, 1872. 
A celebrated Swiss Protestant church 
historian ; after 1830 professor of his- 
torical theology at the ficole de The- 
ologie fivangelique at Geneva. His 
geatest work is the " History of the 
Reformation." 

Deardex, Rev. H. W., an English clergy- 
man and author whose book, " Mod- 
ern Romanism Examined," published 
in 1899, is one of the most temperate 
ever written upon a live controversial 
subject. 

Dechamps, Victor Augustin Isidore 
(1810-83), Cardinal Archbishop of 
Mechlin and Primate of Belgium. 

Dens, Peter ( 1690-1775), a Belgian 
Roman Catholic theologian. His great- 
est work, the " Theologia Moralis et 
Dogmatica/' is a compendium of Ro- 
man Catholic doctrine and ethics. 

Dent, Arthur, " Preacher of the word 
of God, South Shooburg in Essex," 
England. 

DeWette, Wilhelm Martin Leberecht 
(1780-1849), a German theologian; 
author of a number of works on Bibli- 
cal criticism. 

Dio Cassius (c. 150-235 a. d.), a Roman 
senator and historian. 

Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian 
who seems to have concluded his liter- 
ary labors b. c. 21. His " Bibliotheca 
Historica " consisted of forty books, 
only the first five of which are extant. 

DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON, 

born at Bamberg, Bavaria, Feb. 28, 
1799 ; died at Munich, Jan. 10, 1890. 
A German theologian, and after 1871 
leader in the " Old Catholic " move- 
ment ; appointed professor of ecclesi- 
astical history and law at Munich 
University in 1826. Between 1850 
and 1860 he was led to declare that 
the Pope's temporal power was not 
essential to the Roman Catholic 
Church, regarding which a prolonged 
controversy ensued. He opposed the 
decree of papal infallibility of the 
Vatican Council of 1869-70. and was 
excommunicated in 1871. The work. 
"The Pope and the Council" (1869). 
by " Janus," was written by him, and 
contains his arguments against the 
dogma of papal infallibility. 

Dods, Marcus (1834-1909). British the- 
ologian and author ; professor of New 
Testament exegesis in New College, 
Edinburgh. 

Domville, Sir William, a very able 
writer, and author of a work. " The 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



643 



Sabbath," published anonymously in 
London in 1849. 

Donovan, Rev. J., a Roman Catholic 
priest and educator ; domestic prelate 
to His Holiness Gregory XVI ; mem- 
ber of the Archeological Society of 
Rome ; honorable member of the So- 
ciety of British Artists, etc. He 
translated the " Catechism of the 
Council of Trent." 

Douglass,, Frederick A. (1817-95), an 
American mulatto. Born a slave, he 
escaped from bondage in 1838, and 
made his way to New York. Subse- 
quently he rose to prominence as a 
forceful writer and an eloquent 
speaker. 

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (b. 1859), 
an English author and journalist. 

Draper, John William (1811-82), born 
near Liverpool, England ; died at 
Hastings-upon-Hudson, N. Y. A noted 
chemist, physiologist, and historian. 

Dudden, Frederick Homes (b. 1874), 
an English clergyman and author. 
His book, " Gregory the Great, His 
Place in History and Thought," is 
listed by the Catholic Encyclopedia 
as one of its authorities. 

Duggan, Stephen H. Pierce (b. 1870). 
a college professor, and author of the 
" Eastern Question ; a Study in Di- 
plomacy " (1902). 

Dunbar, George (1774-1851), an English 
classical scholar and lexicographer. 
His Greek-English and English-Greek 
lexicon, issued in 1840, on the com- 
pilation of which he spent eight years, 
was, the Encyclopedia Britannica re- 
marks, " the best work of its kind 
that had appeared in England." 

Duruy, Jean Victor (1811-94), a 
French historian and statesman ; min- 
ister of public instruction 1863-69 ; 
and senator. 

Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), an emi- 
nent American teacher, preacher, and 
theologian, president of Yale College. 

Dyer and Hassell, authors of a " His- 
tory of Modern Europe." This work 
was undertaken by Thomas Henry 
Dyer in 1861. Two editions of his 
book were sold, and then Mr. Dyer 
having died, Mr. A. Hassell revised 
the work and continued it to the end 
of the nineteenth century. " It is," 
says the Encyclopedia Britannica, " a 
meritorious compilation ahd storehouse 
of facts." 

Ebrard, Johann Heinrich August, a 
prominent German Protestant theo- 
logian ; born at Erlangen in 1818. Be- 
came professor of theology in 1847 ; 
edited a review called the Future of 
the Church (1845-47), and wrote, be- 
sides other works, " Christian Dog- 
matics " (two volumes, 1852), arid 
u The Divine and Human in Christi- 



anity " (1844). He died July 23, 
1888. 
Eck, Johann Maier von, born at Eck, 
Bavaria, Nov. 13, 1486 ; died at Ingol- 
stadt, Bavaria, Feb. 10, 1543. A Ger- 
man theologian, one of the most ac- 
tive opponents of Luther and the 
Reformation. He became professor 
of theology at Ingolstadt in 1510, 
which institution he actually ruled 
for the rest of his life. He was a 
man of great learning and a vigorous 
defender of the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

Edersheim, Rev. Alfred (1825-89), born 
at Vienna, of Jewish parents ; a Chris- 
tian theologian and missionary to the 
Jews. His works include " A History 
of the Jewish Nation after the De- 
struction of Jerusalem," " The Tem- 
ple : Its Ministry and Services," " Life 
and Times of the Messiah," " Proph- 
ecy and History in Relation to the 
Messiah." 

Edgar, Rev. R. M'Cheyne, a Scotch 
clergyman and educator, from 1885 to 
1900 instructor of the class of senior 
freshmen, Trinity College, Dublin. 

Edwards, Jonathan (1703-58), an emi- 
nent American theologian, metaphysi- 
cian, and author. He was president 
of Princeton College in 1758. 

Edwards, Justin, D. D., an American 
clergyman ; born in Westhampton, 
Mass., April 25, 1787: died at Vir- 
ginia Springs, Mass., July 23, 1853. 
He, with fifteen others, founded the 
American Society for the Promotion 
of Temperance (1825). He was presi- 
dent of the seminary at Andover, 
Mass. (1837-42), and author of nu- 
merous popular tracts and of a work 
upon " The Sabbath." He should not 
be confounded with Jonathan Ed- 
wards, or with his son of the same 
name, both of whom were noted clergv- 
men of New England (1703-58, 1745- 
1801). 

Eliot, Sir Charles, commissioner for 
British East Africa, 1900-03. 

Elliott, Rev. E. B., an English clergy- 
man, vicar of Tuxord and fellow of 
Trinity College. Cambridge. His great 
work. " Hora? Apocalypticae." was pub- 
lished in 1847. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, a well-known 
standard encyclopedia, first published 
in three volumes 1768-71. reaching 
its eleventh edition, of twenty-nine 
volumes, in 1911. Published by the 
Encyclopedia Britannica Company, 
New York. 

Encyclopedia, The Catholic, a work 
consisting of fifteen large volumes be- 
sides the Index and Reading Lists. 
The first volume was issued in 1907. 
and the set was completed by the pub- 
lication of the Index in 1914. Charles 
G. Hebermann, editor-in-chief of the 



644 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



work, in an article in America, April 
18, 1914, styles it " this authoritative 
and complete summary of the doc- 
trines, history, and liturgy of the 
Catholic Church and her deeds, es- 
pecially in the English-speaking 
world." Published by' Robert Apple- 
ton Company, New York. 

Encyclopedia, The International 
Standard Bible. This valuable work, 
edited by James Orr, M. A., D. D., 
is scholarly without being unnecessa- 
rily technical. It is conservative, and 
is designed to strengthen rather than 
to undermine faith in the inspiration 
and authority of the sacred Scrip- 
tures. Published by Henry Camp & 
Co., London ; The Howard-Severance 
Company, Chicago, 1915. 

Encyclopedia, The Jewish, prepared 
by more than four hundred specialists 
and scholars, complete in twelve vol- 
umes. Published by Funk and Wag- 
nails Company, New York, 1907. 

Encyclopedia, Nelson's, perpetual loose- 
leaf. First issued in 1907, and kept 
up to date by new pages furnished to 
subscribers every year. Published by 
Thomas Nelson and Sons. New York, 
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. 

Encyclopedia, The New Schaff-Her- 
zog, is more than a revision of the 
original Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia ; 
it is a new work, prepared by more 
than six hundred scholars and 
specialists, under the supervision of 
Samuel Macauley Jackson, D. D., LL. 
D., assisted by a corps of ten asso- 
ciate and department editors. It is 
complete in thirteen volumes, includ- 
ing the Index. The last volume was 
copyrighted in 1912. Published by 
Funk and Wagnalls Company. New 
York and London. 

Encyclopedia of the World's Knowl- 
edge, Standard, a set of twenty-four 
small volumes, published in 1912 by 
Funk and Wagnalls Company, New 
York and London. 

Erasmus, Desideritts, a scholar and 
critic ; born at Rotterdam, probably 
Oct. 28. 1465 : died at Basel, Switzer- 
land. July 12. 1536. He aimed to 
reform without dismembering the Ro- 
man Catholic Church ; at first favored, 
but subsequently opposed, the Refor- 
mation, and engaged in a controversy 
with Luther. His chief literary work 
was an edition of the New Testament 
in Greek with a Latin translation, 
published in 1516. 

Erdman, Prof. Charles Rosenbury (b. 
1866), Presbyterian, of Princeton 
Theological Seminary. 

Eusebius, bishop of Csesarea ; born prob- 
ably at Csesarea, about 264 ; died 
there about 349. A celebrated theo- 
logian and historian, sometimes called 
" the father of church history." He 
was appointed bishop of Csesarea about 



315, and 325 attended the Council 
of Nicsea. where he was appointed to 
receive the emperor Constantine with 
a panegyrical oration. He wrote a 
universal history, and a " Life of 
Constantine." 

Extra vagantes Communes, a collection 
of decretals found in all editions of 
the " Corpus Juris Canonici," that is, 
in the body of the canon law of the 
Catholic Church. " This word," says 
the Catholic Encyclopedia, art. " Ex- 
travagantes," " is employed to desig- 
nate some papal decretals not con- 
tained in certain canonical collections. 
.... but which, however, were 
obligatory upon the whole church ; 
also to other decretals of a later 
date, and possessed of the same au- 
thority." 

Faber, George Stanley (1773-1854). an 
English divine and controversialist, 
graduate of Oxford and fellow of 
Lincoln College. 

Fairchild, James Harris (1817-1902) 
an American educator ; graduate of 
Oberlin College, 1838 ; later, professor 
of languages in the college, then pro- 
fessor of moral philosophy and the- 
ology, and finally college president. 

Farrar, Frederic William, an English 
divine and author ; born at Bombay, 
British India, Aug. 7, 1831 ; died in 
1903. Was educated at the universi- 
ties of London and Cambridge : was 
head master of Marlborough College, 
1871-76 ; was elected preacher to 
Cambridge University in 1868. and 
canon of Westminster and rector of 
St. Margaret's in 1876. 

Ferguson. William Scott, born in 
Prince Edward's Island. Canada. 1875 : 
historian, statesman, and educator. 

Ferraris, P. F. Lucius, an eighteenth 
century canonist of the Franciscan 
order. He was also professor, pro- 
vincial of his order, and consultor 
to the Holy Office. 

Finlay, George (1799-1875), a British 
historian. Among his works are 
" Greece and the Romans." " History 
of the Byzantine and Greek Empires 
from 1057-1453." and " Greece under 
the Othman and Venetian Dominion 
from 1453 to 1821." 

Flammarion, Camille (b. 1842), a 
noted French astronomer, author of 
" Omega, the Last Days of the World," 
and " Popular Astronomy." 

Flick, Alexander Clarence (b. 1869), 
an American university professor, lec- 
turer on history, and author of sev- 
eral historical works. 

Floody, Robert John (b. 1859), a 
clergyman of Boston, Mass. 

Foxe, John (1516-87), author of 
" Foxe's Book of Martyrs : the Acts 
and Monuments of the Church," writ- 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



645 



ten in Latin and printed in that lan- 
guage in 1559 ; translated and pub- 
lished in English in 1563. Foxe num- 
bered among his intimate friends and 
correspondents, Dean Nowell, Hugh 
Latimer, and William Tyndale. 

Franklin, Benjamin (1706-90), an emi- 
nent American philosopher and states- 
man. 

Freeman, Edward A. (1823-92), a noted 
English historian. 

Frere, James Hatley, an English au- 
thor and educator. 

Froude, James Anthony (1818-94), a 
noted English historian, essayist, and 
biographer. 

Gaebelein, Arno C, editor of Our 
Hope; author of several expository 
works. 

Galloway, Joseph (1730-1803), a mem- 
ber of the first Continental Congress 
in 1774. Died in England, 1803. He 
published several works on the 
prophecies. 

Gamble, Samuel Walter (b. 1852), a 
Methodist clergyman, prominent in 
the defense of the Sunday institution 
as against the ancient Sabbath. 

Garrison, William Lloyd (1805-79), 
an American journalist, an able and 
forceful writer, and a fearless advo- 
cate of antislavery. 

Gaussen, Fbancois Samuel Robert 
Louis (1790-1863), a Swiss Protestant 
theologian. 

Gesenius Justus (1601-73), the stan- 
dard Hebrew lexicographer, was a 
Lutheran theologian. 

Gibbon, Edward, an English historian, 
born at Putney, Surrey, England, 
April 27, 1737 ; died at London, Jan. 
15, 1794. Served in the militia (1759- 
70), attaining the rank of colonel. 
In 1774 he was elected to Parliament. 
His great work is " The History of 
the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire," still the chief authority for 
the period which it covers, an_d one 
of the greatest histories ever writ- 
ten. Gibbon was twenty-three years 
completing this work. 

Gibbons, James, an American Roman 
Catholic prelate ; born at Baltimore, 
Md., July 23, 1834, died March 24, 
1921. Became archbishop of Balti- 
more in 1877, and cardinal in 1886, 
the first American cardinal. Author 
of " The Faith of Our Fathers " and 
" Our Christian Heritage." 

GlESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792- 

1854), a German Protestant church 
historian and theologian ; professor of 
theology at Bonn and Gottingen. His 
principal work is the " Lehrbuch der 
Kirchengeschichte " (Textbook of 
Church History), of which the New 
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia says it is 



" one of the most remarkable produc- 
tions of German learning, distin- 
guished by erudition, accuracy, and 
careful selection of passages." 

Gill, Thomas H. (b. 1819), an English 
clergyman, a Low Churchman. 

Gladstone, William Ewart, an emi- 
nent English statesman, orator, and 
author ; born Dec. 29, 1809 ; died May 
19, 1898. He was for many years in 
public life, being much of the time a 
member of Parliament and thrice 
prime minister of Great Britain. 

Goodwin, Thomas (1600-80), was or- 
dained a clergyman of the Established 
Church of England, but in 1633 he 
resigned his pastorate and became an 
Independent. He was one of Oliver 
Cromwell's chief advisers, and at- 
tended the Protector on his deathbed. 

Gordon, Adoniram Judson, D. D. (1836- 
95), an American clergyman and au- 
thor. 

Gordon, S. D. (b. 1859), a well-known 
author of religious books, mostly 
" Quiet Talks " on various practical 
subjects. 

Gosselin, M., director of the Seminary 
of St. Sulpice, Paris. His book, " The 
Power of the Pope," was first pub- 
lished in 1839. It was subsequently 
translated into English by the Rev. 
Matthew Kelly, of St. Patrick's Col- 
lege, Maynooth, Ireland, and published 
in London in 1853. 

Grant, Gen. Ulysses Simpson (1822- 
85), the chief leader of the Union 
armies in the Civil War, and subse- 
quently President of the United States 
for eight years. 

Gratian, an Italian Benedictine monk, 
a native of Tuscany ; lived about 1125- 
60, and was the author of a work 
entitled " Decretum." 

Green, John Richard (1837-83), an 
English historian. Among his princi- 
pal works are " A Short History of 
the English People," " The Making of 
England," " The Conquest of Eng- 
land." 

Gregory, Daniel Seelye (b. 1832), an 
American clergyman and editor, and 
author of numerous works. 

Gregory I, surnamed the Great (540- 
604), saint, doctor of the church, and 
Pope the last fourteen years of his 
life. He restored the monastic dis- 
cipline, enforced the rule of celibacy 
of the clergy, and displayed great 
zeal in propagating Latin Christianity. 
He was a prolific writer. 

Gregory VII (Hildebrand) (b. about 
1020; d. 1085), is styled by the Cath- 
olic Encyclopedia, " one of the great- 
est of the Roman pontiffs, and one of 
the most remarkable men of all 
times." 



646 



BIOGRAPHICAL, SKETCHES 



Gregory IX (1145-1241), Pope from 
1227 to his death at the advanced 
age of ninety-six years. He made a 
collection of Decretals. 

Grotius, Hugo, born at Delft, Nether- 
lands, April 10, 1583 ; died at Ros- 
tock, Germany, Aug. 28, 1645. A cel- 
ebrated Dutch jurigt, theologian, 
statesman, and poet, and founder of 
the science of international law. 

Guinness, H. Grattan, D. D., fellow of 
the Royal Astronomical Society ; an 
English clergyman and writer, au- 
thor of " The Approaching End of 
the Age," " Light for the Last Days," 
" Creation Centred in Christ," etc., 
all published by Hodder and Stough- 
ton, London. 

Habershon, Matthew (b. 1821), an 
English author and historian. 

Hackett, Horatio Balch, an American 
Biblical scholar and exegete ; born at 
Salisbury, Mass., Dec. 27, 1808 ; died 
at Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 2, 1875. 
Was graduated at Amherst in 1830, 
studied theology at Andover and in 
Germany, and afterward taught ancient 
languages in Brown University and 
Biblical literature in Newton Theo- 
logical Seminary. The latter chair 
he held for thirty years (1839-70), 
when he was appointed professor of 
New Testament Greek in Rochester 
Theological Seminary. 

Hagenbach, Dr. Karl Rudolph (1801- 
71), a German-Swiss church historian 
and Protestant theologian. 

Haldeman, Isaac Masset (b. 1845), an 
American clergyman (Baptist), au- 
thor of several books and many 
pamphlets on religious subjects. 

Hales, Rev. William (1747-1831), an 
Irish clergyman and scientific author, 
member of the Church of England. 

Hall, Isaac Hollister (1837-96), an 
American philologist and Biblical 
scholar. 

Hall, Robert (1764-1831), a very pop- 
ular and forceful Baptist minister in 
England, whose published works were, 
in 1832, collected into six volumes. 
and were issued in both England and 
America. 

Hallam, Henry (1777-1859), an English 
historian and critic of great merit. 

Hanly, J. Frank (1863-1920), gover- 
ernor of Indiana ; prohibition nominee 
for President in 1916. 

Harnack, Adolf, a noted German Prot- 
estant theologian ; born at Dorpat 
(Yurief), Russia, May 7, 1851. Was 
professor successively at Leipzig, 
Giessen, Marburg, and (1888) Berlin. 
His most- important work is in the 
department of the history of the 
ancient church. Hjls "^ History of 
Dogma " is an epoch-making work. 



Harper, Edward, author of " Popery 
and Britain Betrayed," " Protestant- 
ism on Its Trial," both previous to 
1861, the year of his epistolary dis- 
cussion with Rev. Dr. Manning (Ro- 
man Catholic priest, and later arch- 
bishop and cardinal), printed shortly 
thereafter in book form. 

Harrison, J. A. (1848-1911), an Ameri- 
can writer and author of a number 
of historical works. 

Hastings, H. L. (d. 1915), an Ameri- 
can author. 

Hase, Karl August von, a noted Ger- 
man Protestant theologian and church 
historian ; born at Steinbach, Saxony, 
Germany, Aug. 25, 1800 ; died at Jena, 
Jan. 3, 1890. Was professor at Leip- 
zig (1829-30) and at Jena (1830- 
83). 

Hefele, Rev. Charles Joseph, a German 
Roman Catholic ecclesiastic ; born at 
Unterkochen, in Wiirtemberg, Ger- 
many, March 15, 1809 ; died at Rot- 
tenburg, June 5, 1893. Opposed the 
dogma of infallibility at the Vatican 
Council of 1870, but in 1871 submit- 
ted to the papal authority. He was 
bishop of Rottenburg (1869) and 
church historian ; became professor of 
theology at Tubingen (1840). His 
great work is " Conciliengeschichte 
(A History of the Councils)." 

Henry, Matthew (1662-1714), an emi- 
nent nonconformist English divine. 
He published many sermons and the- 
ological works, the most important 
of which is his " Commentary on the 
Old and New Testaments." 

Henry, Patrick (1736-99). a celebrated 
American orator and patriot. He was 
a devout believer in Christianity, but 
was not a member of any religious 
denomination. 

Herodotus (484-424 b. a), the Greek 
historian known as " the Father of 
History." 

Herschel, Sir John Frederic William 
(1702-1871), one of the foremost 
English astronomers and physicists. 

Heylyn, Peter, an English church his- 
torian and controversialist ; born at 
Burford, England, Nov. 29, 1600 ; died 
at London, May 8, 1662. Was gradu- 
ated at Magdalen College, Oxford ; 
was appointed chaplain to the king 
in 1629 ; was a High Anglican, and 
very bitter against the Puritans. 

Hippolytus, a distinguished ecclesiasti- 
cal writer ; is supposed to have been 
born in the East, and to^have died in 
exile in Sardinia at the beginning 
of the third century. He was a pres- 
byter, conspicuous for learning, elo- 
quence, zeal, and moral earnestness. 
Greek was his native tongue ; his chief 
work was " Philosophumena." 

Hislop, Rev. Alexander, a clergyman 
of the Free Church of Scotland. His 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



647 



most important work was " The Two 
Babylons." 
Historians' History of the World, 
edited by Henry Smith Williams, as- 
sisted by a board of distinguished 
advisers and contributors. Published 
in 1905 in twenty-five volumes, by the 
Outlook Company, New York, and the 
Historical Association, London. 

Hobbs, William Herbert, an Ameri- 
can geologist. He held professorships 
at the University of Wisconsin and 
the University of Michigan, and was 
connected with the United States 
Geological Survey. 

Hobson, Hon. Richmond P. (b. 1870), 
a graduate of the United States Naval 
Academy, and of the Southern Uni- 
versity, 1906 ; member of the 60th, 
61st, and 62d Congresses, elected 
from Alabama. 

Hodges, Archibald Alexander (1823- 
86), an American Presbyterian clergy- 
man, author, and theologian ; profes- 
sor of didactic and polemic theology 
at Princeton Theological Seminary. 
His chief works are " Outlines of The- 
ology," " The Atonement," and " Man- 
ual of Forms." 

Hodge, Charles (1797-1878), an Ameri- 
can Presbyterian theologian ; profes- 
sor in Princeton Theological Semi- 
nary. His chief work was " System- 
atic Theology." 

Hodgkin, Thomas (b. 1831), a British 
historian, reared and educated as a 
member of the Society of Friends. 
His principal work, " Italy and Her 
Invaders," is recognized as an au- 
thority second to none. 

Holtzman, Dr. Heinrich Julius (b. 
1832), a leading German university 
professor and author. One of his 
best known works, " Kanon und Tra- 
dition," was published in Basel in 
1859. 

Hooker, Richard, a celebrated English 
divine and theological writer ; born at 
Heavitree, Exeter, England, about 
1553 ; died at Bishopsbourne, Nov. 2, 
1600. 

Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus 
(65-8 B.C.), a famous Roman lyric 
poet. 

Horne, Thomas Hartwell (1780-1862), 
an English Biblical scholar, whose 
chief work, " Introduction to the Criti- 
cal Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
Scriptures," was published in 1818. 

Horton, Rev. Robert Forman (b. 1855), 
an English clergyman and author. 

Hosius, Cardinal (257-359), bishop of 
Cordova, Spain. He was a leader of 
the orthodox or Catholic party, and 
a champion of Athanasius as against 
the Arians. 

Hostiensis (Henry of Susa, d. 1271), 
author of " Summa Hostiensis, or 



Summa aurora," " a work," says the 
Encyclopedia Britannica, " of the very 
highest order." 

Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alex- 
ander von (1796-1859), a celebrated 
German scientist and author. 

Hurlbut, Rev. Jesse Lyman (b. 1843), 
a Methodist Episcopal minister. 

Hussey, Robert (1801-56), an English 
scholar, clergyman, and university 
professor ; regius professor of ecclesi- 
astical history at Oxford from 1842. 

Hutton, William Holden (b. 1860), a 
clergyman of the Church of England, 
fellow and tutor of St. John's Col- 
lege, Oxford ; later lecturer in ecclesi- 
astical history at Trinity College ; au- 
thor of numerous able works. 

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), a Span- 
ish soldier and prelate, founder of the 
Society of Jesus, or order of Jesuits. 

Innes, A. Taylor, a Scotch advocate 
and writer. 

Innocent III (1161-1216), Pope from* 
1198 to 1216. During his pontificate 
the papal power attained its greatest 
height. 

Innocent IV (d. 1254), Pope from 1243 
to 1254. 

Irenjbus, one of the most distinguished 
authors and theologians of the early 
church ; born in Asia Minor, about 
115 ; died at Lyons, probably in 202. 
Studied under Polycarp, removed to 
Rome about 155 ; became bishop of" 
Lyons in 177. 

Isaacson, Rev. Charles StutevilleT, 
English clergyman, rector of Hard- 
ingham, and sometime fellow of Clare 
College, Cambridge. 

Jastrow, Morris, Jr. (1861-1921) pro- 
fessor of Semitic languages, and libra- 
rian of the University of Pennsylva- 
nia ; author of several valuable works. 

Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1836), an 
eminent American statesman, author 
of the Declaration of Independence, 
and third President of the United 
States. 

Jenkins, Rev. Robert Charles (b. 
1815), an English clergyman. 

Jenks, Rev. William (1778-1866), one 
of the founders of the American Ori- 
ental Society. 

Jerome (Eusebius Sophronius Hierony- 
mus), one of the greatest of the Latin 
Fathers ; born at Stridon, Pannonia, 
about 340 ; died at Bethlehem, Sept. 
30, 420. After studying with his 
father Eusebius, a Christian, he went 
to Rome, where he was introduced 
into Greek philosophy and Roman 
literature. He became a presbyter at 
Antioch in 379, and in 382 returned to 
Rome, where he became secretary to 



648 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



Pope Damasus. He published a Latin 
version of the Bible, known as the 
Vulgate. 

Jewell, John (1522-71), bishop of 
Salisbury. His complete works were 
collected under the direction of Arch- 
bishop Bancroft and published in 1609. 

Johnson, Franklin (b. 1836), Baptist. 
From 1892 he was for some years pro- 
fessor of church history and homi- 
letics in the University of Chicago. 

Johnston, Howard Agnew (b. 1860), 
an American clergyman ; from 1899 
to 1905 he was pastor of Madison 
Avenue Church, New York City. 

Johnston, Sir Henry Hamilton (b. 
1858), an English traveler. He held 
several consulships in Africa, and in 
1891 was made consul general for 
British Central Africa. 

Jones, H. Stuart (b. 1867), an English 
scholar and historian. 

Jordan, Camille (1771-1821), a French 
politician. 

Jordanes, the historian of the Gothic 
nation, who wrote about the middle 
of the sixth century. 

Jortin, John (1698-1770), an English 
church historian and critic. 

Josephus, Flavius, a celebrated Jewish 
historian ; born in Jerusalem, in 37 ; 
died about 100. Was of illustrious 
priestly descent, and related to the 
Maccabean house ; had good educa- 
tional advantages, and early evinced 
superior talent and knowledge. In 
64 he was sent by the Jews on a mis- 
sion to Rome. On returning he 
found his countrymen bent upon 
throwing off the Roman yoke at all 
hazards, from which he at first tried 
to dissuade them. At the outbreak 
of the Judeo-Roman war (66) he was 
intrusted by the Sanhedrin with the 
governorship of Galilee, where he for- 
tified various military positions, and 
drilled an army of 100,000 men. 
When Jotapata was taken by Ves- 
pasian by storm, in 67, Josephus, who 
had defended it for forty-seven days, 
was taken prisoner to Rome, and after 
two years, when Vespasian was pro- 
claimed emperor (69) in harmony with 
a prediction made to him by Josephus 
when captured, he obtained his liberty. 
He went with Titus to Palestine, re- 
mained in his train till the close of 
the war, and accompanied him to 
Rome for the triumph after the 
fall of Jerusalem, in 70. His chief 
works are " Wars of the Jews " and 
" Antiquities of the Jews." 

Joye, George, an English author " who 
himself brought out a fourth edition 
of Tyndale's New Testament in August, 
1534, freed from many of the errors 
which, through the carelessness of the 
Flemish printers, had crept into the 
text." 



JuRrEU, Pierre (1637-1713), a French 
Protestant divine, pastor of the 
French church at Rotterdam, author 
of a number of scholarly works. 

Justinian (Flavius Anicius Justinia- 
nus), Roman emperor from 527-565. 

Justin Martyr (about 103-165), one of 
the earliest apologists of Christianity. 
Originally a pagan, he later embraced 
Christianity, for the defense of which, 
and his opposition to paganism, he is 
said to have been martyred in Rome 
under Marcus Aurelius. 

Keenan, Rev. Stephen, a Catholic 
priest ; author of a catechism much 
used in Roman Catholic schools. 

Keil, Johann Friederich Karl (Keil, 
C. F.) (1807-88), a German Protes- 
tant exegete. After spending a num- 
ber of years as professor of Old and 
New Testament exegesis and Oriental 
languages at Dorpat, he withdrew and 
devoted himself to literary work. 

Keith, Rev. Alexander (1791-1880), a 
Scottish clergyman, author of several 
works on prophecy. In 1843 he gave 
up his connection with the Established 
Church, and helped to found the Free 
Church of Scotland. 

Kelly, Dr. Howard A. (b. 1858). a 
noted American surgeon, author of a 
number of medical and surgical works. 

Kenrick, Peter Richard (1806-96). was 
ordained a priest in 1832. In 1833 he 
went to Philadelphia, where he was 
made rector of the Catholic Theolog- 
ical Seminary, and filled other impor- 
tant offices in the diocese until he was 
made coadjutor bishop of St. Louis in 
1841. He was made archbishop in 
1847. 

Kenyon, Frederic G. (b. 1863), has been 
connected with the British Museum 
since 1889. He is author of a number 
of valuable books. 

Killen, William Dool (1806-1902), an 
Irish Presbyterian ; professor of ec- 
clesiastical history in Belfast. 

King, Charles (b. 1844), an American 
soldier, officer (brigadier general), and 
author. 

King, Henry Melville, clergyman ; in- 
structor of Hebrew in Newton Theo- 
logical Institution 1862-1863 ; pastor 
of churches in Boston, Albany, and 
Providence. 

King, L. W. (b. 1869), an English arche- 
ologist. He wrote largely on Baby- 
lonian and Assyrian subjects. 

Kitto. John, an English compiler ; born 
at Plymouth, England, Dec. 4. 1804 ; 
died at Cannstadt, Germany, Nov. 25, 
1854. Although a layman, he was 
made doctor of divinity by the Uni- 
versity of Giessen in 1844. He pub- 
lished " The Pictorial Bible " and the 
" Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature." 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



649 



Knox, John, the greatest of the Scottish 
Reformers ; born at Gilford, in East 
Lothian, Scotland, in 1505 ; died in 
November, 1572. Was ordained a 
priest about 1530, openly renounced 
the Roman Catholic religion in 1542, 
and was appointed chaplain to Ed- 
ward VI about 1551. In 1559 he be- 
came the master spirit of the Ref- 
ormation in Scotland. 

Krummacher, Friedrich Wilhelm 
1796-1868), court chaplain at Pots- 
dam, and an influential promoter of the 
Evangelical Alliance. 

Kyle, John Merrill (b. 1856), a Pres- 
byterian clergyman, and missionary to 
Brazil, South America, 1882-87. 

Labbe and Cossart, French Jesuits, and 
authors of a " History of the Coun- 
cils." Philippe Labbe (1607-67) was 
a voluminous writer ; the " History 
of the Councils " was planned by him 
and completed after his death by Cos- 
sart. 

LACTANTIUS, LUCIUS CCELITJS FlRMIA- 

nus (d. c. 330), an eloquent Latin 
Father who flourished in the third and 
fourth centuries, and is supposed to 
have been a native of Africa. He is 
reputed to have been the most elo- 
quent and polished of the Christians 
of that period. 

Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louis de 
Prat de (1790-1869), French poet, 
historian, and statesman. 

Lane-Poole, Stanley (b. 1854, London), 
an English historian and archeologist, 
professor of Arabic at Trinity College, 
Dublin, 1889-1904, and subsequently 
employed in government service. He 
has published many volumes covering 
a wide range of subjects, most of them 
relating, however, in some way to 
Eastern research. 

Lanfrey, Pieere (1828-77), French his- 
torian and statesman. 

Lang, Andrew (b. 1844), a Scottish 
miscellaneous writer, and author of 
numerous works. 

Lange, Johann Peter, a German Prot- 
estant theologian ; born at Sonnborn, 
Prussia, April 10, 1802 ; died at Bonn, 
July 9, 1884. Was professor of theol- 
ogy at Zurich (1841), and later 
(1854) at Bonn. He published the 
commentary " Bibelwerk " (1856-76: 
English translation by Schaff). 

Langley, Prof. Samuel Pierpont (1834- 
1906), an American scientist; profes- 
sor of astronomy in the Western Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania in 1867. In 
1887 he was appointed secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution at Wash- 
ington, D. C, where he engaged in 
making experiments pertaining to me- 
chanical flight. 

Lardner, Dionysius (1793-1859), an 
English clergyman and scientific 
writer. 



Latimer, Hugh (1485-1555), a cele- 
brated English prelate and Reformer. 
He was excommunicated from the Ro- 
man Catholic Church April 20, 1555, 
and with Ridley was burned October 
16 of the same year. 

Lawrence, Eugene (1823-94), an Amer- 
ican, writer, author of several impor- 
tant works. 

Layard, Sir Austin Henry (1817-94), 
an English archeologist and diploma- 
tist, noted for his archeological dis- 
coveries in Asiatic Turkey. 

Lea, Henry Chaeles (1825-1909), an 
American author. Among his princi- 
pal works are " A Historical Sketch 
of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Chris- 
tian Church," and " History of the 
Inquisition of the Middle Ages." 

Leathes, Rev. Stanley (1830-1900), in 
1863 professor of Hebrew in King's 
College, London ; member of the com- 
pany of the Old Testament revisers 
in 1870, and examiner in Scripture to 
the University of London after 1892. 

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole 
(1838-1903), a British philosopher, 
best known, perhaps, by his " History 
of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit 
of Rationalism in Europe." 

Leech, Rev. Samuel V. (b. 1837), a 
Methodist clergyman and author. 

Leo XIII (1810-1903), Pope from 1878 
to 1903. Gioacchino Pecci was cre- 
ated cardinal by Pius IX in 1853, and 
remained in charge of his diocese until 
1878, when, on the death of Pius IX. 
he was elected Pope and took the name 
of Leo XIII. 

Lewis, Abram Herbert (1836-1909), a 
Seventh Day Baptist clergyman, col- 
lege professor, and author ; for many 
years editor of the SabbatJi Recorder, 
the organ of the Seventh Day Baptist 
denomination. 

Liddon, H. P. (1829-90), an English 
High Church clergyman, celebrated 
as a preacher. 

Lightfoot, Bishop Joseph Barber 
(1828-89), an English ecclesiastic and 
scholar. He was the author of sev- 
eral commentaries ; and five volumes of 
sermons, essays, and notes have been 
published since his death. 

Ligorio (Liguori), Alfonsus Maria di 
(1696-1787), a Neapolitan of good 
family, one of the greatest Roman 
Catholic writers of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, and founder of the Congregation 
of the Redemptorists. His works, the 
most important of which is his 
" Theologia Moralis," were published 
in forty-two volumes. 

Lincoln, Abraham (1809-65), sixteenth 
President of the United States. 

Lindsay, Thomas M. (1843-1914), prin- 
cipal of the United Free Church Col- 



650 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



lege, Glasgow, Scotland ; author of a 
number of important works. 

LlTTLEDALE, RlCHAED FREDERICK (1833- 

90), a Church of England clergyman, 
and an author of much ability. As an 
opponent of the Church of Rome he 
attracted much attention. His nu- 
merous works, published from time to 
time during the period from 1862 to 
1877, exerted a wide influence. 

Livingstone, David (1813-73), a cele- 
brated African explorer and mission- 
ary. 

Livy (Titus Livius), (b. at Patavium 
59 B.C., d. there 17 a. d.), was the 
greatest of Roman historians, and the 
most important prose writer of the 
Augustan age. He wrote a compre- 
hensive history of Rome from the 
founding of the city to the death of 
Drusus, published in 142 books, of 
which only 35 are extant. 

Llorente, Don Juan Antonio (1756- 
1823), a learned Spanish historian. 
In 1799 he was appointed secretary 
general of the Inquisition, of which 
he became a determined adversary, 
and promoted its suppression in 1809. 

Loed, John (1810-94), an American lec- 
turer and pastor. 

Lucan (Marcus Annseus Lucanus). (39- 
65 a. D.), the chief Roman poet of the 
silver age. His only surviving work 
is the poem " Pharsalia." 

Luther, Martin, German Reformer ; 
born at Eisleben, Prussian Saxony, 
Nov. 10, 1483 ; died there, Feb. 18, 
1546. His early education was ob- 
tained at Magdeburg and Eisenach ; 
in 1501 he entered the University of 
Erfurt, took the bachelor's degree in 
1502 and the master's in 1505. In 
1508 Luther was called to the chair 
of philosophy at the University of 
Wittenberg. His first important ac- 
tion in the direction of ecclesiastical 
reform was his publication, Oct. 31, 
1517, on the church door at Witten- 
berg, of ninety-five theses against the 
sale of indulgences by the Dominican 
Tetzel. This has been called the 
birthday of the Reformation. Luther's 
translation of the whole Bible into 
German was completed in 1532 and 
published in 1534. 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1800- 
59), a celebrated English historian, 
essayist, poet, and statesman. His 
chief work is a " History of England," 
published in five volumes. 

Maccabees, Books of the, the last two 
books of the Apocrypha. They con- 
tain a record of the historic struggles 
of the Maccabees from 168 to 135 b. c. 
The first book was written in Hebrew, 
the second in Greek. The second chap- 
ter of the latter contains an account 
of the hiding of the ark of the cove- 
nant in Mt. Nebo, by Jeremiah, just 
before the seventy years' captivity. 



MacFarlane, Chaeles Steadman (b. 
1866), an American Congregational 
clergyman ; also editor and author. 

Machiavelli (1469-1527), a noted Ital- 
ian statesman and writer. 

MacKnight, Thomas (1829-99), a 
British editor and statesman. 

McAllister, Rev. David (1833-1907) 
a Reformed Presbyterian clergyman, 
born in New York. Dr. McAllister 
was a leading National Reformer ; ed- 
itor of the Christian Statesman from 
September, 1867, to December, 1891, 
and again from November, 1894, to 
June, 1902, nearly a third of a cen- 
tury in all. 

M'Caetht, Justin (1830-1912), a noted 
Irish journalist, politician, historian, 
and novelist. His reputation as a his- 
torian rests largely upon his " Short 
History of Our Own Times." 

McKim, Rev. Randolph Harrison 
(1842-1920), an American Protestant 
Episcopal clergyman and author, of 
Washington, D. C. 

Mahaffy, John P. (b. 1839), occupied 
many positions of responsibility in 
connection with educational and civil 
affairs in the United States, and was 
author of a number of valuable works. 

Mallet, Charles Edward (b. 1862), 
a British statesman and author. 

Manning, Henry Edward (1808-92), an 
English clergyman, leader of the 
High Church party. He became a 
priest of the Roman Catholic Church 
in 1851, and a cardinal in 1857. 

Mansfield, Lord (1705-93,) first earl 
of Mansfield, and an English judge. 

Marcellinus, Ammianus (330-395), a 
Greek historian, author of a history 
of Rome in Latin. 

Marriott, John Arthur Ransome, fel- 
low, lecturer, and tutor in modern 
history and economics at Worcester 
College, Oxford. 

Marsh, Herbert (1757-1839), a learned 
English theologian. He published 
several religious and controversial 
treatises. 

Marsilius of Padua (about 1270-1342), 
physician and theologian, one of the 
more important of the learned pub- 
licists who supported Louis the Ba- 
varian in his struggle with John 
XXII, who was Pope from 1316 to 
1334. 

Maspero, Sir Gaston Camille Charles 
(1846-1916), a noted French Egyptol- 
ogist, and author of many works grow- 
ing out of his years of research in 
Egypt and Assyria. His chief work 
is " The Struggle of the Nations." 

Mason, Archibald, minister of the gos- 
pel at Wishawton, Scotland, in the 
early part of the nineteenth century. 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



651 



Massillon, Jean Baptiste (1663-1742), 
a French prelate and famous preacher. 

Masson, David (1822-1907), a Scottish 
historian and man of letters. 

Mather, Cotton, American clergyman 
and author ; born at Boston, Mass., 
Feb. 12, 1663; died there, Feb. 13, 
1728. Took his B. A. degree when 
less than sixteen years old ; was or- 
dained as joint pastor with his father, 
in May, 1685, and held that position 
until his death. He wrote a book on 
witchcraft, and is known to have been 
in full sympathy with the Salem 
witchcraft crusade of 1692, in which 
a score were put to death, most of 
them by hanging. As an author, he 
was learned and voluminous, three 
hundred eighty-two of his printed 
works having been catalogued. 

Maxwell, William, an English war 
correspondent and parliamentary jour- 
nalist. 

Mears, Rev. John W. (Presbyterian), 
author of " Heroes of Bohemia," " Beg- 
gars of Holland," " Story of Mada- 
gascar," etc. He is probably best 
known by his book, " From Exile to 
Overthrow," published in 1913 by the 
Presbyterian Board of Publication, 
Philadelphia. 

Mede, Joseph (1586-1638), was emi- 
nent for learning and piety. He is 
best known by his " Clavis Apocalyp- 
tica," written in Latin and printed 
at Cambridge in 1627. It was trans- 
lated by R. Moore, and printed in 
1643 under the English title, "The 
Key of the Revelation." 

Melanchthon, Philipp, the eminent 
friend of and collaborator with Luther 
in the German Reformation ; born at 
Bretten, Baden, Germany, Feb. 16, 
1497 ; died at Wittenberg, April 19, 
1560. -He was educated at Tubingen ; 
became professor of Greek at Witten- 
berg in 1518 ; revised the Augsburg 
Confession and drew up the Apology 
in 1530 ; and took part in the various 
Protestant conferences with the Ro- 
man Catholics. 

Merivale, Charles (1808-93), English 
historian and dean of Ely. 

Michael Angelo (1475-1564), the most 
distinguished sculptor of the modern 
world. 

Migne, Jacques Paul, a prominent Ro- 
man Catholic theologian ; born at St. 
Flour, Cantal, France, Oct. 26, 1800 ; 
died in Paris, Oct. 25, 1875. Edu- 
cated at the theological seminary at 
Orleans ; became a professor at Cha- 
teaudun ; was ordained priest (1824), 
and was curate at Puiseaux, in the 
diocese of Orleans. He went to Paris 
in 1833, where he founded a paper, 
L'Univers Religieux, and established a 
large publishing house. 

Mijatovich, Chedomil (b. 1842, Ser- 
bia), senator of the kingdom of Serbia 



since 1875. He is author of several 
publications on political economy, 
finance, history of commerce, and 
history of Serbia in the fifteenth cen- 
tury. 

Militz (Milicz) (d. 1374), Bohemian 
divine. He was the most influential 
among those preachers and writers in 
Moravia and Bohemia who, during the 
fourteenth century, in a certain sense 
paved the way for the reforming ac- 
tivity of Huss. 

Mill, John Stuart (1806-73), an Eng- 
lish liberal philosophical writer, logi- 
cian, and economist, and an author 
of exceptional ability. 

Miller, William, born in Pittsfield, 
Mass., February, 1782 ; died in Low 
Hampton, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849. Re- 
ceiving a captain's commission, he 
entered the army in 1810. On his 
return from the army, he moved to 
Low Hampton, N. Y., in 1812. From 
infidelity, he finally became an earnest 
student of the Bible. In 1836 his 
lectures on the prophecies and the 
second advent were printed in some 
of the public journals of the day, 
and were afterward issued in book 
and pamphlet form. His work, cul- 
minating in the great Advent Move- 
ment of 1840-44, resulted in an in- 
creased interest in the study of the 
Bible, particularly of the prophecies. 

Milligan, William (1821-93), of the 
Church of Scotland ; professor of di- 
vinity and Biblical criticism in the 
University of Aberdeen ; author of 
numerous works, including commen- 
taries on the Gospel of St. John and 
the Apocalypse. 

Milman, Henry Hart, D. D., church his- 
torian ; born in London, Feb. 10, 1791 ; 
died at Sunninghill, near Ascot, Sept. 
24, 1868. Was educated at Eton and 
at Brasenose College, Oxford, where 
he was graduated in 1814. In 1821 
he was elected professor of poetry at 
Oxford ; in 1835 he was made canon 
of Westminster and director of St. 
Margaret's. In 1840 he published the 
" History of Christianity under the 
Empire," and later his " History of 
Latin Christianity." 

Milne, John (b. 1850), an English min- 
ing engineer and seismologist. For 
twenty years he was geologist and 
mining engineer for the Japanese gov- 
ernment : author of " Earthquakes " 
and " Seismology." 

Milner, John (1752-1826), an English 
Roman Catholic bishop and arche- 
ologist. 

Milner, Rev. Joseph (1744-97), an Eng- 
lish evangelical divine, whose princi- 
pal work is "A History of the Church 
of Christ." 

Milton, John (1608-74). a celebrated 
English poet. His " Paradise Lost " 



■652 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



was published in 1667. " Paradise 
Regained " appeared in 1671. 

Moehler, Johann Adam (1796-1838), 
a German Roman Catholic theologian. 
His chief work is " Symbolism " 
(1832). 

Mommsen, Theodor (1817-1903), a cele- 
brated German historian. Besides 
numerous articles and monographs on 
archeological subjects and Roman law, 
he was the author of Roman histories 
and other works. 

MONIER-WlLLIAMS, SlR MONIER (1819- 

99), a noted British Orientalist, pro- 
fessor of Sanskrit in Oxford. 

Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-99), a 
well-known American lay preacher. 

Moore, Zephaniah Swift (1770-1823), 
an American divine and scholar. He 
became president of Williams College 
in 1815, and of Amherst College in 
1821. 

Morgan, Rev. G. Campbell (b. 1863). 
an English Congregationalist, ordained 
to the ministry in 1889. 

Morris, Herbert William (b. 1818), 
author, born in Wales. He came to 
the United States in 1842, and was 
licensed to preach in 1846 by the 
presbytery of Utica, N. Y. He wrote 
"Science and the Bible," (1870). 

Morse, S. F. B. (1791-1872), an Ameri- 
can artist and inventor, kr>own to 
fame as the father of the electric 
telegraph. 

Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von, the 
most learned theologian of the Lu- 
theran Church of his age ; born at 
Liibeck, Germany, Oct. 9, 1693 or 
1694; died at Gottingen. Sept. 9, 
1755. He entered the university of 
Kiel in 1716 ; in 1719 he became a 
member of the faculty of philosophy, 
and in 1723 accepted a call as pro- 
fessor of theology at Helmstiidt, and 
professor at Gottingen in 1747. Au- 
thor of " Institutiones Historian Ec- 
clesiastical." 

Motley, John Lothrop (1814-77), an 
American historian and diplomatist. 

Muir, Sir William (1819-1905), Scot- 
tish Orientalist and author, for years 
member of the Bengal Civil Service. 

Myers, Philip Van Ness, a well-known 
author of numerous historical works. 
He is probably most widely known by 
his "Ancient History" (1882), "Me- 
dieval and Modern History" (1889), 
and "General History" (1889). 

Nansen, Fridtjof (b. 1861), Norwegian 
scientist, explorer, statesman, and au- 
thor ; professor of oceanography in 
Christiania University. 

Nazianzen, Gregory, one of the Fathers 
of the Eastern Church ; born at Nazi- 
anzus, Cappadocia, about 325 ; died 
about 390. He was leader of the 



orthodox party at Constantinople 
(379), and was made bishop of Con- 
stantinople in 380. 

Neander, Johann August Wilhelm, 
German church historian ; born at 
Gottingen, Germany, Jan. 16, 1789, 
of Jewish parents ; died at Berlin, 
July 14, 1850. After being baptized 
in 1806, he was appointed extraordi- 
nary professor of theology at Heidel- 
berg in 1812, and at Berlin professor 
of church history (1813-50). His 
chief work is his " General History 
of the Christian Religion and Church," 
a production of such value and merit 
as to earn for its author the title 
" Prince of Church Historians." 

Nevin, John W. (1803-86), an American 
author and clergyman of the German 
Reformed Church, president of Mar- 
shall College (1841-53), and of Frank- 
lin and Marshall College (1866-76). 

Newcomb, Simon (1835-1909), a noted 
American astronomer, born in Nova 
Scotia. He is probably most widely 
known by his popular " Astronomy for 
Everybody." 

Newman, John Henry (1801-91). 
Graduated from Trinity College, Ox- 
ford, at the age of nineteen, Mr. New- 
man became in due time a clergyman 
of the Established Church of England. 
For a time he held a middle ground 
between the Roman Catholic Church 
and Protestantism, but in 1843 he 
resigned his living in the Anglican 
Church, and two years later entered 
the Roman Catholic priesthood. He 
was made a cardinal in 1879. 

Newton, Thomas, D. D. (1704-82), an 
English clergyman, bishop of Bristol, 
dean of St. Paul's, and author of 
several works. 

O3C0LAMPADIUS, JOHANN (1482-1531), a 

distinguished Reformer of Basel, 
Switzerland. It was due largely to 
him that the Waldenses finally broke 
with the Catholic Church. 

GEcumenius, " the supposed author of a 
commentary in the form of a catena 
on the Acts, the epistles of St. Paul 
(including Hebrews), and the Catho- 
lic [general] epistles, together with 
a brief exposition of the Apocalypse." 

Olmsted, Denison (1791-1859), Ameri- 
can physicist, astronomer, meteorolo- 
gist and geologist. He published text- 
books on astronomy and natural 
philosophy. 

Olshausen, Hermann, a German Prot- 
estant theologian ; born at Oldesloe. 
Germany, in 1796. Was appointed 
professor of theology at Konigsberg 
in 1827. He published a "Biblical 
Commentary on All the New Testa- 
ment," which has been highly com- 
mended, and other religious treatises. 
Died at Erlangen in 1839. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



653 



Oman,, Chaeles William Chadwick (b. 
1860), an English writer, author of 
several histories. 

Origen, surnamed Adamantius, was 
probably born at Alexandria, 185 or 
186, and died at Tyre, probably 253. 
One of the Greek Fathers of the 
church. He was educated at Alex- 
andria, and was head of the cele- 
brated catechetical school in that city 
from about 211 until 231 or 232. He 
was an extremely prolific author, and 
wrote on a great variety of subjects 
pertaining to theology. 

Oulis, pseudonym of Dr. William Court- 
ney (1850-1907), an English jour- 
nalist, editor, and author. He was for 
a time editor of the London Fort- 
nightly Review. 

Palmerston, Viscount Henry John 
Temple (1784-1865), a British states- 
man. 

Parton, James (1822-91), an American 
biographer and miscellaneous author, 
born in England. 

Paterculus, C. Velleius (about 20 
b. c. to 31 a. d.), a Roman historian. 
His " Historian Romanse " is a com- 
pendium of universal, but more par- 
ticularly of Roman, history, begin- 
ning with the fall of Troy and end- 
ing with the events of 30 a. d. 

Paton, A. A. (d. 1874), an English 

traveler ; author of " Researches on 

the Danube and the Adriatic," and 
other works. 

Pears, Sir Edwin (b. 1835), editor and 
author of a number of books, includ- 
ing " The Destruction of the Greek 
Empire " and " Forty Years in Con- 
stantinople." 

Peary, Rear Admiral Robert Edwin 
(b. 1856), an American naval officer 
and arctic explorer. 

Pecocke (Peacock), Reginald (1395- 
1460), bishop of Chichester. He wrote 
" The Book or Rule of Christian Re- 
ligion " and " Book of Faith." 

Pelayo, Alvaro (or Alvarez), a Spanish 
bishop who lived during the latter 
part of the first half of the fourteenth 
century. 

Phelan, Rev. David S. (1841-1915), 
pastor of Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
Church in St. Louis from 1868. He 
founded the Western Watchman (Ro- 
man Catholic) in 1865, and occupied 
its editorial chair until his death. 

Philaret, Vasily Mikhailovich Droz- 
dov (1782-1867), metropolitan of Mos- 
cow, and author. He drew up a mani- 
festo which on March 19, 1861, gave 
liberty to 23,000,000 serfs. He was 
the first to introduce the analysis of 
the Holy Scriptures into the Russian 
sacred literature. He published suc- 
cessively " Commentaries on Genesis," 
" A Study of Biblical History," and 
" Catechism of Reasons." 



Phillips. Walter Alison (b. 1864), 
an English educator and author, who, 
besides writing a number of books, 
mostly historical, contributed a num- 
ber of articles to the 11th edition of 
the Encyclopedia Britannica. 

Philo Jud^us, a Hellenistic philoso- 
pher and theologian ; born probably 
at Alexandria, about 20 b. c. ; died 
after 40 a. d. Went to Rome about 
40 a. d., at the head of an embassy of 
five Jews, to plead with Caligula for 
the uninterrupted exercise of their 
religion. Very little is known of his 
life. 

Philostratus, a Greek sophist and 
rhetorician who lived in the first 
part of the third century a. d. 

Philpot, John, a pious English Prot- 
estant layman, " brought up," says 
Foxe's " Book of Martyrs," " in the 
New College in Oxford, wbere he 
studied the civil law the space of six 
or seven years, besides the study of 
other liberal arts, especially in the 
tongues, wherein very forwardly he 
profited, namely, in the knowledge of 
the Hebrew tongue." He was con- 
demned and burned for heresy under 
" Bloody Mary," at Smithfield, Dec. 
18, 1555. 

Pierson, Arthur T., D. D. (1837-1911), 
an American Presbyterian clergyman. 
During 1902-03 he was pastor of 
Christ's Church, London. He was 
editor of the Missionary Review of the 
World from its foundation in 1888 
until his death. His writings, all of 
a religious character, and largely con- 
cerning missions and mission work, 
are numerous. 

Pinches, Theophiles Goldridge (b. 
1856), an English Orientalist, uni- 
versity professor, and author. 

Pinkerton, Robert (b. 1855), born in 
Glasgow, and educated there and at 
Oxford. Much of his life has been 
devoted to educational work in Wales. 
He is the author of several valuable 
works. 

Pius VI (1717-99), elevated to the pon- 
tificate by the college of cardinals in 
1775 ; deposed by the French and car- 
ried into exile in 1798. 

Pius VII (1742-1823), elected Pope in 

1800. 
Pius IX (1792-1878), elected Pope in 

1846. 
Pius X, Pope from 1903 to 1914. 

Platina, Bartolomeo (1421-81), Italian 
humanist, theologian, and historian of 
the popes. 

Plato (429 or 427 b. c. to 347), a fa- 
mous Greek philosopher, disciple of 
Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. 

Pliny, " The Younger," born at Como, 
Italy, 62 ; died in 113. A Roman 
author, nephew of the elder Pliny. 



654 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



He was a consul in 100, and later, 
governor of Bithynia and Pontica. 
His " Epistles " and a eulogy of Tra- 
jan have been preserved. The most 
celebrated of his letters is one to 
Trajan concerning the treatment of 
the Christians in his province. 

Plutarch (b. about 46 a. d.), a Greek 
historian, celebrated as the author of 
forty-six " Parallel Lives " of Greeks 
and Romans. 

Pollok, Robert (b. about 1792, d. 1827), 
a British clergyman and poet. His 
reputation is chiefly founded on a 
didactic poem, " The Course of Time," 
which contains many beautiful and 
powerful passages. 

Polybius (204 to about 125 b. c), a 
celebrated Greek historian. He was 
the author of a history of Rome in 
forty books, five of which have been 
preserved. 

Polycarp (c. a. d. 69 to c. 155), bishop 
of Smyrna and a Christian martyr. 

Price, Ira Maurice (b. 1856), an Amer- 
ican Baptist clergyman, educator, and 
author. 

Prideaux, Humphrey, a learned English 
divine and historian ; born at Pads- 
tow, in Cornwall, in 1648. Was edu- 
cated at Oxford. He opposed the acts 
of James II which caused the revolu- 
tion of 1688. One of his principal 
works is the " History of the Connec- 
tion of the Old and New Testaments," 
which was much esteemed and has 
often been reprinted. He died in 
1724. 

Priestly, Dr. Joseph (1733-1804), an 
an eminent English philosopher, chem- 
ist, and theologian. 

Procopius (490-565), a Byzantine his- 
torian. He wrote histories of the 
Persian, Vandal, and Gothic wars in 
the time of Justinian. 

Prynne, William, Puritan pamphleteer 
and lawyer ; born at Swainswick, 
Somerset, England, 1600 : died in 
London, Oct. 24, 1669, Was gradu- 
ated at Oxford University in 1621, 
entered Lincoln's Inn in the same 
year, and was afterward called to the 
bar. He was imprisoned twice, but 
after his release in 1652, was ap- 
pointed by Charles II keeper of the 
records in the Tower. 

Pusey, Rev. E. B. (1800-82), a noted 
English theologian, writer, and lec- 
turer. 

Putnam, George Haven (b. 1844), son 
of George Palmer Putnam, an Ameri- 
can publisher. 

Quirinus, pseudonym of Lord Acton, 
q. v. 

Ranke, Leopold (1795-1886), one of 
the most eminent German historians 
of recent times. 



Rawlinson, George (1815-1902), an 
English Assyriologist and diplomat ; 
author of a number of valuable works. 

Reichel, Rev. Oswald J. (b. 1840), a 
Church of England clergyman, and 
author of several important works. 

Rickaby, Rev. Joseph, S. J. (b. 1845). 

Rider, Fremont (b. 1885), author of 
" Songs of Syracuse," " Are the Dead 
Alive?" and other works. 

Ridpath, John Clark (1840-1900), an 
American author. He published sev- 
eral works on United States history. 

Ringgold, James T. (deceased), was an 
attorney of marked ability, a member 
of the Baltimore Bar, and author of 
several books, among them being, 
" Sunday : Aspects of the First Day 
of the Week," published in 1891 ; 
and " The Legal Sunday," issued in 
1894. / He was a member of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. 

Robertson, James Craigie (1813-82), 
a member of the Church of England, 
and a highly esteemed author. 

Robinson, Edward (1794-1863), a Prot- 
estant Biblical scholar, lexicographer, 
translator, editor, and compiler of 
various works, besides publishing in- 
dependently numerous books. 

Robinson, John (1575 or '76 to 1625), 
Separatist, who left England to re- 
side in Holland. 

Rogers, Robert William (b. 1864). 
Methodist Episcopal, Orientalist, pro- 
fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament 
exegesis in Drew Theological Semi- 
nary. 

Rollin, Charles (1661-1741), a French 
historian. Among his works are " An- 
cient History " and " Roman His- 
tory." 

Rotherham, an English scholar and au- 
thor who wrote in the latter half of 
the nineteenth century. 

Russell, Lord John (1792-1878), Eng- 
lish statesman, orator, and author. 

Rutherford, Samuel (1600-61), distin- 
guished Scotch divine and Covenanter. 

Salisbury, Lord (Robert Arthur Talbot 
Gascoigne-Cecil) (1830-1903), an emi- 
nent British statesman. 

Salmon, George (b. 1819), an Irish 
divine and mathematician. He pub- 
lished textbooks on higher mathe- 
matics and works on theology. 

Saphir, Adolph, an English theologian, 
and author of a number of valuable 
works. 

Schapf, Philip (1819-93), was educated 
in Berlin, but coming to America, was 
made professor of theology at Mercers- 
burg, Pa. (1844-1863), and Union 
Theological Seminary (1870 ). 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



655 



He was president of the American 
Bible Revision Committee, and author 
of a number of books, his principal 
work being a " History of the Chris- 
tian Church." 

Schenck, Ferdinand Schureman (b. 
1845), an American clergyman, theo- 
logian, and writer. 

Schlegel, Friedrich von (1772-1829), 
a German poet, writer on aesthetics, 
and literary historian. 

Schrader, Clement (1820-75), a Jesuit 
theologian, member of the theological 
commission appointed to prepare the 
preliminaries for the Vatican Coun- 
cil of 1870. 

Scott, Sir Walter (1771-1832), a fa- 
mous Scottish novelist and poet. 

Scovel, Sylvester Fithian (1835- 
1910), Presbyterian. He was president 
of the University of Wooster, Ohio, 
1883-99, and after 1899 professor of 
morals and sociology in the same insti- 
tution. 

Segur, Mgr. de (1820-81), a French 
prelate and defender of the Roman 
Catholic Church. He was a prolific 
writer, and his works are highly es- 
teemed by Catholics everywhere. 

Seymour, Charles (b. 1885), professor 
of history, Yale University, since 
1918. 

Shepard, Rev. Thomas (1604-49), an 
English Puritan who came to America 

• in 1635, and from the following year 
until his death was minister at Cam- 
bridge. He is said to have written 
382 books and pamphlets. 

Simpson,, Matthew (1810-84). a bishop 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard de 
(1773-1842), a noted Swiss historian 
and economist. 

Skene, William Forbes (1809-92), a 
Scottish historian and antiquary. His 
chief work is " Celtic Scotland, a 
History of Ancient Alban," perhaps 
the most important contribution to 
Scottish history written during the 
nineteenth century. 

Smith, Sir George (1840-76), an Eng- 
lish Assyriologist and author. 

Smith, Sir William (1813-93), an 
English classical and Biblical scholar. 
He edited a " Dictionary of Greek 
and Roman Antiquities," " Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Geography," 
" Dictionary of the Bible," and was 
joint editor of the " Dictionary of 
Christian Antiquities," and " A Dic- 
tionary of Christian Biography." He 
wrote or edited various classical text- 
books, historical manuals, etc. 

Smith, Uriah (1832-1903), an Ameri- 
can clergyman, Seventh-day Advent- 
ist, editor, and author of several 



works, the most prominent of these 
being " Thoughts on Daniel and the 
Revelation," " The Marvel of Na- 
tions," " The Sanctuary and Its 
Cleansing," and " The Nature and 
Destiny of Man." 

Socrates, a Greek church historian ; 
born in Constantinople about 380, and 
died after 440. His work is a con- 
tinuation of that of Eusebius, and 
covers the period from 306 to 445. 

Sozomen, Salamanes Hermias, a Greek 
ecclesiastical historian ; born 400 ; died 
about the middle of the fifth century. 
He was the author of a church his- 
tory, covering the period from 324 to 
440 A. d. 

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1834-92), 
an eminent English Baptist preacher. 
He was the founder of a pastors' col- 
lege, of schools, almshouses, and an 
orphanage. Among his works are 
" The Treasury of David," " Feathers 
for Arrows, or Illustrations for 
Preachers and Teachers," " Comment- 
ing and Commentaries," and many 
volumes of sermons. 

Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, an English 
divine, historian, and theological 
writer ; born Dec. 13, 1815 ; died 
July 18, 1881. Was appointed dean 
of Westminster in 1864. He traveled 
extensively, and delivered many ser- 
mons and addresses, which were later 
published. 

Steele, Wilbur Fletcher (b. 1851), 
educator and minister ; contributor 
to Hastings' Dictionary and to many 
religious periodicals. 

Stilingfleet, Edward (1635-99), a 
noted English prelate and theologian. 
He was chaplain to Charles II, and 
dean of St. Paul's ; and was made 
bishop of Worcester in 1689. 

Stone, John Seely (1795-1882), an 
American Episcopal clergyman. 

Story, Joseph (1779-1845), an eminent 
American jurist ; justice of the United 
States Supreme Court from 1811 to 
1845 ; author of " Commentaries on the 
Constitution of the United States." 

Stowe, Calvin Ellis (1802-86), an 
American educator and theological 
writer ; professor successively in Dart- 
mouth College, Lane Theological Sem- 
inary, Bowdoin College, and Andover 
Theological Seminary. 

Strabo, Walafridus (b. c. 63-24). a 
celebrated Greek traveler, geographer, 
and author. 

Stuart, Moses (1780-1852), an Ameri- 
can philologist, theologian, and Con- 
gregational clergyman : for many 
years professor of sacred literature in 
Andover Theological Seminary. 

Suetonius (Caius Suetonius Tran- 
quillus), a Roman biographer and 



656 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 



historian of the first part of the sec- 
ond century after Christ. 

Tacitus, Cornelius (a. d. 55-117). a" 
celebrated Roman historian and orator. 

Taine, Hippolyte Adolph (1828-93), a 
French literary historian, critic, and 
man of letters. 

Taylor, Jeremy (1613-67), an English 
bishop and celebrated theological 
writer. 

Taylor, William Bower (1821-95), 
physicist ; examiner in the United 
States patent office in Washington ; 
editor of the publications of the 
Smithsonian Institution. 

Tennent, Sir James Emerson (1804- 
69), a British traveler, politician, and 
author. 

Tertullian, a celebrated ecclesiastical 
writer, one of the Fathers of the Latin 
Church ; born at Carthage, about 150 ; 
died about 230. His writings are 
very numerous. He was converted to 
Christianity about 192 ; lived in Rome 
and Carthage ; became a Montanist 
about 203. 

Tetzel (1460-1519), Roman Catholic 
preacher and salesman of papal in- 
dulgences. 

Thayer, Joseph Henry (1828-1901), an 
American clergyman and scholar ; au- 
thor of " A Greek-English Lexicon of 
the New Testament." a very scholarly 
work, and " The Change of Attitude 
Toward the Bible." From 1884 until 
his death he was professor of New 
Testament Criticism and professor 
emeritus at Harvard Divinity School. 

Theodosius I, The Great, Roman em- 
peror ; born at Cauca, in northern 
Spain, about 346 ; died at Milan, Jan. 
17, 395. Was made joint emperor by 
Gratian and ruler over the East in 
379 ; and defeated the Goths and 
other invaders. He exercised as great 
an influence on the religious as on 
the political affairs of the realm, be- 
ing an ardent supporter of orthodoxy 
against Arianism and other heresies, 
and paganism. 

Thompson, Richard Wigginton (1809- 
1900), a member of Congress 1841-43 
and 1847-49 ; Secretary of the Navy, 
1877-81. 

Thucydides (c. 465-400 b. a), a Greek 
historian. His great work is " The 
History of the Peloponnesian War." 

Timbs, John (1801-75), an English 
writer, among whose many books are 
" Predictions Realized in Modern 
Times," " Notable Things of Our Own 
Times," and " Mysteries of Life, 
Death, and Futurity." 

Townley, Rev. James (1715-78), an 
English divine and dramatic writer. 

Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux (1813- 
75), an English New Testament 



scholar, noted for his critical edition 
of the New Testament (1857-72) ; 
author of several critical works. 

Trevor, Rev. George, canon of York, 
English clergyman ; author of a num- 
ber of works. 

Trumbull, Henry Clay (1830-1903), 
American religious editor, secretary 
of the American Sunday School Union, 
and from 1875 until his death editor 
of the Sunday School Times. His 
books are numerous. 

Tuberville, Rev. Henry, a Roman 
Catholic priest and author. 

Turgot (Johannes Turgotus) (d. 
1115), bishop of St. Andrews, Scot- 
land. He was confessor, friend, and 
confidential adviser of Queen Mar- 
garet. 

Tyndale, William (1484-1536). an 
English Reformer and translator of 
the Bible ; martyred . near Brussels 
after a protracted trial for heresy. 
His arrest was at the instance of 
Henry VIII. 

Ullathorne, William Bernard (1806- 
89), an English Benedictine monk and 
bishop. 

Usher, James (1580-1656), an English 
archbishop, scholar, and theologian ; 
author of the scheme of Biblical 
chronology found in many Bibles. 

Valentinian I, born at Cibalae, Pan- 
nonia, about 321 ; died at Bregetio, 
Nov. 17, 375. A Roman officer, pro- 
claimed emperor by the army in 364. 
He associated with 'himself his younger 
brother, Valens, as emperor of the 
East, and retained the West. 

Vaughan, Herbert Cardinal (1832- 
1903), an English cardinal. 

Victorinus, bishop of Pettau, a city of 
Pannonia ; earliest exegete of the 
Latin Church ; martyred in 304. 

Villemain, Abel Francois (1790- 
1870), a French writer, author of 
several short papers and articles that 
were published in book form, besides 
essays on Grecian themes. 

Vinet, Alexandre Rodolfe (1797-1847), 
a Swiss theologian. 

Vitringa, Campegius (1659-1722), a 
Dutch Reformed Old Testament 
scholar. He wrote on Biblical the- 
ology, dogmatics, and polemics. 

Wace, Henry (b. 1836), member of the 
Church of England, author of several 
works, and editor of the second series 
of " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers." 

Waffle, Albert Edward (b. 1846), 
American Baptist clergyman, author 
of "The Lord's Day" ($1,000 prize 
essay), and several other books on re- 
ligious subjects. 



BIOGRAPHICAL. SKETCHES 



657 



Wallace,, Prof. Alfred Russel (b. 

1823), an eminent English scientist 

and author. 
Wardlaw, Ralph (1799-1853), a Scotch 

Congregationalist. 

Washburn, George (b. 1823), Congre- 
gationalist. He was professor of 
philosophy and political economy in 
Robert College, Constantinople, from 
1869 to 1903, and president from 1877 
to 1903. 

Washington, George (1732-99), first 
President of the United States. 

Watson, Richard, a Methodist clergy- 
man. 

Wayland, Francis (1796-1865), a widely 
known and highly esteemed Baptist 
preacher and educator. 

Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), a well- 
known American statesman. 

Webster, Prof. Hutton (b. 1875), pro- 
fessor of social anthropology, Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, since 1907. 

Wellington, Duke of (1769-1852), a 
great English military leader, victor 
over Napoleon at Waterloo. 

Wells, Amos R. (b. 1862), Congrega- 
tionalist-Presbyterian layman. He is 
a prolific writer, having produced 
about fifty volumes or booklets for 
young people, on the Bible and on the 
Sunday school. f 

Wesley, John (1703-91), founder of 
Methodism. 

Westcott, Brooke Foss (1825-1901), a 
bishop of the Church of England ; 
one of the brightest examples of Eng- 
lish scholarship and industry. 

Wharey, James (1789-1842), a Presby- 
terian clergyman. He published a 
series of articles on " Baptism " and 
on " Sketches of Church History from 
the Birth of Christ to the Nineteenth 
Century," both of which afterward 
appeared in book form. 

Wharton, Henry (1664-95), an English 
clergyman and author, most widely 
known probably by his " Anglia 
Sacra." 

Whates, Harry Richard, an English 
journalist ; author of a number of 
books and of many magazine articles. 

Whiston, William (1667-1752), an Eng- 
lish divine and mathematician, suc- 
cessor to Sir Isaac Newton in mathe- 
matics at Cambridge University. 

Whittier, J. G. (1807-92), an American 
Quaker poet and reformer. 

Williams, Henry Smith (b. 1863), a 
physician and author, editor of the 
" Historians' History of the World." 

Williams, Rev. Isaac (1802-65), a 
poet and harmonist. His literary in- 
dustry was great, and his works em- 
brace commentaries on the Psalms, 
the Gospels, and the Apocalypse. 
42 



Williams, Roger (1600-84), a Separatist 
Anglo-American theologian, founder 
of Rhode Island, and a fearless advo- 
cate of liberty of conscience. 

Wilson, Daniel (1778-1858), bishop of 
Calcutta, and metropolitan of India. 

Wilson, Robert Dick (b. 1856), an 
American philologist, professor in the 
Old Testament department of Western 
Theological Seminary from 1885 to 
1900, and later professor, of Semitic 
philology and Old Testament intro- 
duction at Princeton University. 

Wilson, Woodrow (b. 1856), twenty- 
eighth President of the United States ; 
educator, author, and statesman. 

Winckler, Hugo (b. 1863), a German 
Protestant Orientalist. 

Wiseman, Nicholas P. S. (1802-65), 
cardinal, and archbishop of West- 
minster. 

Wordsworth, Christopher (1774-1846), 
youngest brother of the poet. He is 
best remembered for his " Ecclesiasti- 
cal Biography." 

Wright, Charles H. H. (1836-1909), 
a member of the Church of England. 
His works are numerous. 

Wycliffe, John, a celebrated English 
Reformer ; born about 1324 ; died at 
Lutterworth, Leicestershire, Dec. 31, 
1384. Was called " the Morning Star 
of the Reformation." He was a fel- 
low, and later (1360) master, of Bal- 
liol College, Oxford. He made the first 
complete translation of the Bible into 
English (about 1382) from the Vul- 
gate, assisted by Nicholas, of Hereford, 
He wrote many tracts and sermons. 

Wylie, James Aitken (1808-90), mem- 
ber of the Church of Scotland. His 
works include " The History of Prot- 
estantism," " The Papacy," " The Pa- 
pal Hierarchy," " The Road to Rome 
via. Oxford." 

Xenophon (430-357 b. c), a celebrated 
Greek historian. 

Young, Charles A. (1834-1908), an 
American astronomer, and member of 
various important astronomical ex- 
peditions. 

Zoroaster (c. 600 b. c), founder of the 
religion of the Parsees and of ancient 
Persia. 

Zwingli, Ulrich (or Huldreich), a fa- 
mous Swiss Reformer ; born at Wild- 
haus, an Alpine village in the canton 
of Gall, Switzerland, Jan. 1, 1484 ; died 
Oct. 11, 1531, on the battlefield of Kap- 
pel. Was educated at Bern, Vienna, 
and Basel. In 1506 he was called to 
be pastor of Glarus ; became preacher 
at Einsiedeln in 1516, and at Zurich 
in 1518. He accompanied the Zurich- 
ers against the forces of the Forest 
Cantons in 1531. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



Abbott, John S. C. — Eastern Question, 
155 ; Temporal Power, 591. 

'Abiding Sabbath (The)," George El- 
liott. — Sabbath, 501 ; Sunday Laws, 
581. 

' Abraham Davenport," Whittier. — 
Dark Day, 130, 131. 

1 Abridgement of the Christian Doc- 
trine (An)," Henry Tuberville. — 
Sabbath, Change of, 516. 

' Accomplishment of the Scripture 
Prophecies (The)," Peter Jurieu. 

— Increase of Knowledge, 245, 247 ; 
Seven Churches, 523 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 550, 552 ; Two Witnesses, 612, 
615, 617. 

Acton, Lord. — Fathers, 183 ; Heretics, 
239 ; Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
323 ; Tradition, 608. 
' Acts and Monuments," John Foxe. — 
Seven Seals, 534 ; Seven Trumpets, 
548. 

A c w o r t h , William. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 251. 

Adams, Charles Francis. — Religious 
Liberty, 452. 

Adams, John Quincy. — Bible, 90. 

Addis and Arnold. — Inquisition, 263 ; 
Tradition, 601. 

Adolphus, John Leycester. — Papal 
Supremacy, 392. 

Advent Review (The). — Advent Sec- 
ond, 22, 23, 25. 

Advent Review and Sabbath Herald 
(The). — Advent, Second, 20, 25. 

Advent Shield and Review (The). — 
Advent, Second, 19. 

Advent Testimony." — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 25. 

Advent Tracts." — Advent, Second. 19. 
' Adventism Answered/' George Fra- 
zier Miller. — Sabbath, 501. 

iEQUANIMITAS," WILLIAM OSLER. 

Health and Temperance, 226, 232. 
.^schylus (Eskylus). — Medo- Persia, 

325, 330, 331. 
After a Hundred Years." — Bible, 83 ; 

Increase of Knowledge, 255. 
Age of Revolution," W. H. Hutton. 

— Papal Supremacy, 390. 

Albion, Liverpool. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 249. 
Alcock, D. — Protestantism, 429. 
Alexander's Empire," J. P. Mahaffy. 

— Greece, 210. 

Alford, Dean. — Antichrist, 31 ; Bap- 
tism, 75. 

Alison, Archibald. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 155 ; French Revolution, 191, 
192, 194, 195 ; Papal Supremacy, 389, 
391, 392 ; Two Witnesses, 614, 617, 
618. 

All About the Bible," Sidney Col- 
lett. — Bible, 80, 90, 95, 98 ; Sabbath, 
497. 



Ambrose. — Christmas, 113. 
American Catholic Quarterly Review. — 

Papal Supremacy, 388. 
American Journal of Science. — Falling 

Stars, 176, 178. 
American Journal of Science and Arts. 

— Falling Stars, 175, 176. 
American Review of Reviews. — Signs 

of the Times, 566 ; War, 626. 
' American State Papers." — • Religious 
Liberty, 450 ; Sunday Laws, 584, 585. 
' American State Papers," W. Addison 
Blakely. — Sunday Laws, 587. 
American Year Book (The). — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 253. 
' Analysis of Sacred Chronology," S. 
Bliss. — Calendar, 106. 
Anderson, John F., M. D. — Health 

and Temperance, 227. 
Andrew of C^esarea. — Babylon, 67. 
Andrews, Bishop. — Law of God. 305. 
Andrews, Charles M. — French Revo- 
lution, 195 ; Two Witnesses, 618. 
Andrews, J. N. — Second Advent, 19, 

24. 
Andrews, S. J. — Jesus Christ, 287, 
288. 
1 Ancient Christianity Exemplified," 

Lyman Coleman. — Sabbath, 506. 
'Ancient Church (The)." William D. 
Killen. — Apostasy, 35, 36 ; Fathers, 
182 : Sabbath. 505. 
' Ancient Heathenism and Modern 
Spiritualism," H. L. Hastings. — 
Spiritualism, 571. 
' Ancient History," Charles Rollin. 

— Rome, 462, 465. 

' ANNALES ECCLESIASTICI," CiESARE BA- 

ronio. — Heresy, 236 ; Hildebrand. 

Dictates of, 244 ; Papacy, 371 ; Papal 

Supremacy, 383. 
! Annotations on the Apocalypse." J. 

C. Woodhouse. — Seven Seals, 530, 

531, 532, 533. 
Annual Register for 1793." — French 

Revolution, 195. 
Ante-Nicene Fathers." — Rome, 462. 
1 Apocalypse of St. John." George 

Croly. — French Revolution, 194 ; 

Papal Supremacy, 383, 384 : Revela- 
tion, 457 ; Two Witnesses, 614, 615. 

616, 617. 
Apocalypse of St. John (The)." J. J. 

L. Ratton. — Seven Churches. 525. 

526, 528, 529. 
Apocalyptic Sketches," Cumming. — 

Seven Trumpets, 535. 
Apocalyptical Key," Robert Flem- 
ing. — Two Witnesses, 618. 
Appleton's Cyclopedia of American 

Biography." — Religious Liberty. 

452. 
Approaching End of the Age (The)." 

H. Grattan Guinness. — Inquisition. 

268 ; Year-Day Principle. 630. 



658 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



659 



Aquinas, Thomas. — Extreme Unction, 
170 ; Persecution, 401. 

Aquinas Ethicus ; or, The Moral 
Teaching of St. Thomas." Joseph 
RicKaby. — Heretics, 241 ; Persecu- 
tion, 401. 

Archaeology and the Bible." George 
A. Barton. — Medo-Persia, 328 ; 
Rome, 468. 

Archbishop of Reggio. — Tradition, 
603, 604. 

Are the Dead Alive?" Fremont 
Rider. — Spiritualism, 569. 

Aristotle. — Babylon, 50. 

Armitage, Thomas. — Baptism, 76 ; 
Denominations, 137 : Greece. 203, 205. 

Arnold, Thomas. — Greece. 204. 

Arrested Reformation (The)," Wil- 
liam Muir. — Bible. 88 ; Protestant- 
ism, 432 ; Reformation, The, 442, 444, 
445. 

Arrian. — Greece, 203, 205. 

Arthur William. — Church and State, 
118 ; Inquisition, 267 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 447. 

Aspects of Christ," W. B. Selbie. — 
Faith, 171 ; Jesus Christ, 283. 

Assyrian Eponym Canon (The),'* 
George Smith. — Babylon. 59. 

Astronomy for Everybody," Simon 
Newcomb. — Falling Stars, 175. 

Atheism Among the People." Al- 
phonse de Lamartine. — Two Wit- 
nesses, 613. 

Atwater, Edward E. — Types, 620. 

Atwood, Albert W. — Signs of the 
Times, 564. 

Augustine. — Babylon. 66; Church of 
Rome, 120 ; Inquisition, 262. 

Augustinus Triumphus (Augustinus 
de Ancona). — Pope, 411, 414; Tem- 
poral Power of the Pope. 590. 



Bacon, Francis. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 247. 

Balfour, A. J. — Papacy. 379. 

Ball, Sir Robert. — Falling Stars. 180. 

Bancroft, George. — Religious Liberty, 
448. 449 ; Seven Churches, 528. 

Barker, J. Ellis. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 251. 

Barker, William B. — Babylon. 72. 

Barnes, Albert. — Daniel. Book of, 
127 ; Law of God, 304 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 515 ; Seven Trumpets, 
535, 544, 548, 550 ; Seventv Weeks, 
554 ; Ten Kingdoms, 594, 597. 

Baronius, Caesar. — Heresy. 236 ; Hil- 
debrand, Dictates of, 244 ; Papacv, 
371 ; Papal Supremacy, 383. 

Barry, William. — Papal Supremacy. 
394. 

Barton, George A. — Medo-Persia, 
328; Rome, 468. 

Bates, Joseph. — Second Advent. 24. 

Baudrillart, Alfred [Bodrillar]. — 
Inquisition, 263 : Persecution. 409. 

Baxter, Richard. — Second Advent, 6, 
9, 10. 

Beacon Lights of History," John 
Lord. — Papacy, 366. 

Beard, Richard Olding. — Health and 
Temperance, 216. 



Beecher. Charles. — Spiritualism, 570. 

Bell, J. W., M. D. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 232. 

Bellarmine, Robert. — Church. 114 ; 
Galileo, 200; Heresy, 236; Infallibil- 
ity, 258 ; Pope, 411 ; Temporal Power 
of the Pope, 590. 

Bemont and Monod. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 387. 

Benedict, A. L., M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 233. 

Ben j afield, Harry. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 228, 229. 

Benziger's Magazine. — Heretics, 237. 

Berington and Kirk. — Mass, 218. 

Berk, Matthew A- — Calendar, 105. 

Berosus. — Babylon, 55. 

Besant, Mrs. Annie. — Spiritualism, 
571. 

Between the Testaments, or Inter- 
biblical History," David Gregg. — 
Bible, 86 ; Greece, 215. 

Bevan, E. R. — Greece, 208. 

Beveridge, J. Wallace.— Health and 
Temperance, 217. 

Bible and Its Transmission (The)," 
Walter Arthur Copinger. — Bible, 
81. 

Bible and Spiritual Criticism 
(The)," Arthur T. Pierson. — Bi- 
ble, 93. 

Bible and the British Museum 
(The)," Ada R. Habershon. — 
Egypt. 169 ; Persecution, 400 ; Sev- 
enty Years' Captivity, 563. 

Bible Atlas," Jesse L. Hurlbut. — 
Greece. 211. 

Bible Criticism and the Average 
Man/' Howard Agnew Johnston. — 
Bible, 91. 

Bible : Its Origin and Nature 
(The)," Marcus Dods. — Bible, 96. 

Bible, Oxford Sunday School Teach- 
er's. — Tradition, 601. 

Bible Record. — Protestantism, 430 ; 
Sunday. 576. 

Bible Society Record. — Bible, 82. 
' Bible Tracts," J. N. Andrews. — Ad- 
vent, Second. 19. 
' Biblical Authenticity," L. L. Shear- 
er. — Bible, 90. 91, 92. 
' Biblical Commentary on St. Paul's 
First and Second Epistles to the 
Corinthians," Hermann Olsiiau- 
sen. — Sunday, 574. 

Biblical and Theological Dictionary 
(A)," Richard Watson. — Sabbath, 
493. 

Bicheno, J. — French Revolution, 189, 
190 ; Increase of Knowledge, 245 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 543. 

Bickersteth, E. — Advent. Second, 
13. 

Biddolf, John. — Earthquake. 151. 

Biederwolf, W. E. — Spiritualism, 571. 

Binney. Amos. — Sabbath, 493 ; Sun- 
day, 577 ; Sunday Laws, 583. 

Birks, T. R. — Babylon. 54 ; Little 
Horn, 312 ; Prophecies. 426. 427 ; 
Ptolemy's Canon. 434 ; Seven Trump- 
ets. 553 ; Ten Kingdoms, 593 : Twen- 
ty-three Hundred Days, 609 ; Year- 
Day Principle, 628-631. 



660 



INDEX OP AUTHORITIES 



Bishop of Meaux (M6), see Bossuet. 
Blackader, A. D., M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 226. 
" Blackstonb's Commentaries and 
Burns' Ecclesiastical Law." — Re- 
ligious Liberty, 452. 
Blaikie, W. Gordon. — Missions, 332. 
Bliss, S. — Calendar, 106. 
"Bloudy Tenent of Persecution 
(The)," Roger Williams. — Reli- 
gious Liberty, 448. 
Blunt, John J. — Sabbath, 498. 
Blunt, Wilfred Scawen. — Eastern 

Question, 168. 
Bossuet (Boswa), J. B. — Babylon, 
70 ; Gallicanism, 201 ; Sabbath, 508 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 554, 560. 
Botsford, George Willis. — Greece, 

208, 209. 
Bower, Archibald. — Easter, 153, 
154 ; Papacy, 368 ; Papal Supremacy. 
387, 388. 
Bowes. — Jesus Christ, 281. 
Boyle, Robert. — Bible, 93. 
BKerewood, Edward. — Sabbath, 506. 
Brewer, David. — Signs of the Times, 
564. 
" Brief Commentaries on Such Parts 
of the Revelation and Other 
Prophecies as Refer to the Pres- 
ent Times," Joseph Galloway. — 
French Revolution, 192 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 611, 614. 
" Brief History of Epidemic and Pes- 
tilential Diseases," Noah Web- 
ster. — Dark Day, 134. 
' Brief History of William Miller 
(A)." — Advent, Second, 22. 
Briggs, Charles A. — Protestantism, 

430. 
Brinckman, Arthur. — Heresy, 236. 
British Critic and Quarterly Theolog- 
ical Review (The). — Antichrist, 34. 
' British History and Papal Claims," 
James Parton. — Private Judgment, 
422. 
Britten, Emma Hardinge.— Spiritual- 
ism, 569, 570. 
Brock, Mourant. — Advent, Second, 
18 ; Paganism, 358, 360 ; Saints, 520, 
521. 
Brown, David. — Advent, Second, 10. 
Brown, John Edward. — Seventh-day 

Adventists, 522. 
Brown, J. Newton. — Sabbath, 495, 

499. 
Brown, M. H. — Ten Kingdoms, 595. 
Browne. Henry. — Ptolemy's Canon, 
433, 434 ; Seventy Weeks, 555 ; So- 
journ, 567. 
Bruno, Joseph Faa di. — Church, 115 ; 
Denominations, 149 ; Justification, 
296 ; Tradition, 602, 603. 
Bryce, James. — Pope 414 ; Religious 

Liberty, 447; Two Witnesses, 619. 
Buck, Charles. — Christmas, 114 ; 

Law of God, 305 ; Sunday, 573. 
Bullinger, E. W. — Nature of Man, 

348. 
Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton. — East- 
ern Question, 159. 
Burke, Edmund. — Two Witnesses, 

617. 
Burnet, Thomas. — Falling Stars, 178. 
Burruel, Abbe. — Two Witnesses, 613. 



Bury, J. B. — Greece, 203 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 381 ; Rome, 472 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 539, 540. 

Bush, George. — Advent, Second, 21 ; 
Nature of Man, 346 ; Sabbath, 494. 

Bushnell, Horace. — Jesus Christ, 
283. 

Butcher, E. L. — Eastern Question, 
156. 

Butler, Bishop Joseph. — Popery, 
416. 

"Caliphate (The)," Sir William 

Muir. — Seven Trumpets, 544, 548. 

Calmet. — Baptism, 76 ; Nature of 

Man, 351. 
Calvin, John. — Advent, Second, 12 ; 
Baptism, 75, 77 ; Law of God, 305. 
"Cambridge Medieval History (The)," 

J. B. Bury. — Rome, 472. 
" Cambridge Modern History." — French 
Revolution, 190. 
Campbell, Alexander. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 14, 15 ; Sabbath, 496 ; Sunday 
Laws, 587. 
Canada Lancet. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 226. 
" Canon and Tradition," J. H. Holtz- 
man. — Sabbath, Change of, 518 ; Tra- 
dition, 604. 
Canton, William. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 255. 
Carlyle, Thomas. — Two Witnesses, 

613. 
Carter, C. F. — Increase of Knowledge. 
251. 
' Catechism of Christian Doctrine 

(A)." — Sabbath, Change of, 516. 
' Catechism of the Council of Trent." 
— Keys, 299 ; Mass, 313, 314 ; Priest- 
hood, 417. 
Cathcart, William. — Justification, 
295. 
1 Catholic Belief," Joseph Faa di 
Bruno. — Church, 115 ; Denomina- 
tions, 149 ; Justification, 296 ; Tradi- 
tion, 602, 603. 
Catholic Citizen (The). — Purgatory, 
437. 
' Catholic Church and the Bible 

(The)." — Bible, 91. 
1 Catholic Church, the Renaissance, 
and Protestantism (The)," Alfred 
Baudrillart. — Inquisition, 263 ; Per- 
secution, 409. 
; Catholic Church the True Church 
of the Bible (The)." — C J. O'Con- 
nell. — Mass, 319. 
Catholic Doctrine as Defined by 
the Council of Trent," A. Nam- 
pon. — Antichrist, 32 ; Justification, 
297 ; Priesthood, 418 ; Tradition, 603, 
605. 
Catholic Doctrine on the Use of 
the Bible (The)," Cardinal Wise- 
man. — Bible, 87. 
Catholic Education Review. — Sabbath, 

Change of, 512. 
Catholic Mirror. — Sabbath, Change of, 

517. 
Catholic World. — Infallibility.. 258. 
Celtic Scotland," William F. Skene. 

— Sabbath, 506. 
Chambers' Astronomy." — Falling 
Stars, 181. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



661 



Chapman, Irwin. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 219. 

Chapple, W. A., M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 216. 

Chillingworth, William. — Bible, 
90 ; Protestants, 427. 

Christ and the Comforter," F. S. 
Webster. — Faith, 1 72. 

Christ op History and of Experi- 
ence (The)," David W. Forrest. 

— Baptism, 75; Faith, 172, 173; 
Jesus Christ, ' 287 ; Justification, 
292 ; Law of God, 306 ; Righteous- 
ness of God, The, 458. 

Christianity in Ceylon," Sir J. E. 
Tennent. — Missions, 333. 

' Christian Institutions," Arthur 
Penrhyn Stanley. — Baptism, 77, 
78. 

Christian Science and Christian- 
ity Compared," Thomas J. McCros- 
san. — Denominations, 139. 

Christian Sabbath (The)." — Sab- 
bath, 493, 495, 500, 503, 504. 

Christian Statesman. — Increase o f 
Knowledge, 254. 

Christian System (The)," Alexan- 
der Campbell. — Advent Second, 15 ; 
Sabbath, 496. 

Chronicle (The). — Sunday Laws, 587. 

Chronology of the Holy Scrip- 
tures," Henry Browne. — Ptolemy's 
Canon, 433. 

Chrysostom, St. — Bible, 88, 89 ; In- 
quisition, 262 ; Persecution, 403 ; 
Rome, 470. 

Church and State," A. Taylor In- 
nes. — Pope, 415 ; Reformation, The, 
439. 

Church and State in the United 
States," Philip Schaff. — Religious 
Liberty, 452. 

Church and the Churches (The)," 
J. J. Ign. von Dollinger. — Papacy, 
369. 

Church and the French Revolution 
(The)," E. de Pressense. — French 
Revolution, 199. 

Church History of Ethiopia," 
Michael Geddes. — Sabbath, 507. 

Church Missionary Review. — Armaged- 
don, 39. 

Cicero. — Advent, First, 5. 

Civil Establishments of Christian- 
ity," Ralph Wardlaw. — Religious 
Liberty, 453. 

Civilta Cattolica." — Inquisition, 
267 ; Religious Liberty, 447. 

Clark, Edson L. — Eastern Question, 
156. 

Clark, Edward H., M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 227. 

Clarke, Adam. — Bible, 91 ; Eastern 
Question, 166 ; Fathers, 183, 184 ; 
Greece, 208; Law of God, 303; Na- 
ture of Man, 346, 347, 349 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 393 ; Sabbath, 498 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 561. 

Clavis Apocalyptica," Joseph Mede. 

— Seven Trumpets, 542, 547, 549. 
Clavis Biblica," Adam Clarke. — 

Bible, 9. 
Clay, Albert T. — Medo-Persia, 329, 
330. 



Clerke, Agnes M. — Falling Stars, 176, 

181. 
Cleveland, Edward H. — Health and 
Temperance, 224. 

"Clews to Holy Writ," M. L. G. Pet- 
rie. — Jerusalem, 277. 
Clinton, H. F. — Assyria, 41 ; Four 
Hundred Fifty Years, 189 ; Hebrews, 
234; Jerusalem, 269. 
Cobham, Lord. — Antichrist, 32. 
Cochrane, W. R. — Dark Day, 135. 
Codex Theodosius. — Sunday Laws, 

582. 
Coffin, Henry Sloane. — Sunday, 572. 
Coleman, Lyman. — Sabbath, 506. 
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. — Bible, 
91. 

" Collections of Massachusetts His- 
torical Society." — Dark Day, 133. 
Collett, Sidney. — Bible, 80, 90, 95 ; 

Sabbath, 497. 
Collette, Charles Hastings. — Bible, 
94. 

" Combined View of the Prophecies of 
Daniel, Esdras, and St. John," 
James Hatley Frere. — French Rev- 
olution, 194 ; Increase of Knowledge, 
246. 

" Coming of Christ, Pre-Millennial 
and Imminent (The)," I. M. Hal- 
deman. — Seven Churches, 528. 

" Commentary," Albert Barnes. — Dan- 
iel, Book of, 127 ; Law of God, 304 ; 
Sabbath, Change of, 515 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 535, 544, 548, 550 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 554 ; Ten Kingdoms, 594, 
597. 

" Commentaries on the Constitution," 
Joseph Story. — Religious Liberty, 
449. 

" Commentary and Critical Notes 
(A)," Adam Clarke. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 166 ; Fathers, 184 ; Greece, 208 ; 
Nature of Man, 346, 347, 349 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 393 ; Sabbath, 498 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 561, 562. 

" Commentary on a Harmony of the 
Gospels." — Law of God, 305. 

" Commentary on Acts," Horatio D. 
Hackett. — Sunday, 573. 

" Commentary on the Apocalypse (A)," 
Moses Stuart. — Sabbath, Change of, 
511. 

" Commentary on the Book of Daniel," 
C. F. Keil. — French Revolution, 193. 

" Commentary on the Holy Scriptures 
(A)," John Peter Lange. — Christ- 
mas, 112 ; Nature of Man, 347 ; Sab- 
bath, 493, 496 ; Seven Churches, 522, 
530. 

" Commentary on the Psalms," Euse- 
bius. — Sabbath, Change of, 511. 

" Commentary upon the Holy Bible." 
Henry and Scott. — Advent, Second. 
13, 14. 

" Comments on Matthew," James Mor- 
rison. — Jerusalem, 277. 

"Companion Bible (The)." — Penta- 
teuch, 400 ; Sojourning of Israel, 566. 

" Companion to Roman History," H. 
Stuart Jones. — Sabbath, Change of, 
512. 

" Compendium of Ecclesiastical His- 
tory (A)," John C. L. Geiseler. — 



662 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



Bible, 83 ; Indulgences, 257 ; Inqui- 
sition, 266 ; Paganism, 356 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 382. 
Comprehensive Commentary of the 
Holy Bible (The)," William Jenks. 

— Azazel, 45 ; Seven Churches, 522. 
Confession of Faith. — Antichrist, 

30. 

Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit," 
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. — Bible. 
91. 

Congregationalist and Advance. — Sun- 
day Laws, 588. 

Congressional Record. — Bible, 92, 94. 

Conroy, James P. — Papal Supremacy, 
388. 

Conscience of the State (The)," 
Alexander Vinet. — Religious Lib- 
erty, 453. 

constantine, last emperor of the 
Greeks." Chedomil Mijatovich. — 
Seven Trumpets, 551. 

Constantine." W. H. Hutton. — Seven 
Trumpets, 553. 

Constitution, Federal, of the 
United States. — Religious Liberty, 
449. 

Constitution of the Presbyterian 
Church in the United States of 
America, as Ratified by the Gen- 
eral Assemblies of 1836 and 1833 
(The)." — Law, Ceremonial. 300. 

Constitutions and Select Docu- 
ments Illustrative of the History 
of France," Sir Robert Anderson. 

— True Witnesses, 618. 
Contemporary Review, London. — Ar- 
mageddon, 39. 

Continent (The). — Sunday Laws, 587. 
Converted Catholic (The), July, 1914. 

— Mass, 316. 

Convert's Catechism of Catholic 
Doctrine (The)." Peter Geier- 
mann. — Sabbath, Change of. 515. 

ConybEare and Howson. — Baptism, 
76; Sunday, 573. 

Cook, Charles A. — Tithing, 599. 600. 

Cook, J. B. — Advent. Second, 24, 25. 

Cooley, Thomas M. — Persecution, 
401. 

Copinger, Walter Arthur. — Bible, 
81. 

Cormack, George. — Armageddon, 39. 

Corning. Dr. J. Leonard. — Health and 
Temperance, 224. 
' Corpus Juris Canonici." — Church, 

114. 
'Cottage Bible (The)." — Increase of 
Knowledge, 246. 

Cotterill, Henry. — Seven Churches, 
524, 526. 

Courier and Enquirer, New York. — In- 
crease of Knowledge, 250. 
'Course of Lectures (A)," Herbert 

Marsh. — Tradition, 605. 
' Course of Time (The)," Robert Pol- 
lock. — Bible, 80. 

Cowper. — Advent, Second, 14. 

Crane, Dr. Frank. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 218, 221. 

Creasy, Edward S. — Seven Trumpets, 
541. 
' Creation Centred in Christ," H. 
Grattan Guinness. — Bible, 96 ; 



Calendar, 107 ; Laws, Ceremonial. 
300 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 436. 

Creeds of the Evangelical Protes- 
tant Churches (The)," Philip 
Schaff. — Bible, 88, 90, 94. 

Creeds of the Greek and Latin 
Churches (The)," Henry B. Smith 
and Philip Schaff. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 11. 

Creighton, M. — Papacy, 373 ; Tem- 
poral Power of th.e Pope, 590. 

Critical History of Sunday Legisla- 
tion (A)," A. H. Lewis. — Sunday 
Laws, 582. 

Critical History of the Sabbath and 
the Sunday (A)," A. H. Lewis. — 
Sabbath, 506. 

Critical Lexicon," E. W. Bullinger. 
— Nature of Man, 348. 

Croly, George. — French Revolution. 
194 ; Papal Supremacy. 383, 384 ; 
Revelation. Book of, 457 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 614-617. 

Crosier, O. R. L.— Advent. Second, 22. 

Cult Kingdom (The)." John Edward 
Brown. — Seventh-day Adventists,. 
522. 

Cumberland Presbyterian. — Nature of 
Man, 350 ; Spiritism. 568. 

Gumming, John. — Seven Trumpets, 
335. 

CUNINGHAME, WlLLIAM. Bible, 87 \ 

Papal Supremacy, 384, 385, 388 ; 
Seven Seals, 531-534 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 551. 

Curiosities of Popular Customs." 
Wm. S. Walsh. — Sabbath, Change 
of. 513. 

Current History. — Blue Laws. 100 ; 
Increase of Knowledge, 256 ; Papacy, 
379, 380 ; War, 623, 627. 

Current Opinion. — Capital and Labor, 
111 ; Health and Temperance, 218. 
221 ; Papacy, 379. 

Curtis. William A. — Antichrist, 34 ; 
Denominations, 138, 140, 141, 143, 
146, 147 ; Reformation, The. 442. 

Cyclopedia, American (The)." — Fall- 
ing Stars, 179. 

Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature, "" 
Kitto. — Sunday, 573. 

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature.'*" 
McClintock and Strong. — Sabbath. 
505. 

Cyclopedia, Universal (The)." — Dark 
Day, 135. 

Cyprian.— Baptism, 76 ; Christmas. 

113 ; Fathers, 182 ; Tradition, 603. 
■ Cyrop^dia : The Education of Cy- 
rus," Xenophon. — Babylon, 58 ; 
Medo-Persia, 327. 
Dale, R. W.r— Sunday, 577. 

' Daniel and His Prophecies," 
Charles H. H. Wright. — Anti- 
christ. 31 ; Babylon, 60, 62 ; Greece. 
206 ; Increase of Knowledge, 246. 

' Daniel and Its Critics," Charles H. 
H. Wright. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 246. 

1 Daniel and the Revelation," Joseph 
Tanner. — Antichrist, 28. 30, 31 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 555. 556, 559. 562. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



663 



" Daniel and the Revelation," Uriah 
Smith. — Seven Seals, 534 ; Ten 
Kingdoms, 594, 597. 

" Daniel the Prophet," E. B. Pusey. — 
Babylon, 55, 56, 61 ; Jesus Christ, 
285 ; Seventy Weeks, 555, 556, 560, 
561. 
Daniells, A. G. — War, 624. 
D'Aubigne. J. H. Merle. — Bible, 89 ; 
Reformation, The, 438-441, 445 ; Re- 
ligious Liberty, 452. 

" Day Changed and the Sabbath Pre- 
served (The)," Archibald Hodges. 

— Sabbath, 495. 

Day Star, Canandaigua, N. Y. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 22, 23. 

" Decisive Battles of the World," 
Charles King. — Eastern Question. 
154. 

■" Decisive Battles of the World," Sir 
Edward S. Creasy. — Seven Trumpets, 
541. 

'*' Declarations and Letters on the 
Vatican Decrees," J. J. Ignaz von 
Dollinger. — Infallibility, 261. 
De Cormenin. — Heretics, 237. 

•"Decretals of Gregory IX (The)." — 
Heretics, 242 ; Oaths, 353 ; Pope, 409. 
412, 413. 
Decretum of Gratian (The). — Here- 
tics, 237 ; Pope, 409, 410. 

V De Fide." — Bible, 86. 

■" De Ecclesia Militante." — Church, 
114. 

" De Expresso Verbo Dei."— Bible, 94. 
Delaire. Madame Jean. — Spiritual- 
ism, 571. 

" Delineation of Roman Catholicism," 
Charles Elliott. — Heretics, 238. 

•" Demonstratio Evangelica," Euse- 
bius. — Seventy Weeks, 560. 
Denny, James. — Faith, 171 ; Jesus 

Christ, 287. 
Dens. — Purgatory, 436, 437. 

"' De Romano Pontifice," Bellarmine. 

— Heresy, 236. 

■" De Stabilitate et Progresstj Dog- 
matis," Alexius M. Lepicier. — 
Heretics, 240, 241, 
' Destruction of the Greek Empire 
(The)," Sir Edwin Pears. — Seven 
Trumpets, 549, 553. 
De Thou. — Massacre of St. Barthol- 
omew, 323. 

*' Development of Christian Doc- 
trine," John Henry Cardinal New- 
man. — Apostasy, 36 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 512. 
Devens, R. M. — Dark Day, 131, 134. 

" Diary of Matthew Patten, of Bed- 
ford (The)." — Dark Day, 132. 

*' Dictionary, A Catholic," William E. 
Addis and Thomas Arnold. — Inqui- 
sition, 263; Tradition, 601. 

-'Dictionary and Cyclopedia, The 
Century." — Arian, 37 ; Religious 
Liberty, 446. 

•" Dictionary of Christian Antiquities 
(A)," Smith and Cheetham. — Sun- 
day, 577. 

'f Dictionary of Christian Biography 
(A)," Smith and Wace. — Arianism 
38 ; Constantine, 124 ; Fathers, 181 
Nature of Man, 351 ; Paganism, 355 
Papal Supremacy, 386, 387. 



" Dictionary of Dates," Haydn. — Sun- 
day, 578. 

" Dictionary of the Bible (A)," James 
Hastings. — Seventy Weeks, 557. 

"Dictionary of the Bible (A)," Wil- 
liam Smith. — Calendar, 106 ; Dan- 
iel, Book of, 126 ; Decalogue, 136 ; 
Easter, 153 ; Jerusalem, 269 ; Jesus 
Christ, 279 ; Law, 300, 301 ; Meas- 
ures, 324 ; Nature of Man, 350 ; Par- 
able, 395 ; Prophet, 427 ; Sabbath, 
491, 498 ; Sacrifices, 519 ; Showbread, 
564 ; Sunday, 572, 573, 578. 

" Dictionary of the Holy Bible, Cal- 
met's." — Baptism, 76 ; Nature of 
Man, 351. 

" Dictionary of Islam," Thomas Pat- 
rick Hughes. — Eastern Question, 
167. 
Dictionary, Noah Webster's. — Dark 
Day, 133. 

" DlETOTHERAPY," WlLLIAM EDWARD 

Fitch. — Health and Temperance, 
227, 230, 231. 

"Dignity and Duties of the Priest; 
or Selva," St. Alphonsus Liguori. 
— Priesthood, 419. 
Dio Cassius. — Rome, 469, 474 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 557. 
Diodorus Siculus. — Babylon, 51 ; 
Greece, 207, 208 ; Rome, 464. 

" Disputations Concerning the Con- 
troversies About the Christian 
Faith, Against the Heretics of 
This Time," Bellarmine. — Tem- 
poral Power of the Pope, 590. 

"Discourse Concerning Faith and 
Fervency in Prayer," J. Mather. 
— Two Witnesses, 612. 

" Discourse Concerning the Idolatry 
Practised in the Church of Rome," 
Edward Stilingfleet. — Mass, 319. 

" Discourses on the Sabbath," Seth 
Williston. — Sabbath, 502. 

" Discoveries Among the Ruins of 
Nineveh and Babylon," A. Henry 
Layard. — Babylon, 64. ' 

" dlsputationes d e controversiis 
Christians Fidei Adversus Hujus 
Temporis Hsreticos," " De Summo 
Pontifice " (" On the Chief Pon- 
tiff ") , Bellarmine. — Infallibility, 
258. 
Dissertation on the Lord's Day," 
William Prynne. — Sabbath, 506. 

" Dissertation on the Prophecies," 
George Stanley Faber. — Two Wit- 
nesses, 616. 

"Dissertation on the Seals and 
Trumpets of the Apocalypse (A)," 
William Cuninghame. — Bible, 87 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 384, 385, 388 : 
Seven Seals, 531, 532, 533, 534. 

" Dissertations on the Prophecies," 
Thomas Newton. — Antichrist, 33 ; 
Apostasy, 35 ; Greece, 205, 209 ; 
Jerusalem, 270, 271. 276 : Little 
Horn, 307 ; Medo-Persia, 326 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 536 ; Temporal Power of 
the Pope. 589 ; Twelve Hundred and 
Sixty Years, 608 ; Twenty-three Hun- 
dred Days, 609. 

" Divine Authority and Perpetual Ob- 
ligation of the Lord's Day (The), 
Daniel Wilson. — Sabbath, 495. 



664 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



Divine Authority of the Bible 
The)," G. Frederick Wright. — 
Bible, 97. 

Divine Institutes (The)," Lactan- 
tius.' — Apostasy, 36. 

Divine Program of the World's His- 
tory (The)," H. Grattan Guinness. 
— Ten Kingdoms, 593. 

Divine Rest, or Scriptural Views 
of the Sabbath (The)," John S. 
Stone. — Sabbath, 497, 

Divine Unity of Scripture (The)," 
Adolph Saphir. — Bible, 82, 90, 95. 

Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ (The)," Henry Parry 
Liddon. — Faith, 175; Jesus Christ, 
279, 282, 285. 

Doctrinal Catechism (A)," Stephen 
Keenan. — Sabbath, Change of, 515. 

DOCUMENTA AD ILLUSTRANDUM CON- 
CILIUM Vaticanum," Dr. Friedrich. 
—Infallibility, 261. 

Dods, Marcus. — Bible, 96. 

Dogmatic Canons and Decrees." — 
Bible, 94, Extreme Unction, 171 ; 
Justification, 296 ; Mass, 314, 316 ; 
Order, 353 ; Priesthood, 417, 418 ; 
Purgatory, 436 ; Saints and Images, 
519 ; Tradition, 603. 

DOLLINGER, J. J. IGN. VON (JANUS). 

Church and State, 116 ; Infallibility, 
259, 261 ; Inquisition, 264, 265 ; Pa- 
pacy, 364, 366, 371, 373. 

Domville, William. — Sabbath, 509 ; 
Sunday, 573, 574, 578 ; Sunday Laws, 
581. 

Donovan, J. — Keys, 299 ; Mass, 313, 
314 ; Priesthood, 417. 

Dorr. Joseph. — Dark Day, 130. 

Dositheus. — Jerusalem, 270. 

Double Doctrine of the Church of 
Rome (The)," Baroness von Zed- 
twitz. — Church of Rome, 121. 

Douglass, Frederick A. — Falling 
Stars, 178. 

Doyle, Arthur Conan. — Spiritualism, 
569, 570, 571. 

Draper, John W. — Church and State, 
119 ; Confession, 123 ; Galileo, 200 ; 
Paganism, 354 ; Papacy, 362, 364, 
374 ; Persecution, 404 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 447 ; Sabbath, Change of, 512 ; 
Seven Churches, 525 ; Sunday Laws, 
581. 

DUCTOR DUBITANTIUM," BISHOP JERE- 
MY Taylor. — Sunday, 577. 

Dudden, F. H. — Papal Supremacy, 
382. 

Duggan, S. P. H. — Eastern Question, 
157. 

Duration and Nature of Future Pun- 
ishment," Henry Constable. — Na- 
ture of Man, 352. 

Duruy, Jean Victor. — Greece, 207, 
210 ; Rome, 464. 

Dwight, Timothy. — Sabbath, 503, 
504. 

Dyer, Thomas Henry.— Eastern Ques- 
tion, 154. 

Dynasty of Theodosius (The)," 
Thomas Hodgkin. — Seven Trumpets, 
539. 

Early Days of Christianity (The)," 
Canon Farrar. — Jerusalem, 271. 



" Earthquakes/' William Herbert 
Hobbs. — Earthquakes, 151. 

" Earth's Earliest Ages/' G. H. Pem- 
ber. — Spiritualism, 570. 

" Eastern Nations and Greece (The)," 
Philip Van Ness Myers. — Greece, 
209. 

"Eastern Question (The)," S. P. H. 
Duggan. — Eastern Question, 157. 

'■ Ecce Venit," A. G. Gordon. — Advent, 
Second, 7, 9, 12, 15, 16; Seven 
Churches, 522. 

" Ecclesiastical Dictionary," Fer- 
raris. — Pope, 410. 

" Ecclesiastical History," Eusebius. 

— Jerusalem, 271, 273 ; Seven 
Churches, 524, 525. 

" Ecclesiastical History," Gieseler. 

— Hildebrand, Dictates of, 244. 

" Ecclesiastical History," Socrates. 

— Sabbath, Change of, 512. 

" Ecclesiastical History," Sozomen. — 
Sabbath, Change of, 511 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 538. 

Eck. — Antichrist, 32; Reformation, 
The, 439 ; Sabbath, Change of, 517. 

Eddy, Mrs. Mary B. G. — Denomina- 
tions, 138. 

Edersheim, Alfred. — Advent, First, 
5 ; Calendar, 109 ; Feast of Taber- 
nacles, 185 ; Jesus Christ, 287 ; Na- 
ture of Man, 350 ; Passover, 396 ; 
Sabbath, 501 ; Sactuary, 521 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 559 ; Showbread, 564 ; Un- 
leavened Bread, 621 ; Whited Sepul- 
chers, 628. 

Edgar, R. M'Cheyne. — Protestantism, 
430. 

Edwards, Jonathan. — Law of God, 
304. 

Edwards, Justin. — Law of God, 306 ; 
Sabbath, 496. 
" Egypt and Babylon," George Raw- 
linson. — Assyria, 40 ; Babylon, 50, 
52, 53, 64 ; Egypt, 169 ; Greece, 211, 
216; Seventy Years' Captivity, 563. 
" Egypt in Asia," George Cormack. — 

Armageddon, 39. 
" Elements of Ecclestiastical Law," 
S. B. Smith. — Heretics, 237 ; Order, 
353. 
" Elements of Moral Science," 
Francis Wayland. — Sabbath, 496, 
498. 

El Ideal Catolico. — Mass, 316. 

Eliot, Sir Charles. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 553. 

Elliott, Charles. — Heretics, 238. 

Elliott, E. B. — Advent, Second, 12 ; 
Antichrist, 28, 29, 33 ; Easter, 153 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 381, 384, 389, 390, 
391 ; Revelation, Book of, 456, 457 ; 
Rome, 469 ; Seven Churches, 522 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 535, 537, 539, 540, 
542, 543, 545, 546, 549, 550, 551 ; 
Ten Kingdoms, 592, 595, 598 ; Two 
Witnesses, 617 ; Year-Day Principle, 
629. 

Elliott, George. — Sabbath, 501 ; Sun- 
day Laws, 581. 
" Enchiridion," Dr. Eck. — Sabbath, 

Change of, 517. 
1. Encyclopedia Americana." — Arma- 
geddon, 38. 
" Encyclopedia Biblica." — Azazel, 45. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



$65 



Encyclopedia Britannica." — Baby- 
lon, 75; Calendar, 105, 107; Christ- 
mas, 113 ; Eastern Question, 160 ; 
Greece, 213, 214 ; Jesuits, 278 ; Jew- 
ish League, 289 ; Marriage, 312 ; 
Medo-Persia, 331 ; Missions, 338 ; 
Protestantism, 428 ; Rome, 474, 476, 
483-485, 488, 489 ; Spiritualism, 568 ; 
Toleration, 600. 

Encyclopedia, Catholic." — Anti- 

christ, 31 ; Bible, 84 ; Calendar, 110 ; 
Church, 115 ; Confession, 123 ; Ex- 
treme Unction, 170 ; Gallicanism, 
201 ; Heresy, 235 ; Infallibility, 258 ; 
Inquisition, 262, 263 ; Jesuits, 278 ; 
Mass, 315 ; Order, 354 ; Pope, 412 ; 
Roman Catholic, 460; Rome, 488; 
Tradition, 602 ; Triple Crown, 608. 

Encyclopedia, Chambers'." — Calen- 
dar, 105. 

Encyclopedia, International Stand- 
ard Bible." — Advent, Second, 7 
Ark, 38 ; Azazel, 46 ; Baal, 47 ; Bap 
tism, 77 ; Calendar, 107 ; Covenant 
125 ; Daniel, Book of, 126 ; Easter 
153 ; Epistles, 169 ; Exodus, 170 
Faith, 174 ; Festivals, 188 ; Galatians 
199 ; Higher Criticism, 243 ; Jerusa 
lem, 273 ; Jesus Christ, 282, 284, 285 
Keys, 298 ; Priesthood, 420 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 559 ; Spiritualism, 572. 

Encyclopedia, Jewish." — Atonement, 
44 ; Azazel, 46 ; Passover, 397 ; Tra- 
dition, 601. 

Encyclopedia, Nelson's." — Calendar, 
110 ; Denominations, 138, 149, 150 ; 
Greece, 212 ; Medo-Persia, 331 ; Mis- 
sions, 336, 338 ; Rome, 476, 477, 478, 
486, 489, 490 ; Signs of the Times, 
565. 
Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge, New Schaff-Herzog." — Ad- 
vent, Second, 12 ; Atonement, 42 ; Cal- 
endar, 104 ; Christmas, 112 ; Confes- 
sion, 122 ; Denominations, 141 ; Ex- 
treme Unction, 170 ; Fundamental Doc- 
trines, 199 ; Gallicanism, 201 ; Heresy 
235 ; Inquisition, 262 ; Justinian, 298 
Missions, 336. 339 ; Passover. 399 
Pope, 415 ; Protestant, 427 ; Protes 
tantism, 429 ; Reformation, The, 438 
Sabbath, Change of, 513 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 544 ; Toleration, 601. 

1 Encyclopedia, Religious," John Kit- 
to. — Nature of Man, 346. 

' Encyclopedia, Standard." — Babylon. 
48, 49 ; Blue Laws, 100 ; Calendar, 
110 ; Cardinal, 111 ; Easter, 154 ; 
Rome, 483, 484. 

' Encyclopedic Dictionary." — ■ Pagan- 
ism, 357. 

' End of Religious Controversy 
(The)," John Milner. — Rule of 
Faith, 490, 491 ; Tradition, 607. 

' Epochs of the Papacy," Arthur 
Robert Pennington. — Papal Su- 
premacy, 391, 393, 394. 
Erasmus. — Seven Seals, 533. 
Erbkam. — Sabbath, 507. 
Erdman, Charles R. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 11, 12. 

' Essay on the Revelation," William 
Whiston. — Eastern Question. 167 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 536, 541 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 613. 



Essays on the Sabbath," Herman 
Humphrey. — Sabbath, 501. 

Essex Antiquarian (The). — Dark 
Day, 136. 

Eusebius. — Babylon, 67, Jerusalem, 
271, 273, 276 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
511 ; Seven Churches, 524, 525 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 560, 562. 

Evans, Wilmot, M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 226. 

Evening Advertiser, Portland. — Fall- 
ing Stars, 179. 

Evidence from Scripture and His- 
tory of the Second Coming of 
Christ About the Year 1843," Wil- 
liam Miller. — Advent, Second, 18. 

Evidences of Christianity, a De- 
bate Between Robert Owen and 
Alexander Campbell (The)." — 
Sabbath, 496. 

Examen Critique," A. von Humboldt. 
— Increase of Knowledge, 247. 

Excavations at Babylon (The)," 
Robert Koldeway. — Babylon, 65. 

Explanatory Notes on the New 
Testament," John Wesley. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 25 ; Baptism, 77 ; In- 
crease of Knowledge, 246. 

Exposicion of Daniel the Proph- 
ete." — Sabbath, Change of, 515. 

Exposition des Predictions et des 
Promesses Faites a l'Eglise pour 
les derniers temps de la genti- 
lite," Pere Lambert. — Babylon, 75. 

Exposition of the Creed (An)," John 

Pearson. — Resurrection, 455. 
1 Exposition of Matthew 24," E. R. 

Pinney. — Advent, Second, 18. 
1 Expositions of the Famous Divine, 
Thomas Goodwin." — Two Witness- 
es, 612. 
' Exposition, or Comments upon the 
Revelation, out of Most Learned 
Authors," Hezekiah Holland. — 
Seven Trumpets, 549. 
'Expositor's Bible (The)," George 
Adam Smith. — Babylon, 65 ; Justifi- 
cation, 291, 293. 

Expository Times. — Babylon, 63. 
' Extra vagantes Commune s," — 
Church, 114 ; Pope, 411. 



Faber, George Stanley. — Advent, 
Second, 16 ; French Revolution, 190. 
192, 193 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 436 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 546 ; Two Witnesses, 
616. 

Fairbairn, A. M. — Faith, 174; His- 
tory, 244 ; Jesus Christ, 282, 283. 
285, 286. 

Fairchild, James H. — Religious Lib- 
erty, 453. 

Faith of Catholics on Certain 
Points of Controversy Confirmed 
by Scripture," Berington and Kirk. 
— Mass, 318. 

Faith of Our Fathers (The)," James 
Cardinal Gibbons. — Infallibilitv. 
258 ; Religious Liberty, 452 ; Sun- 
day, 578. 

Fall of the Roman Empire (The)." 
J. C. L. de Sismondi. — Seven 
Trumpets, 537, 540. 



666 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



Familiar Explanation of Catholic 
Doctrine." M. Muller. — Church of 
Rome, 121 ; Heretics Defined, 237. 

Farrar, F. W. Canon. — Fathers, 183 ; 
Jerusalem, 271 ; Sabbath, Change of, 
511. 

Fasti Hellenici," Henry Fvnes 
Clinton. — Assyria, 40 ; Four Hun- 
dred Fifty Years, 189 ; Hebrews, 234 : 
Jerusalem, 269. 

Ferguson, W. S. — Greece, 211. 

Ferraris, P. F. Lucius. — Pope, 410. 

Fifty-Three Years in Syria," H. H. 
Jessup. — Falling Stars, 181. 

Fifty Years in Constantinople." 
George Washburn. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 167. 

Finlay, George. — Church and State, 
116 ; Paganism, 354, 355 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 381, 386 ; Rome, 490 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 551. 

First Crossing of Finland," Fridtjof 
Nansen. — Health and Temperance, 
220. 

First Crossing of Greenland," Fridt- 
jof Nansen. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 221. 

First Elements of Sacred Proph- 
ecy," T. R. Birks. — Prophecies, 426, 
427 ; Twenty-three Hundred Days, 
609 ; Year-Day Principle, 628, 629, 
631. 

Fisher, Irving. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 218, 219, 223, 229. 

Fisk, Eugene Lyman. — Health and 
Temperance, 218, 219, 223, 229. 

Fitch, William Edward, M. D. — 
Health and Temperance, 227, 230, 231. 

Fitzwater, P. B. — Sabbath, 510. 

Five Great Monarchies of the An- 
cient Eastern World (The)," 
George Rawlinson. — Babylon, 51, 
53, 56, 58, 64 ; Jonah, 290 ; Medo- 
Persia, 327, 330, 332 ; Ten Kingdoms. 
591. 

Flammarion and Gore. — Falling 
Stars, 176. 

Fleury, Claude. — Inquisition, 262. 

Flick, Alexander Clarence. — Ad- 
vent, First, 5 ; Papacy, 372. 

Floody, Robert John. — Sabbath, 505. 

Food and Health." — Health and Tem- 
perance, 229. 

Food in War Time," Graham Lusk. 
— Health and Temperance, 228. 

Forrest, David W. — Baptism, 75 ; 
Faith, 172, 173 ; Jesus Christ, 287 ; 
Justification, 292 ; Law of God. 306 ; 
Righteousness of God, The, 458. 

Fortnightly Review, London. — Arma- 
geddon, 39 ; Eastern Question, 154. 

Four Prophetic Empires and the 
Kingdom of Messiah ; The First 
Two Visions of Daniel (The)," T. 
R. Birks. — Babylon, 54 ; Little 
Horn. 312 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 434 ; 
Ten Kingdoms, 593. 

Fourteen Years a Jesuit," Count 
Paul von Hoensbroech. — Jesuits, 
278. 

Fox, C. Vernon. — Tithing, 600. 

Foxe, John. — Seven Seals, 534 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 548. 



Fragments Collected bt Constan 
tine, 7th Eastern Emperor." Di- 
odorus. — Rome, 464. 

Franklin, Benjamin. — Bible, 91. 

Freeman, E. A. — Eastern Question, 
156 ; Rome, 474, 489 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 535, 548. 

French Revolution," Thomas Car- 
lyle. — Two Witnesses, 613. 

French Revolution (The)," Charles 
Edward Mallet. — French Revolu- 
tion, 192 : Papal Supremacy, 388. 

French Revolution and Religious 
Reforms," W t . M. Sloane. — Two 
Witnesses, 615. 

French Revolution Foreseen in 1639 
(The)," Thomas Goodwin. — Two 
Witnesses, 611. 

Frere. James Hatley. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 17 ; French Revolution, 194 ; In- 
crease of Knowledge, 246. 

Fresh Light from the Ancient Mon- 
uments." A. H. Sayce. — Babylon, 
54 ; Medo-Persia, 326. 

Friedrich, Dr. Johann. — Infallibil- 
ity, 261. 

From Exile to Overthrow : A His- 
tory of the Jews," John W. 
Mears. — Jerusalem, 274. 

Froude, James Anthony. — Diet of 
Worms, 150 ; Mass, 319 ; Massacre of 
St. Bartholomew, 323 ; Protestant- 
ism, 431. 

Fulfilled Prophecy," W. Goode. — 
Artaxerxes, 39 ; Babylon, 67 ; Proph- 
ecy. 423, 424, 425. 

Fundamentals (The)." — Advent, 
Second, 10, 11, 12; Bible, 91, 92; 
Daniel. Book of. 126 ; Denominations. 
145 ; Faith, 172 ; Justification. 291. 
292. 

Future of Islam (The)." Wilfred 
Scawen Blunt. — Eastern Question. 
168. 



Gaebelein, A. C. — Daniel, Book of. 
126. 

Gallery of Nature (The)," Thomas 
Milner. — Falling Stars, 176. 

Galloway, Joseph. — French Revolu- 
tion, 192 ; Two Witnesses. 611. 614. 

Gamble, S. W.. — Sunday, 574. 

Garnier, J. — Babylon, 69. 

Garrison. William Lloyd. — Sunday 
Laws, 585, 586. 

Gaussen, L. — Little Horn, 310 ; 
Rome, 473. 

Gazette and Country Journal, Boston. 
— Dark Day. 129. 

Geiermann, Peter. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 515. 

General Conference Bulletin. — Advent. 
Second, 25. 

General History," Philip Van Ness 
Myers. — Greece, 207. 211 ; Medo- 
Persia, 324 ; Rome, 464, 467, 470. 

General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church," Augustus 
Neander. — Antichrist. 33 : Baptism. 
76 ; Church and State. 117, 118 : Fa- 
thers, 183; Sabbath. Change of. 510: 
Seven Churches. 524 ; Sunday. 574, 
579: Sunday Laws. 581. 582. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



"Genius of Protestantism (The)," R. 
M'Cheyne Edgar. — Protestantism, 
430. 

Geographical Journal, London. — Mis- 
sions, 334. 

Geography of Strabo (The)." — 
Babylon, 64 ; Rome, 461. 

Geschichte der bohmischen Bruder." 

— Sabbath, 508. 
Gesenitjs. — Sabbath, 495. 

Geyser, Albert C, M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 233, 234. 

Gibbon, Edward. — Apostasy, 36, 37 ; 
Constantine, 124 ; Paganism, 358 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 385, 388 ; Rome, 
460, 462, 467, 473, 485 ; Sabbath, 
Change of, 513 ; Seven Churches, 
526 ; Seven Seals, 532 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 536, 537, 539, 542, 543, 547, 552. 

Gibbons, James Cardinal. — Health and 
Temperance, 219 ; Infallibility, 258 ; 
Religious Liberty, 452 ; Sunday, 577. 

Gieseler, John C. L. — Bible, 83 ; In- 
dulgences, 257 ; Inquisition, 266 ; Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 382. 

Gill, Dr. — Two Witnesses, 613. 

Gill, Thomas H. — Reformation, The, 
443 ; Seven Churches, 529. 

Gilson, Dr. A. E. — Health and Temp- 
erance, 221. 

Gladstone, W. E. — Bible, 91 ; Church 
and State. 119 ; Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 248 ; Sabbath, Change of, 511. 
' God Hath Spoken," I. M. Haldeman. 

— Advent, Second, 8 ; Bible, 85. 

' God's Two Books," George McCready 

Price. — Flood, 188. 
Goode, W. — Babylon, 67 ; Prophecy, 

423, 425. 
Goodspeed, George Stephen. — Greece, 

203, 204; Medo-Persia, 327; Rome, 

462, 466, 472. 
Goodwin. Thomas. — Two Witnesses. 

611, 612. 
Gordon, A. J. — Advent, Second, 7, 9, 

15, 16 ; Church, 116 ; Seven Church- 
es. 522. 
Gordon, S. D. — Advent, Second, 6 ; 

Nature of Man, 351. 
Gordon, William R. — Dark Day, 131. 
Gore, Charles. — Jesus Christ, 284 ; 

Papacy, 367. 
' Gospel of the Old Testament 

(The)," Samuel Mather. — Law, 

300. 
Gospel Messenger. — Sabbath, 510. 
Gosselin, M. — Heresy, 236 ; Heretics, 

242. 
Gouraud, Dr. F. X. — Health and 

Temperance, 231. 
" Grammar of the Turkish Lan- 
guage," David. — Seven Trumpets, 

550. 
Grant, U. S. — Religious Liberty, 452. 
Gratian. — Heretics, 237 ; Pope, 409, 

410. 
" Great Encyclical Letters of Pope 

Leo XIII (The)." — Bible. 83; Pope. 

410. 
" Greatest Thoughts About Jesus 

Christ," J. Gilchrist Lawson. — 

Jesus Christ, 281, 288. 289. 
" Great Explorers of the Nineteenth 

Century," Jules Verne. — Increase 

of Knowledge, 248. 



Great Second Advent Movement 
(The)," J. N. Loughborough. — 
Advent, Second, 18, 19, 22, 24. 

Greece under the Romans," George 
Finlay. — Church and State. 116 ; 
Paganism, 354, 355, 357 ; Papal Su- 
premacy, 381, 386. 

Greek Imperialism," W. S. Ferguson. 

— Greece, 211. 

Greek Lexicon," Liddell and Scott. 

— Sunday. 574. 
Green, J. R. — Bible, 91. 

Gregg, David. — Bible, 86 ; Greece, 215. 

Griesbach. — Babylon, 67. 

Grotius, Hugo. — Sabbath, 507. 

Guardian, Manchester, England. — Fall- 
ing Stars, 180. 

Guidei to Knowledge, or Repertory of 
Facts (The)." — Dark Day, 133. 

Guinness, H. Grattan. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 11, 14 ; Antichrist, 32 ; Apos- 
tasy, 35 ; Babylon, 69, 70 ; Bible, 96 ; 
Calendar, 107 ; Daniel, Book of. 128 ; 
Inquisition, 268 ; Laws, Ceremonial, 
300 ; Little Horn. 308 ; Paganism, 
361 ; Papacy, 362-364. 366 ; Persecu- 
tion, 405, 406, 408 ; Prophecy, 425 ; 
Ptolemy's "Almagest," 432 ; Ptolemy's 
Canon, 434. 436 ; Reformation. The, 
445 ; Rome, 473 : Ten Kingdoms, 593 ; 
Twenty-Three Hundred Days, 609 ; 
Year-Day Principle, 629. 

Habershon, Ada R. — Egypt, 169 ; Per- 
secution, 400 ; Seventy Years' Cap- 
tivity; 563. 

Habershon, Matthew. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 17 ; Seven Churches, 523. 528 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 535, 547, 553. 

Hackett, Horatio B. — Sunday, 573. 

Hagenbach, K. R. — Baptism. 76 ; Pa- 
pacy, 376 ; Protestantism, 431 ; Ref- 
ormation, 439. 

Hague, Canon Dyson. — Bible. 81. 

Haig, Dr. Alexander. — Health and 
Temperance, 220, 230. 

Haldeman. I. M. — Advent, Second, 8 : 
Seven Churches, 528. 

Hales, William. — Antichrist, 28 : Cal- 
endar, 106-108 ; Festivals. 187 ; Na- 
ture of Man, 345 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 
434, 435 ; Rome, 468 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 548 ; Seventy Weeks, 554, 560- 
562 ; Ten Kingdoms, 596 ; Twenty- 
three Hundred Days, 609, 610 ; Two 
Evenings, 611. 
' Half-Hours with the Servants of 
God." — Inquisition, 267. 

Hall, Robert. — Religious Liberty, 
448. 

Hall, Winfield Scott. — Health and 
Temperance, 228. 

Hallam, Henry. — Papacy. 373 ; Saints. 
521 ; Seven Trumpets, 552. 

Hamilton, Richard Winter. — Sab- 
bath, 500, 504. 
' Handbook to the Controversy with 
Rome." Karl von Hase. — Infallibil- 
ity, 260, 261 ; Justification. 294 ; Tra- 
dition, 602. 

Hanly, J. Frank. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 219. 

Hardouin. — Tithing. 597. 

Harper, Edward. — Mass. 316. 318. 

Harrison, J. A. — Greece. 203. 



668 



INDEX OP AUTHORITIES 



Hase, Karl von. — Infallibility, 260, 

261 ; Justification, 294 ; Tradition, 

602. 
Hastings, H. L.— Bible, 79, 82, 93, 96. 

97 ; Justification, 294 ; Spiritualism, 

571. 
Haydn. — Sunday, 578. 
Health Reader," Harvey W. Wiley. 

— Health and Temperance, 220. 
Hebrew and English Lexicon," Ed- 
ward Robinson. — Sabbath, 495. 

Hefele, C. J. — Sabbath, Change of, 

511. 
Hennig, Dr. — Health and Temperance, 

230. 
Herald, Boston. — War, 628. 
Herald, New Y o r k. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 251. 
Herald, Washington. — War, 628. 
Here and Hereafter," Uriah Smith. 

— Nature of Man, 347, 348, 349, 351. 
Herodotus. — Babylon, 50, 52, 57 ; 

Medo-Persia, 330 ; Nature of Man, 
346 ; Ptolemy's "Almagest," 432. 

Herschel, Sir John. — Bible, 91. 

Heylyn, Peter. — Sunday, 577, 580. 

Himes, J. V. — Advent, Second, 21 ; 
Robes, Ascension, 458. 

Hippolytcs. — Fathers, 182 ; Rome, 
462. 

Hiscox, Dr. Edward T. — Sabbath, 
Change of, 513. 

Hislop, Alexander. — Babylon, 68, 70, 
71 ; Mass, 315 ; Popery, 417 ; Purga- 
tory, 437 ; Revelation, Book of, 457 ; 
Seven Churches, 526 ; Spiritualism, 
571. 

Hints on the Interpretation of 
Prophecy," Rev. T. R. Birks. — 
Year-Day Principle, 631. 

Historians' History of the World 
(The)." — Babylon, 48; Medo-Persia, 
331 ; Papal Supremacy, 394 ; Perse- 
cution, 406 ; Rome, 488. 

Historical Account of Earth- 
quakes," Thomas Hunter. — Earth- 
quakes, 152. 

Historical Commentaries on the 
State of Christianity," John Lau- 
rence von Mosheim. — Persecutions, 
401. 

Historical Connection of the Old 
and New Testaments (An)," Hum- 
phrey Prideaux. — Seventy Weeks, 
556, 557. 

Historical Development of Modern 
Europe," Charles M. Andrews. — 
French Revolution, 195 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 618. 

Historical Evidences of the Truth 
of the Scripture Records (The)," 
George Rawlinson. — Babylon, 56 ; 
History, 244. 

Historical Exposition of the Proph- 
ecies of the Revelation of St. 
John (An)," Matthew Habershon. 
— Advent, Second, 17 ; Seven Church- 
es, 523, 528 ; Seven Trumpets, 535, 
536, 547, 553. 

Historical Geography of Europe/' 
E. A. Freeman. — Rome, 489 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 535. 

Historical Library." Diodorus Sic- 
ulus. — Greece, 207, 208. 



" Historical Sketch of the Protes- 
tant Church of France (An)," J. 
G. Lorimer. — Two Witnesses, 614, 
615, 616. 

" Historical Studies," Eugene Law- 
rence. — Inquisition, 267 ; Papacy, 
371, 376. 

"Histories of Polybius (The)." — 
Rome, 461, 463. 

" History and Doctrines of Irving- 
ism (The)," Edward Miller. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 17. 

" History and Philosophy of Earth- 
quakes (The)," J. Nourse. — Earth- 
quakes, 151. 

" History and Records of the Confer- 
ence." — Missions, 333. 

" History and Significance of the Sa- 
cred Tabernacle of the Hebrews," 
Edward E. Atwater. — Types, 620. 

" History of Alexander's Expedition," 
Arrian. — Greece, 203, 205. 

" History of All Nations," Julius von 
Pflugk-Harttung. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 387 ; Rome, 476. 

" History of Astronomy in the Nine- 
teenth C e n t u r y," Agnes M. 
Clerke. — Falling Stars, 176, 181. 

"History of Barylon (A)," L. W. 
King. — Babylon, 60. 

" History of Babylonia and Assyria." 
Robert W. Rogers. — Babylon, 52, 
55, 63, 64 ; Medo-Persia, 325. 

" History of Babylonia and Assyria 
(The)," Hugo Winckler. — Baby- 
lon, 53, 65. 

" History o f Christian Doctrines 
(A)," K. R. Hagenbach. — Baptism, 
76. 

"History of Christianity (The)," 
Henry Hart Milman. — Apostasy, 
35 ; Constantine, 124 ; Paganism, 355, 
357; Sabbath, Change of, 512, 513. 

" History of Creeds and Confessions 
of Faith (A)," William A. Curtis. 
— Denominations. 138, 140, 141, 143, 
146, 147 ; Reformation, The, 442. 

" History of Dissenters," Bogue. — 
Sabbath, 508. 

" History of Europe," Sir Archibald 
Alison. — Eastern Question, 155 ; 
French Revolution, 191, 192, 194, 
195 ; Papal Supremacy, 389, 391, 392 ; 
Two Witnesses, 614, 617, 618. 

" History of Europe During the Mid- 
dle Ages," Henry Hallam. — Saints, 
521 ; Seven Trumpets, 552. 

" History of European Morals," Wil- 
liam Edward Hartpole Lecky. — 
Seven Churches, 525. 

" History of France from 1790," John 
Leycester Adolphus. — Papal Su- 
premacy, 392. 

" History of Freedom (The)," John 
Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton. — 
Fathers. 183 : Heretics, 239 ; Mas- 
sacre of St. Bartholomew, 323 ; Tra- 
dition, 608. 

" History of Greece," J. B. Bury. — 
Greece, 203. 

" History of Greece," Jean Victor 
Duruy. — Greece, 207, 210. 

"History of Greece (A)," George Fin- 
lay. — Rome, 490 ; Seven Trumets, 
545, 551. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



669 



"History of Interpretation (The)," 

F. W. Farrar. — Fathers, 183. 
"History of Modern Europe (The)," 
Thomas Henry Dyer. — Eastern 
Question, 154. 
" History of Napoleon the First 
(The)," Pierre Lanfrey. — Eastern 
Question, 156. 
"History of Protestantism (The)," 
J. A. Wylie. — Papacy, 373 ; Prot- 
estantism, 428 ; Reformation, The, 
441 ; Seven Churches, 528. 
" History of Rome," Cassius Dio. — 

Rome, 469 ; Seventy Weeks, 557. 
"History of Rome (The)," Livy. — 
Rome, 463, 464 ; Seven Trumpets, 
543. 
" History of Rome," Theodor Momm- 

sen. — Rome, 465. 
"History of Rome (The)," Thomas 

Arnold. — Greece, 204. 
" History of Rome," Victor Duruy. — 

Rome, 464. 
" History of Scotland (A)," Andrew 

Lang. — Sabbath, 506. 
" History of Weare, New Hampshire," 

Wm. Little. — Dark Day, 136. 
" History of the Ancient World (A)," 
George Stephen Good speed. — ■ 
Greece, 203, 204 ; Medo-Persia, 327 ; 
Rome, 462, 466, 472. 
" History of the Ancient World (A)," 
George Willis Botsford. — Greece, 
208, 209. 
" History of the Baptist Denomina- 
tion," Erbkam. — Sabbath, 507. 
"History of the Baptists (A)," 
Thomas Armitage. — Baptism, 76 ; 
Denominations, 137 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 450. 
" History of the Christian Church," 

J. C. Robertson. — Rome, 490. 
" History of the Christian Church," 
Philip Schaff. — Papal Supremacy, 
380, 381, 387 ; Rome, 470 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 558 ; Sunday, 578 ; Sunday 
Laws, 580, 581. 
* History of the Church Councils 
(A)," Charles Joseph Hefele. — 
Sabbath, Change of, 511. 
' History of the Councils," Labbe and 
Cossart. — Church, 115 ; Heretics, 
238 ; Pope, 411 ; Tradition, 604. 
' History OF the Creeds of Christen- 
dom (A)," Philip Schaff. — Advent, 
Second, 10. 
' History of the Decline and Fall of 
the Roman Empire (The)," Edward 
Gibbon. — Apostasy, 36, 37 ; Con- 
stantine, 124 ; Paganism, 358 ; Papal 
Supremacy, 385, 388; Rome, 460, 
462, 467, 473, 485 ; Sabbath, 507 ; 
Sabbath, Change of, 513 ; Seven Chur- 
ches, 526 ; Seven Seals, 532 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 536, 539, 542, 543, 552. 
' History of the Eastern Church," 
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. — Sun- 
day, 572, 580. 
' History of the Girondists," Alphon- 
se dei Lamartine. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 389. 
' History of the Inquisition of the 
Middle Ages (A)," Henry Charles 
Lea. — Persecution, 403, 404. 



" History of the Intellectual Devel- 
opment of Europe," John William 
Draper. — Church and State, 119 ; 
Confession, 123; Galileo, 200; Pa- 
ganism, 354 ; Papacy, 362, 364, 370, 
374 ; Persecution, 404 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 447 ; Sabbath, Change of, 512 ; 
Seven Churches, 525 ; Sunday Laws, 
581. 
"History of the Jews (The)," Mat- 
thew A. Berk. — Calendar, 105. 
" History of the Later Roman Em- 
pire," J. B. Bury. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 381 ; Seven Trumpets, 539, 540. 
" History of the Planting and Train- 
ing of the Christian Church," 
Augustus Neander. — Sunday, 574. 
"History of the Papacy (A)," M.. 
Creighton. — Papacy, 369, 373;; 
Temporal Power of the Pope, 590. 
" History of the Popes," De Cormenin. 

— Heretics, 237. 
" History of the Popes (The)," Arch- 
ibald Bower. — Easter, 153, 154 ; 
Papacy, 368 ; Papal Supremacy, 387, 
388. 
"History of the Reformation (A)," 
Thomas M. Lindsay. — Church, 114 ; 
Inquisition, 265 ; Justification, 295 ; 
Priesthood, 419. 
" History of the Reformation," K. R. 
Hagenbach. — Papacy, 376 ; Protes- 
tantism, 431 ; Reformation, 439. 
" History of the Reformation," J. H. 
Merle D'Aubign6. — Bible, 89 ; Re- 
formation, The, 438, 439, 440, 441, 
445 ; Religious Liberty, 452. 
" History of the Rise and Influence; 
of Rationalism in Europe," Wil- 
liam Edward Hartpole Lecky. — In- 
quisition, 264 ; Persecution, 403i 
" History of the Rise, Progress, and 
Establishment of the Independence 
of the United States of America 
(The)," William R. Gordon. — Dark 
Day, 131. 
" History of the Roman Empire," Am- 
mianus Marcellinus. — Rome, 472. 
" History of the Sabbath," J. N. An- 
drews. — Advent, Second, 24 ; Sab- 
bath, 506; Sunday, 577. 
" History of the Sabbath," Andrews 
and- Conradi. — Sabbath, 496, 507, 
508 ; Sabbath, Change of, 517, 518 ; 
Sunday, 573, 574. 
" History of thei Sabbath," Peter Hey- 

lyn. — Sunday, 577, 580. 
" History of the Saracens," Ameer 

All — Seven Trumpets, 548. 
" History of the Town of Antrim, 
New Hampshire," W. R. Cochrane. 
— Dark Day, 135. 
" History of the Town of Hampton, 
New Hampshire," Joseph Dorr. — 
Dark Day, 130. 
" History of the United States," 
George Bancroft. — Religious Lib- 
erty, 448, 449 ; Seven Churches, 528. 
" History of the World," John Clark 
Ridpath. — French Revolution, 196 ; 
Jerusalem, 269, 277 ; Rome, 475, 477, 
482, 484, 487, 488, 489. 
" History of the World," Justin ( Ju- 
nianus Justinus). — Greece. 207. 



670 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



' History Unveiling Prophecy," H. 
Grattan Guinness. — Antichrist, 32 ; 
Apostasy, 35 ; Persecution, 406. 

Hitchcock, Roswell D. — Bible, 86. 

Hobbs, William Herbert. — Earth- 
quakes, 151. 

Hobbes, Thomas. — Papal Supremacy, 
381. 

Hobson, Richmond P. — Health and 
Temperance, 216, 217. 

Hodges, Archibald. — Sabbath, 495. 

Hodges, Colonel. — Eastern Question, 
158, 159, 163, 164. 

Hodgkin, Thomas. — Papal Supremacy, 
385, 386, 388 ; Rome, 476, 482 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 539. 

Hoe & Co. — Increase of Knowledge, 
255. 

Hoensbroech, Paul von. — Jesuits, 
278. 

Holland, Hezekiah. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 549. 
'Holiest of All (The)." Andrew 
Murray. — Priesthood, 420. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. — Health 
and Temperance, 227. 

Holtzman, H. J. — Sabbath, Change of. 

518 ; Tradition, 604. 
'Holy Roman Empire (The)." James 
Bryce. — Pope, 414 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 447 ; Two Witnesses. 619. 

Homiletic Review. — Protestantism, 

430. 
1 Homilies." — Tradition, 606. 

Hope of Israel (The), Portland, Maine. 

— Advent, Second, 24. 
Horace. — Rome, 461. 

: Hor^e Apocalyptic^:," E. B. Elliott. 

— Advent, Second, 12 ; Antichrist, 29, 
33 ; Easter, 153 ; Papal Supremacy, 
381, 384, 389, 390, 391 ; Revelation, 
Book of, 456, 457 ; Rome, 469 ; Seven 
Churches, 522 ; Seven Trumpets, 535, 
537, 539, 540, 542, 543, 545, 549, 550, 
551 ; Ten Kingdoms, 592, 595, 598 : 
Two Witnesses, 617 ; Year-Day Prin- 
ciple, 629. 

Horne, Thomas Hartwell. — Bible, 
96 ; Feast of Tabernacles, 185 ; Festi- 
vals, 187; Jesus Christ, 279: Pente- 
cost, 400 ; Prophecy, 424 ; Sabbath. 
500 ; Ten Kingdoms, 596. 

Horton, Robert F. — Bible, 81. • 

Hosius, Cardinal. — Bible, 94 ; Tra- 
dition, 606. 

Hostiensis. — Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 590. 

House of Seleucus," E. R. Bevan. — 
Greece, 208. 

How to Live," Irving Fisher and Eu- 
gene Lyman Fisk. — Health and 
Temperance, 218, 219, 223. 229. 

Huddleston, Sisley. — Papacy, 379. 

Hughes, Thomas Patrick. — Eastern 
Question, 167. 

Huguenots in France (The)," Sam- 
uel Smiles. — Persecution, 407. 

Humphrey, Heman. — Sabbath, 501. 

Humphreys, Dr. — Falling Stars, 176. 

Hundred Years of Missions (A)," 
Delevan L. Leonard. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 254. 

Hunter, Thomas. — Earthquakes, 152. 

Hurlbut, Jesse L. — Greece, 211. 



Hussey, Robert — Papacy, 362, 370. 
Hutton, W. H. — Papal Supremacy, 
390 ; Seven Trumpets, 553. 



' Impregnable Rock of Holy Scrip- 
ture (The)." William E. Glad- 
stone. — Bible, 91. 
'Incarnation of the Son of God 
(The)," Charles Gore. — Jesus 
Christ. 284. 

Independent (The), New York. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 26 ; Eastern Question, 
168. 

Independent Chronicle, Boston. — Dark 
Day, 132, 134. 

Indiana State Board of Health. — 
Health and Temperance, 231. 

Infallibility of the Church (The)," 
George Salmon. — Bible, 86, 87: 
Galileo, 201 ; Gallicanism, 201, 202 : 
Infallibility, 260, 261 ; Tradition, 
603, 605. 

Inglis, Sir Robert. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 252. 

Innes, A. Taylor. — Pope, 415 ; Refor- 
mation. The, 439. 
' Inside View of the Vatican Council 
(An)." — Primacy of Bishop of Rome, 
421. 
1 Inspiration and the Bible,'" Robert 

F. Horton. — Bible, 81. 
; Inquisition : A Critical and Histor- 
ical Study of the Coercive Power 
of the Church (The)," E. Vacaud- 
ard. — Religious Liberty, 446. 

Institutes of the Christian Reli- 
gion," John Calvin. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 12 ; Baptism, 77. 
1 Institutes of Ecclesiastical His- 
tory," Mosheim. — Christmas, 114 : 
Fathers, 183 ; Papacy, 371. 

institutiones juris ecclesiastici 
Publici " (Institutes of Public 
Ecclesiastical Law). P. Marianus 
de Luca. — Heretics, 241. 

International Geography," H. R. 
Mill. — Increase of Knowledge, 248. 

Inter-Ocean, Daily, Chicago. — Sunday 
Laws, 586. 

Introduction to Foreign Missions." 
Edward Lawrence. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 249. 

Introduction to the Critical Study 
and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
tures (An)," Thomas Hartwell 
Horne. — Bible. 96 ; Feast of Tab- 
ernacles, 185 ; Festivals, 187 ; Jesus 
Christ, 279 ; Pentecost, 400 ; Proph- 
ecy, 424 ; Sabbath, 500 ; Ten King- 
doms, 596. 

Introduction to the Old Testament 
(An)," Charles H. H. Wright. — 
Genesis, 202 ; Rome, 460. 

Iren^eus. — Revelation, Book of, 456. 

Islamism : Its Rise and Progress," 
F. A. Neale. — Seven Trumpets, 549. 

Italy and Her Invaders," Thomas 
Hodgkin. — Papal Supremacy, 385, 
386, 388; Rome, 476, 482. 

Italy," John S. C. Abbott. — Temp- 
oral Power, 591. 

Ivanovitch, M. R. — Eastern Question, 
154. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



671 



Macobatius on the Councils." — 
Pope, 412. 

Jalalan. — Eastern Question, 167. 

Jastrow, Morris, Jr. — Babylon, 53. 

Jefferson, Thomas. — Bible, 91 ; Reli- 
gious Liberty, 450, 452. 
' Jehovah Titles," James Sprunt. — 
Jebovah, 268. 

Jeremias. — Babylon, 64. 

Jerome. — Babylon, 66, 67 ; Daniel, 
Book of, 127 ; Persecution, 403 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 538 ; Tradition, 605. 

Jesstjp, H. H. — Palling Stars, 181. 
' Jesus and the Gospel," James Den- 
ney. — Faith, 171 ; Jesus Christ, 287. 

Jewell, Bishop. — Antichrist, 33. 

Johnson, Franklin. — Sabbath, 507. 

Johnston, Howard Agnew. — Bible, 
82, 91. 

Johnston, H. H. — Missions, 334. 

Jones, H. Stuart. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 512. 

Jordan, Camille. — Two Witnesses, 
615. 

Jordan, John. — Sabbath, 503. 

Jordan, Whitman H. — Health and 
Temperance, 229. 

JorDanes. — Seven Trumpets, 535. 540. 

Josephus. — Advent, First. 6 ; Baby- 
lon, 54 ; Calendar, 105 ; Egypt, 168 ; 
Greece, 206 ; Jerusalem, 269-277 : Je- 
sus Christ, 289 ; Jewish League, 290 ; 
Measures, 324 ; Medo-Persia, 328 ; 
Passover, 395, 398 ; Ptolemy's " Al- 
magest," 432 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 435 ; 
Sabbath, 495 ; Seventy W T eeks, 558, 
559, 561 ; Two Evenings, 611. 

Journal of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation. — Health and Temperance, 
227, 233. 

Journal of the American Oriental So- 
ciety. — Sabbath, 510. 

Journal of Biological Chemistry. — 
Health and Temperance, 231. 

Journal of Biology and Chemistry. — 
Health and Temperance, 234. 

Journal of the House of Delegates 
of Virginia." — Religious Liberty, 
449. 

Joye, George. — Sabbath, Change of, 
515. 

Jurieu, Peter. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 245, 247 ; Seven Churches, 523 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 546, 550, 552 ; Two 
Witnesses, 612, 615, 617. 

Justinian, Code of. — Sunday, 578. 

Justin. — Greece, 207. 



Keenan, Stephen. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 515. 

Keil, C. F. (Johann F. K. Keil). — 
French Revolution. 193. 

Keil, Johann F. K. (C. F. Keil). — 
Azazel, 45. 

Keith, Alexander. — French Revolu- 
tion. 194 ; Papal Supremacv. 390. 

Kelly, Dr. Howard A. — Bible, 92. 

Kendrick, Archbishop. — Primacy of 
Bishop of Rome, 421. 

Kenyon. Frederick G. — Bible, 96. 

Key to Open the Main Lock of 
Prophecy (A)," H. Grattan Guin- 
ness. — Advent. Second, 11, 14. 

Key to the Apocalypse," H. Grattan 



Guinness. — Babylon. 69; Daniel, 
Book of, 128 ; Persecution. 405, 408 ; 
Revelation, Book of, 456 ; Rome, 473. 

Killen, W. D. — Apostasy. 35, 36 ; Fa- 
thers, 182 ; Sabbath, 505. 

King, Charles. — Eastern Question, 
154. 

King. Henry M. — Religious Liberty, 
446. 

King, L. W. — Babylon, 60. 

Kingsbury, Harmon. — Sabbath, 503. 
' Kismet, or the Doom of Turkey," 
Charles S. MacFarlane. — Eastern 
Question, 167. 

Kitto, John. — Nature of Man, 346 ; 
Sunday, 573. 

Kneeland, Samuel. — Earthquakes, 

150. 
' Knowing the Scriptures," Arthur 
T. Pierson. — Bible, 81, 90, 92, 94, 
96. 

Knox, John. — Advent, Second, 10, 13; 
Heretics, 237 ; Mass, 314 ; Reforma- 
tion, The, 444. 

Koldeway, Robert. — Babylon, 64. 

Kyle, J. M. — Protestantism, 429. 

Labbe and Cossart. — Pope, 409, 411 r 
Tradition, 604. 
'Laborer and the Capitalist (The)," 
Freeman Otis Willey. — Signs of 
the Times, 564. 
Lactantius. — Apostasy, 36. 
Lacunza (Ben Ezra). — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 17. 
Lamartine, Alphonse de. — Papal Su- 
premacy, 389 ; Two Witnesses, 613. 
Lambert, P&re. — Babylon, 74. 
Lane-Poole, Stanley. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 165. 
Lanfrey, Pierre. — Eastern Question, 

156. 
Lang, J. P. — Christmas, 112 ; Sabbath, 
493, 496; Seven Churches, 522, 530. 
Langley, S. P. — Falling Stars, 181. 
Lardner, Dr. — Increase of Knowledge, 
249 ; Seventy Weeks, 558. 
'Lares and Penates," William B. 

Barker. — Babylon, 72. 
' Last Days of Christ (The)," Hanna. 

— Jesus Christ, 287. 
' Later Gleanings," William E. Glad- 
stone. — Sabbath, Change of, 511. 
' Latest Light on Abraham Lincoln," 
Ervin S. Chapman. — Health and 
Temperance, 219. 
Lawrence, Dr. Edward. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 249. 
Lawrence, Eugene. — Inquisition, 267 ; 

Papacy, 371, 376. 
Layard, A. H. — Babylon, 64. 
Lea, Henry C. — Papacy, 361 ; Perse- 
cution, 403, 404 ; Pope, 412. 
' Learned Treatise of the Sabbath 
(A)," Edward Brerewood. — Sab- 
bath, 506. 
Leathes, Stanley. — Prophecy, 423 ; 

Seventy W T eeks. 554. 
Lecky, W. E. H. — Inquisition, 264 ; 
Persecution, 403 ; Seven Churches. 
525. 
Lectures on Preaching," Matthew 

Simpson. — Law of God. 303. 
Lectures on the Council of Trent." 
James Anthony Froude. — Diet of 



672 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



Worms, 150 ; Mass, 319 ; Protestant- 
ism, 431. 
" Lectures on the History of Chris- 
tian Dogmas," Augustus Neander. 
— Baptism, 78, 79 ; Church and 
State, 119. 
" Lectures on the Prophetical Office 
of the Church," John Henry New- 
man. — Church of Rome. 120. 
Lee, Elmer, M. D. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 233. 
Leinheuser, Lawrence N. — Sabbath, 

Change of, 512. 
Leonard, Delevan L. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 254. 
Lepicier, Alexius M. — Heretics, 240, 
241. 
" Letter from Lord Palmerston to M. 
Thiers, Reply to M. Thiers." — 
Eastern Question, 159. 
" Letter to a Friend on Tea," John 
Wesley. — Health and Temperance. 
220. 
" Letter upon the Downfall of Anti- 
christ," A. Maddock. — Seven 
Churches, 527, 529, 530. 
" Letters of Roger Williams." — Sab- 
bath, 508. 
" Letters to M. Gondon," Chr. Words- 
worth. — Bible, 88 ; Pope, 414 ; Po- 
pery, 416 ; Tradition, 606. 
■' Library of Christian Doctrine : Why 
Don't You Keep Holy the Sabbath 
Day ?"— Sabbath, Change of, 517. 
'Library of Original Sources (The)." 
— Athanasius, 41 ; Denominations, 
144 ; Paganism, 354 ; Persecution, 400. 
' Library of Translations : The 
Power of the Pope During the 
Middle Ages," M. Gosselin. — Her- 
esy, 236 ; Heretics, 242. 
4 Library of Universal History." — 
Eastern Question, 154 ; French Revo- 
lution, 191. 
Liddon, Henry Parry. — Faith, 175 ; 
Jesus Christ, 279, 282, 285. 
' Life and Epistles of the Apostle 
Paul (The)," Conybeare and How- 
son. — Baptism, 76 ; Sunday, 573. 
1 Life and Times of Jesus the Mes- 
siah (The)," Alfred Edersheim. — 
Advent, First, 5 ; Nature of Man, 
350 ; Seventy Weeks, 559. 
Life and Times of Viscount Pal- 
merston," James Ewing Ritchie. — 
Eastern Question, 163. 
Life in Christ," Edward White. — 
Justification, 291, 292, 293, 294 ; Na- 
ture of Man, 344, 345. 
Life of Appolonius," Philostratus. 

— Seven Churches, 526. 
Life of Gregory the Great," F. H. 
Dudden. — Papal Supremacy, 382 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 543. 
Life of Gregory the Seventh," M. 
Abel Francois Villemain. — Pope, 
413. 
Life of John Milton (The)," David 

Masson. — Religious Liberty, 448. 
Life of Napoleon," Sir Walter 
Scott. — French Revolution, 194 ; Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 389. 
Life of Saint Margaret," Turgot. — 
Sabbath, 506. 



" Life of Thomas Jefferson," James 

Parton. — Religious Liberty, 452. 
" Life of Our Lord upon the Earth 

(The)," Samuel J. Andrews. — Jesus 

Christ, 287, 288. 
" Life of Viscount Palmerston 

(The)," Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer. 

— Eastern Question, 159. 

"Life of Napoleon Bonaparte (The)," 
John S. C. Abbott. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 155. 

" Life of Voltaire," James Parton — 
Earthquakes, 151. 

" Life of Voltaire," S. G. Tallentyre 

— Earthquakes. 151. 

Lightfoot, John.— Sabbath, 509; 
Seventy Weeks, 562. 

"Light for the Last Days," Mr. and 
Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness. — Baby- 
lon, 59 ; Prophecy, 425 ; Ptolemv's 
" Almagest," 432 ; Ptolemv's Canon, 
434 ; Twenty-three Hundred Years. 
609. 

" Light on Prophecy." — Advent. Sec- 
ond. 26. 

" Light on the Old Testament from 
Babel." Albert T. Clay. — Medo- 
Persia, 329. 330. 
Liguori. — Priesthood. 419. 
Lindsay. Thomas M. — Church. 114 : 
Inquisition, 265 : Justification. 295 : 
Priesthood, 419. 

" Literature of the Sabbath Ques- 
tion (The)." Robert Cox. — Sab- 
bath, 507: Sunday. 578. 

" Literal Accomplishment of Scrip- 
ture Prophecies." William Whis- 
ton. — Eastern Question. 166. 
Literarri Dipest. — Health and Tem- 
perance. 229 : Increase of Knowledge. 
252 ; Sunday Laws, 587. 588 : War. 
623. 626. 

LlTTLEDALE. RlCHATfD FREDERICK. 

Bishop. 100 : Indulgences, 257 : Papal 
Supremacy, 383 : Saints. 520. 
" Little Hands and God's Book." Wil- 
liam Canton. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 255. 

Little, William. — Dark Day. 136. 
" Lives of the Electricians," W. F. 
Jeans. — Increase of Knowledge. 252, 
253. 
" Lives of the Popes in the Early 
Middle Ages." H. K. Mann. — Papal 
Supremacy, 387. 
" Lives of the Twelve C.esars (The)." 
C. Suetonius Tranquillus. — Ad- 
vent. First, 6 : Rome, 467, 469 ; Sev- 
enty Weeks, 557, 558. 

Ltvy. — Rome, 463-465 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 543. 

Lloyd, Bishop. — Ten Kingdoms, 596. 
"Lord's Day (The)," A. E. Waffle. — 
Sabbath, 497. 498. 

Lorimer, J. G. — Two Witnesses, 614- 
616. 

Loughborough. J. N. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 18, 19, 24. 

Luca, P. Marianus de. — Heretics. 241. 

Lucan. — Rome. 461. 

Lumen. — Daniel, Book of, 126. 

Lusk, Graham. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 228. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



673 



Luther's Primary Works," Wacb and 
Buchheim. — Babylon, 69 ; Law, 302 ; 
Mass, 319 ; Reformation, The, 444. 

McAllister, David. — Sunday Laws, 

586. 
McCarthy, Justin. — Increase of 

Knowledge, 252. 
Macaulay, Lord. — Papacy, 361, 365 ; 

Protestantism, 431. 
McCrossan, Thomas J. — Denomina- 
tions, 139. 
McDonald, W. — Spiritualism, 570. 
MacFarlane, Charles S. — Eastern 

Question, 167. 
Machiavelli. — Ten Kingdoms, 594, 

596. 
Mackay, W. P. — Bible, 99. 
McKim, R. H. — Papacy, 367. 
MacKnight, Thomas. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 165. 
McNeal, Edgar H. — Persecution, 403. 
McNicol, John. — Advent, Second, 10. 
McPherson, G. W. — Advent, Second, 

8, 16 ; Bible, 80 ; Millennium, 332. 
Maddock, A. — Seven Churches, 527, 

529, 530. 
Madison, James. — Religious Liberty, 

450. 
Mahaffy, J. P. — Greece, 210. 
Mains, George P. — Jesus Christ, 288. 
Mallet, Charles Edward. — French 

Revolution, 192 ; Papal Supremacy, 

388. 
Mann, H. K. — Papal Supremacy, 387. 
Manning, Henry Edward. — Church 

and State, 118 ; Infallibility, 258 ; 

Mass, 317 ; Papacy, 377 ; Pope, 413 ; 

Rome, 461 ; Temporal Power of the 

Pope, 591. 
1 Manual of Astronomy," Charles A. 

Young. — Falling Stars, 179. 
' Manual of Biblical Archeology." 

Johann F. Keil. — Azazel, 44. 
' Manual of Christian Doctrine." — 

Mass, 313, 315. 
' Mancductio ad Ministerium," Cot- 
ton Mather. — Advent, Second, 13. 
' Many Infallible Proofs," Arthur T. 

Pierson. — Jesus Christ, 281 ; Proph- 
ecy, 422, 425. 
Marcellinus, Ammianus. — Rome, 

472 ; Seven Tnimpets, 546. 
Marcellus, Christopher. — Pope, 411. 
March, Daniel. — Babylon, 62. 
Marriott, J. A. R. — Missions, 334. 
Marsh, Herbert. — Tradition, 605. 
Marsh, Joseph. — Advent, Second, 22. 
Marshall, N. H. — Armageddon, 39. 
Martin, Frederick Townsend. — 

Signs of the Times, 565. 
Mason, Archibald. — Twenty-three 

Hundred Days, 610. 
Mason, Thomas. — Two Witnesses, 

611, 615. 
Maspero, Gaston. — Eastern Question, 

154. 
' Massachusetts : Its Historians and 

Its History/' Charles Francis 

Adams. — Religious Liberty, 452. 
Massachusetts Spy. — Dark Day, 132. 
'Master of the Magicians (The)," 
Lumen. — Daniel, Book of, 126. 
Mather, Cotton. — Advent, Second, 13. 
43 



Mather, J. — Two Witnesses, 612. 

Mather, Samuel. — Law, 300. 

Maxwell, William. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 167. 

Mears, John W. — Jerusalem, 274. 

Mede, Joseph. — Antichrist, 31 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 542, 545, 547, 549; Ten 
Kingdoms, 596. 
" Medieval and Modern History," 
Philip Van Ness Myers. — Papacy. 
371. 

Medical and Surgical Journal, Boston. 
— Health and Temperance, 227. 

Medical Magazine. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 224. 

Medical Record. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 228. 
" Medical Science of Today," Wilmott 
Evans. — Health and Temperance, 
226. 

Medical Times. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 217, 222, 224. 
" Medieval Europe," Bemont and Mo- 
nod. — Papal Supremacy, 387. 
" Memoirs Illustrating the History 
of Jacobinism," Abbe Burruel. — 
Two Witnesses, 613. 
" Memoirs of Alexander Campbell," 
Robert Richardson. — Sunday Laws, 
587. 
" Memoirs of the American Academy 
of Arts and Sciences." — Dark Day, 
129. 

Mendel, LaFayette B. — Health and 
Temperance, 231. 

Merivale, Dean. — Paganism, 358 ; 
Rome, 467. 
" Methodist Episcopal Church Doc- 
trines and Discipline." — Law of 
God, 305. 

Methodist Review, New York. — Sun- 
day, 575. 

Metropolitan Magazine, New York. — 
Spiritualism, 1 569, 570, 571. 

Meylan, George L., M. D. — Health 
and Temperance, 222. 

Midnight Cry (The), New York. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 20, 21, 24. 

Migne. — Persecution, 403. 

Mijatovich, Chedomil. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 551. 

Mill, H. R. — Increase of Knowledge. 
248. 

Miller, Edward. — Advent, Second, 17. 

Miller, William. — Advent, Second. 
17, 18 ; Twenty-Three Hundred Days. 
610. 

Milligan, William. — Revelation. 
Book of, 456. 

Milman, H. H. — Apostasy, 35 ; Con- 
stantine, 124 ; Paganism, 355, 357 ; 
Sabbath, Change of, 512, 513. 

Milner. John. — Rule of Faith, 490, 
491 ; Tradition, 607. 

Milner, Thomas. — Falling Stars, 176. 

Milton, John.— Advent, Second, 10 : 
Reformation, The, 444 ; Religious Lib- 
erty, 448 ; Sunday, 578 ; Tradition. 
604. 
" Miscellaneous Essays and Poems." 
Thomas Babington Macaulay. — Pa- 
pacy, 361, 365; Protestantism. 431. 

Missionary Review of the World. — Mis- 
sions, 333. 



674 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



" Missions and Governments."— Reli- 
gious Liberty, 450. 
" Modern Conflict over the Bible 
(The)," G. W. McPherson. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 8, 16 ; Bible, 80 ; Mil- 
lennium, 332. 
" Modern Europe," W. Alison Phil- 
lips. — Eastern Question, 156, 157, 
165. 
"Modern Mission Century (The)," 
Arthur T. Pierson. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 248, 249 ; Missions, 332. 
" Modern Papacy (The)," Joseph Rick- 

aby. — Papal Supremacy, 392. 
"Modern Regime (The)," Hippolyte 
Adolphe Taine. — Eastern Question, 
155. 
" Modernism and the Reformation." 
John Benjamin Rust.— Bible, 87 ; 
Modernism, 343 ; Protestantism, 430 ; 
Rule of Faith, 490. 
Moehler, John Adam. — Church, 115 ; 
Revelation, 455 ; Tradition, 602, 606. 
Mommsen, Theodor. — Rome, 465. 
Monthly Bulletin, Department o f 
Health, New York City. — Health and 
Temperance, 217. 
Monthly Cyclopedia and Medical Bulle- 
tin. — Health and Temperance, 218. 
' Monuments and the Old Testament 
(The)," Ira M. Price. — Babylon, 
59 ; Bible, 82 ; Medo-Persia, 328, 329. 
Moody, D. L. — Advent, Second, 16 ; 
Law of God, 302-304, 306. 
'Moody at Home." — Advent, Second, 

16. 
Moore, George F. — Sabbath, 510. 
Moore, Dr. H. — Two Witnesses, 618. 
Moore, Zephaniah Swift. — Sabbath, 

505. 
Moorehead, W. G. — Denominations, 
145 ; Jesus Christ, 280. 
' Moral Science," James H. Fairchild. 

— Religious Liberty, 453. 
'Morality of the Idle Rich (The)," 
Frederick Townsend Martin. — 
Signs of the Times, 565. 
' Morals," Plutarch. — Greece, 206 ; 

Rome, 463. 
Morgan, G. Campbell. — Law of God, 

302, 303 ; Sabbath, 504. 
Morrison, James. — Jerusalem, 277. 
Morse, S. F. B. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 253. 
Morning Watch, or Quarterly Journal 
on Prophecy (The). — Increase of 
Knowledge, 246. 
Mosheim, John Laurence von. — 
Christmas, 114 ; Fathers, 183 ; Pa- 
pacy, 371 ; Papal Supremacy, 381 ; 
Persecutions, 401. 
Most Holy Councils (The)," Labbe 

and Cossart. — Pope, 409. 
Motley, J. L. — Persecution. 402. 
Moule, H. C. G.— Faith, 172; Justifi- 
cation, 291-293. 
Muir, William. — Bible, 88 ; Protes- 
tantism, 432 ; Reformation, The, 442, 
444, 445. 
Muir, Sir William. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 544, 548. 
Muller, M. — Church of Rome, 121; 

Heretics, 237. 
Mullins, E. Y. — Faith, 175. 



Murray, Andrew. — Priesthood, 420. 
" My Bondage and My Freedom," Fred- 
erick A. Douglass. — Falling Stars, 
178. 
Myers, Philip Van Ness. — Greece. 
207, 209, 211 ; Medo-Persia, 324 ; Pa- 
pacy, 371 ; Rome, 464, 467, 470. 



Nampon, A. — Antichrist, 32; Justifi- 
cation, 297 ; Priesthood, 418 ; Tradi- 
tion, 603, 605. 
Nansen, Fridtjof. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 220, 221. 
National Review, London. — Spiritual- 
ism, 571. 
" Nature and the Supernatural, as 
Together Constituting the One 
System of God," Horace Bushnell. 
— Jesus Christ, 283. 
Neale, F. A. — Seven Trumpets, 549. 
Neander, Augustus. — Antichrist, 33 ; 
Baptism, 76, 78, 79 ; Church and 
State, 117, 119 ; Fathers, 183 ; Sab- 
bath, Change of, 510; Seven 
Churches, 524 ; Sunday, 574, 579 ; 
Sunday Laws, 581, 582. 
" New Analysis of Chronology and 
Geography (A)," Rev. William 
Hales. — Antichrist, 28 ; Calendar, 
106, 107, 108 ; Festivals, 187 ; Nature 
of Man, 345 ; Ptolemy's Canon, 434. 
435 ; Rome, 468 ; Seven Trumpets, 
548 ; Seventy Weeks, 554, 560, 561, 
562; Twenty-Three Hundred Days. 
609, 610 ; Two Evenings, 611. 
" New and Complete Analysis of the 
Holy Bible," Roswell D. Hitch- 
cock. — Bible, 86. 
" New Archeological Discoveries and 
the New Testament," Cobern. — 
Seventy Weeks, 562. 
" New Astronomy," S. P. Langley. — 
Falling Stars, 181. 
New Hampshire Patriot and State Ga- 
zette. — Falling Stars, 177. 
; ' New Testament, with Introduc- 
tions, Notes, and References 
(The)." — Tradition, 601. 
New York Christian Observer. — Sab- 
bath, 497. 
New York Journal. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 221. 
Neiv York Journal of Commerce. — Fall- 
ing Stars, 177. 
New York Medical Journal. — Health 
and Temperance, 233, 234. 
' Neubabylonische Konigsinschrift- 
en," Nabonid. — Babylon, 63. 
Nevin, John W. — Calendar, 104 ; Law, 

Ceremonial, 299. 
Newcomb, Simon. — 175. 
Newman, John Henry. — Antichrist. 
34 ; Apostasy, 36 ; Church of Rome. 
120 ; Sabbath, Change of, 512. 
Newton, Sir Isaac. — Advent, Second, 
25 ; Bible, 92 ; Daniel, Book of. 127 ; 
Increase of Knowledge, 245, 246 ; Lit- 
tle Horn, 307 ; Seven Trumpets, 534, 
546 ; Ten Kingdoms, 592, 596 ; 
Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years. 
608. 
Newton, Thomas. — Antichrist. 33 : 
Apostasy, 35 ; Greece, 205, 209 ; Je- 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



675 



rusalem, 270, 271, 276 ; Little Horn, 
307 ; Medo-Persia, 326 ; Seven Trump- 
ets, 536, 547 ; Temporal Power of the 
Pope, 589 ; Ten Kingdoms, 596 ; 
Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years, 
608 ; Twenty-three Hundred Days, 
609; Year-Day Principle, 631. 

NlCENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS." 

Bible, 89 ; Sabbath, 506 ; Seven 
Trumpets, 538. 

Niebuhr, B. G. — Bible, 82. 

Night Scenes in the Bible," Daniel 
March. — Babylon, 62. 

Nineteenth Century and After, London. 
— Armageddon, 39 ; Eastern Ques- 
tion, 167 ; Increase of Knowledge. 
251 ; Missions, 334. 

Nineteenth Century Miracles," Em- 
ma Hardinge Britten. — Spiritual- 
ism, 569, 570. 

Norlin. — Sabbath, 508. 

Northwestern Lancet. — Health and 
Temperance, 232. 

Not by Bread Alone," Harvey W. 
Wiley. — Health and Temperance, 
228. 

Notes, Critical and Practical, on 
the Book of Genesis," George 
Bush. — Nature of Man, 346 ; Sab- 
bath, 494. 

Notes on the Books of the Bible," 
W. P. Mackay.— Bible, 99. 

Notes on the Papal Claims," Arthur 
Brinckman. — Heresy, 236. 

Notes on the Parables of Our Lord," 
Richard Chenevix Trench. — Jesus 
Christ, 286. 

Notes on the State of Virginia." 
Thomas Jefferson. — Religious Lib- 
erty, 450, 452. 

Nourse, J. — Earthquakes. 151. 

Novelties of Romanism (The)." 
Charles Hastings Collette. — Bi- 
ble, 94. 

Novum Organum," Francis Bacon. — 
Increase of Knowledge, 247. 

Nutrition and Dietetics," Winfield 
Scott Hall. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 228. 



Obligation of the Sabbath (The)." 
J. Newton Brown. — Sabbath, 495, 
499. 

Obligation of the Sabbath," W. B. 
Taylor. — Sabbath, 497. 

Observations upon the Prophecies 
of Daniel and the Apocalypse of 
St. John," Sir Isaac Newton. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 25 ; Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 245, 246 ; Ten Kingdoms. 592 : 
Twelve Hundred and Sixty Years, 
608. 

O'Connell. C. J. — Mass, 319. 

Official Publication by the Rus- 
sian Government. — Advent, Second, 
25. 

Old Countryman (The)." — Falling 
Stars, 178. 

Old Testament Prophecy." Stanley 
Leathes. — Prophecy, 423 ; Seventy 
Weeks, 554. 

Old Testament in the Light of the 
Ancient East (The)," Jeremias. — 
Babylon, 64. 



Old Testament in the Light of the 
Historical Records (The)," T. G. 
Pinches. — Babylon, 60. 

Olmsted, Denison. — Falling Stars. 
175. 

Olshausen, H. — Sunday, 574. 

Oman, C. W. C. — Seven Trumpets, 551. 
553. 

On Miracles and Modern Spiritual- 
ism." Alfred Russel Wallace. — 
Spiritualism, 568, 569. 

On the Authority of Councils," 
Bellarmine. — Pope, 411. 

On the Holy Sacrifice of the 
Mass," Herbert Cardinal Vaughan. 

— Mass, 318. 

On the Inspiration of Holy Scrip- 
ture," Christopher Wordsworth. 

— Bible, 85 : Infallibility, 259. 
Opening Up of Africa (The)," Sir H. 

H. Johnston. — Missions, 334. 

Opera Omnia Theologica," Hugo Gro- 
tius. — Sabbath, 507. 

Origen. — Baptism, 76 ; Christmas, 
113 ; Fathers, 182. 

Origin and Deeds of the Goths 
(The)," Jordanes. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 535, 540. 

Origin and History of the Books of 
the Bible," C. E. Stowe. — Bible, 93. 

Osborne, Thomas B. — Health and 
Temperance, 231. 

Osler, William, M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 226, 232. 

Ottoman Empire (The)," Edward Up- 
ham. — Seven Trumpets, 544. 

Ottoman Power in Europe (The)," 
E. A. Freeman. — Eastern Question, 
156 ; Seven Trumpets, 548. 

Our Bible and the Ancient Manu- 
scripts," Frederic G. Kenyon. — 
Bible, 96. 

Our First Century." R. M. Devens. — 
Dark Day, 131, 134. 

Outlook (The), New York. — Robes, 
Ascension, 459. 

Oxford Bible, Cyclopedic Concord- 
ance." — Calendar, 108. 



Papacy and the Civil Power (The)," 

R. W. Thompson. — Temporal Power 

of the Pope, 590. 
Papacy Is the Antichrist (The)," 

J. A. Wylie. — Antichrist, 27, 28. 
Papacy (The)," J. A. Wylie. — Here- 
tics, 240 ; Papacy, 361, 370 ; Popery. 

416. 
Papal Drama (The)," Thomas H. 

Gill. — Reformation, The, 443. 
Papal System (The)," William 

Cathcart. — Justification, 295. 
Papal Monarchy (The)," William 

Barry. — Papal Supremacy, 394. 
Parker, I. H. — Nature of Man, 350. 
Parliamentary History," Hansard. — 

Private Judgment, 422. 
Parliamentary Papers." — Eastern 

Question, 161, 163. 164, 165. 
Parton, James. — Earthquakes, 151 ; 

Private Judgment, 422. 
Paterculus, Velleius. — Seventy 

Weeks, 557. 
Patrick Henry," Tyler. — Religious 

Liberty, 451. 



676 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



' Patrol. Lat." — Baptism, 77. 
Patten, Matthew. — Dark Day, 132. 
Pears, Edwin. — Seven Trumpets, 549, 

553. 
Pearson, John. — Resurrection, 455. 
Peary, Robert E. — Health and Temp- 
erance, 221. 
Pelagius, Alvarus (Alvaro Pelayo). 

— Papacy, 364 ; Pope, 412, 414 ; 
Temporal Power of the Pope, 590. 

Pelayo, Alvaro (Alvarus Pelagius). 

— Papacy, 364 ; Pope, 412, 414 ; Tem- 
poral Power of the Pope, 590. 

Pember, G. H. — Spiritualism, 570. 

Pennington, A. R. — Papal Suprem- 
acy, 391, 393, 394. 
' Perpetuity of the Law (The)," C. H. 
Spurgeon. — Law of God, 302. 

Perrone. — Tradition, 606. 
' Person and Work of the Redeemer 
(The)," J. J. Van Oosterzee. — Ad- 
vent, Second, 15. 
'Person of Christ (The)," Philip 

Schaff. — Greece, 206. 
' Personal Life of David Livingstone 
(The)," W. Garden ^Blaikie. — Mis- 
sions, 332. 

Petavius. — Tradition, 607. 

Peters, Samuel A. — Blue Laws, 100. 
'Petri Privilegium," Henry Edward 
Manning. — Church and State, 118 ; 
Infallibility, 258. 

Petrie, M. L. G. — Jerusalem, 277. 

Pflugk-Hartung, Julius von. — Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 387 ; Rome, 476. 

Pharsalia," Lucan. — Greece, 205. 

Phelan, D. S. — Mass, 315. 

Phillips, W. Alison. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 156, 157, 165. 

Philo. — Atonement, 41. 

Philostorgius. — Seven Trumpets, 
536. 

Philostratus. — Seven Churches, 526. 

Philosophy of History," Friedrich 
von Schlegel. — Seven Trumpets, 
545. 

Philosophy of the Christian Reli- 
gion (The)," Andrew Martin Pair- 
bairn. — History, 244 ; Jesus Christ, 
282, 283, 286. 

Pierson, A. T. — Bible, 81, 90, 92, 94 
96 ; Increase of Knowledge, 248, 249 
Jesus Christ, 281 ; Missions, 332 : 
Prophecy, 422, 425. 

Pinches, T. G. — Babylon, 60, 63. 

Pinkerton, Robert. — Bible, 88. 

Pinney, E. R. — Advent, Second, 18. 

Pioneer, Toronto. — Health and Temp- 
erance, 216. 

Place of Christ in Modern Theol- 
ogy (The)," A. M. Fairbairn. — 
Faith, 174; Jesus Christ, 285. 

Plain Lectures on the Growth of 
the Papal Power," James Craigie 
Robertson. — Hildebrand, Dictates 
of, 243 ; Papacy, 361. 

Plain Reasons Against Joining the 
Church of Rome," Richard Fred- 
erick Littledale. — Bishop, 100 ; 
Indulgences, 257 ; Saints, 520. 

Plain Sermons on the Catechism," 
Isaac William. — Sunday, 577. 

Plain Talk About the Protestant- 
ism of Today," Mgr. Segur. — Sab- 
bath, Change of, 518. 



Platina. — Temporal Power of the 

Pope, 589. 
Pliny. — Seven Trumpets, 546. 
Plutarch. — Greece, 206 ; Rome, 463, 
466. 
" Plutarch's Lives." — Rome, 466. 
" Poem on the Lisbon Earthquake," 
John Biddolf. — Earthquakes, 151. 
" Poetical Works of William Cowper 
(The)." — Advent, Second, 14. 
Pollock, Algernon J. — Spiritualism. 

568. 
Pollok, Robert. — Bible, 80. 
Polybius. — Greece, 214; Rome, 461. 
Polycarp. — Christmas, 113 ; Easter, 

153. 
Ponsonby, Viscount. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 158. 
" Pope and the Council (The)," Janus 
(Dr. J. J. Ign. von Dollinger). — 
Church and State, 116; Infallibil- 
ity, 259 ; Inquisition, 264, 265 ; Pa- 
pacy, 364, 366, 371, 373. 
" Pope Honorius," Willis. — Infalibil- 

ity, 260. 
" Pope, the Kings, and the People 
(The)," William Arthur. — Church 
and State, 118 ; Inquisition, 267 ; 
Religious Liberty, 447. 
" Popular Astronomy," Flammarion 
and Gore. — Falling Stars, 176. 
Popular Science Monthly. — Health and 

Temperance, 228, 229. 
Porphyry. — Daniel, Book of, 126, 127. 
Post, Washington. — War, 626. 
Post-Standard, Syracuse. — Pope, 412. 
Powell, E. Alexander. — Armageddon, 
39. 
" Practical Works," Richard Baxter. 

— Advent, Second, 9. 
" Practice of Medicine (The)," James 
Tyson. — Health and Temperance, 
233. 
Practitioner, London. — Health and 
Temperance, 232. 
" Praise of Folly," Erasmus. — Seven 
Seals, 533. 
Preble, T. M. — Advent, Second, 24. 
Prendergast, Jeremiah. — Pope, 412. 
PressensH:, E. de. — French Revolu- 
tion, 199. 
Price, George McCready. — Flood, 188. 
Price, Ira M. — Babylon, 59 ; Bible, 

82 ; Medo-Persia, 328, 329. 
Prideaux, Humphrey. — Seventy 

Weeks, 556, 557. 
Priestly, Joseph. — French Revolu- 
tion, 190. 
" Primitive Saints and the See of 
Rome (The)," F. W. Puller. — 
Popes, 415. 
" Principles of Human Nutrition," 
Whitman H. Jordan. — Health and 
Temperance, 229. 
"Principles of the Reformation," 
Henry Wace. — Church, 115. 
Procopius. — Papal Supremacy, 382. 
" Prophecy of the French Revolu- 
tion (A)," John W. Willison. — 
Two Witnesses, 613. 
" Prophet Daniel Explained (The)," 
L. Gaussen. — Rome, 473. 
Protestant Magazine. — Protestantism, 

429. 
Prynne, William. — Sabbath, 506. 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



677 



Psalms of Solomon." — Seventy 
Weeks, 562. 

Psychological Clinic. — Health and 
Temperance, 225. 

Puller, F. W. — Popes, 415. 

Pusey, E. B. — Babylon, 55, 56, 61 ; 
Jesus Christ, 285 ; Seventy Weeks, 
555, 556, 560, 561. 

Pye-Smith, P. H. — Health and Temp- 
erance, 232. 

Quarterly Journal of Inebriety. — 
Health and Temperance, 223. 

Quarterly Journal of Prophecy. — 
Babylon, 75 ; Sojourning of Israel, 
567. 

Quarterly Review, London. — Increase 
of Knowledge, 251. 

Quiet Talks About Our Lord's Re- 
turn," S. D. Gordon. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 6 ; Nature of Man, 351. 

Railways op England," William Ac- 
worth. — Increase of Knowledge, 
251. 
Ratton, J. J. L. — Seven Churches, 
525, 526, 528, 529. 

Rawlinson, George. — Assyria, 40 ; 
Babylon, 51-56, 63, 64 ; Egypt, 169; 
Greece, 210-213, 216; History, 244; 
Jonah, 290 ; Medo-Persia, 327, 330, 
332 ; Religions, 446 ; Seventy Years' 
Captivity, 563 ; Ten Kingdoms, 591. 
Redeemer and Redeemed : an Investi- 
gation op the Atonement and op 
Eternal Judgment," Charles 
Beecher. — Azazel, 45. 
Reichel, O. J. — Apostolic Christian- 
ity, 37; Papacy, 374, 377. 

'Reign of Christ on Earth (The)." 
Daniel T. Taylor. — Advent, Second, 
12, 13, 14 ; Increase of Knowledge, 
247 ; Kingdom of God, 299 ; New 
Earth, 352, 353; Prophecy, 426. 

' Relation of Drugs to Treatment 
(The)," Edward H. Clark. — Health 
and Temperance, 227. 

' Religion of Babylonia and Assyria 
(The)," Morris Jastrow, Jr. — Bab- 
ylon, 52. 

' Religion of Protestants a Safe Way 
to Salvation (The)," William 
Chillingworth. — Bible, 90. 

'Religion of the Semites (The)," 
Robertson Smith. — Spiritualism. 
569. 

' Religions of the Ancient World 
(The)," George Rawlinson. — Baal, 
46 ; Religions, 446. 

' Religious Liberty in America," C. M. 
Snow. — Sunday Laws, 586. 

' Religious Liberty," Henry M. King. 
— Religious Liberty, 446. 

' Remarks on Ecclesiastical His- 
tory. — Saints, 520. 

' Rest Days," Hutton Webster. — Sab- 
bath, Change of, 513 ; Sunday, 580. 

'Revelation op the Revelation (A)," 
Thomas Mason. — Two Witnesses, 
611, 615. 
Review and Herald. — Advent, Second, 
24 ; Sabbath, 509 ; Seventh-day Ad- 
ventists, 522. 

' Review of Spiritual Manifesta- 



tions," Charles Beecher. — Spirit- 
ualism, 570. 

Reynolds, Dudley S., M. D. — Health 
aud Temperance, 223. 

Ribera. — Antichrist, 31. 

Rickaby, Joseph. — Heretics. 241 ; Pa- 
pal Supremacy, 392 ; Persecution, 401. 

Rider, Fremont. — Spiritualism, 569. 

Ridpath, John Clark. — French Revo- 
lution, 196 ; Jerusalem, 269, 277 ; 
Rome, 475, 477, 482, 484, 487-489. 

Ringgold, James T. — Sunday Laws, 
583. 

Rise of the Dutch Republic (The)," 
John Lothrop Motley. — Persecu- 
tion, 402. 

Rise of the Mediaeval Church 
(The)," Alexander Clarence Flick. 
— Advent, First, 5 ; Papacy, 368, 
372. 

Rise of the Papal Power (The)," 
Robert Hussey. — Papacy, 362, 368, 
370. 

Ritchie, James Ewing. — Eastern 
Question, 163. 

Robertson, James C. — Hildebrand, 
Dictates of, 243 ; Papacy, 361 ; Rome, 
490. 

Rogers, R. W. — Babylon, 52, 55, 63, 
64 ; Medo-Persia, 325. 

Rollin, Charles. — Rome, 462, 465. 

Rome, Antichrist, and the Papacy," 
Edward Harper.— Mass, 316, 318. 

Rome and Its Papal Rulers," George 
Trevor.^— Papal Supremacy, 392. 

Rome : Pagan and Papal," Mourant 
Brock. — Paganism, 358, 360 ; Saints, 
520, 521. 

Roman Catholic Claims," Charles 
Gore. — Infallibility, 260 ; Papacy, 
367. 

Roman Catholic Principles in Ref- 
erence to God and the King." — In- 
fallibility, 261. 

Roman History (The)," Appian of 
Alexandria. — Greece, 204, 206, 212 ; 
Rome, 466. 

Romance of Protestantism (The)," 

D. Alcock. — Protestantism, 429. 
; Romanism : A Doctrinal and Histor- 
ical Examination of the Creed of 
Pope Pius IV," R. C. Jenkins. — 
Tradition, 604. 
' Romanism and the Reformation," H. 
Grattan Guinness. — Babylon, 70 ; 
Little Horn, 308 ; Paganism, 361 ; 
Papacy, 362, 363, 364, 366 ; Persecu- 
tion, 408 ; Reformation, The, 445. 
'Romanism in the Light of History," 
Randolph H. McKim. — Papacy, 367. 

Rotherham, Joseph B. — Nature of 
Man, 350. 
' Ruine of Rome (The)," Arthur 

Dent. — Two Witnesses, 612. 
' Russia : or, Miscellaneous Observa- 
tions on the Past and Present 
State op That Country and Its In- 
habitants," Robert Pinkerton. — 
Bible, 88. 

Rust, John Benjamin. — Bible, 87 ; 
Protestantism, 430 ; Rule of Faith, 
490. 

Saadeddin. — Seven Trumpets, 550. 
' Sabbath Essays." — Sabbath, 507. 



678 



INDEX OP AUTHORITIES 



Sabbath (The)." Harmon Kingsbury 

— Sabbath, 503. 

Sabbath Laws and Sabbath Duties.' 
Robert Cox. — Sabbath, Change of 
511. 

Sabbath for Man," Wilbur F. Crafts 

— Sabbath, 507. 

Sabbath Manual (The)." Justin Ed 
wards. — Law of God, 306 ; Sabbath 
496. 

Sabbath (The)," Sir William Dom 
ville. — Sabbath, 509 ; Sunday, 573 
574, 578 ; Sunday Laws, 581. 

Sacred Calendar of Prophecy 
(The)," George Stanley Faber. — 
French Revolution, 190, 192. 193. 

Sacred Theory of the Earth," Thom 
as Burnet. — Falling Stars, 178. 

Saint's Everlasting Rest (The),' 
Richard Baxter. — Advent, Second, 6 

Salisbury, Lord. — Eastern Question 
166. 

Salmon, George. — Bible, 86. 87 : Ga 
lileo, 201 ; Gallicanism. 202 ; Infalli 
bility, 260, 261 ; Tradition, 605. 

Sampey, John R. — Types, 619. 

Saphir, Adolph. — Bible, 82, 90, 95. 

Saturday Evening Post. — Signs of the 
Times, 564. 

Sayce, A. H. — Babylon, 54 ; Medo- 
Persia, 326. 

Schaff, Philip. — Advent, Second. 10, 
11 ; Bible, 88, 90, 94 ; Greece, 206 ; 
Papal Supremacy, 381, 387 ; Refor- 
mation, The, 438 ; Religious Liberty, 
452 ; Rome, 470 ; Seventy Weeks, 
558 ; Sunday Laws, 580-582. 

Science and Health," Mrs. Mary B. 
G. Eddy. — Denominations, 138, 139. 

Scientific Basis of Sabbath and 
Sunday," Robert John Floody. — 
Sabbath, 505. 

Scientific Faith," Howard Agnew 
Johnston. — Bible, 82. 

Schenck, F. S. — Law, Ceremonial, 
299 ; Law of God, 302. 

Schlegel, Friedrich von. — Seven 
Trumpets, 545. 

Scholl, Henry T. — Sabbath. 497. 

Scott, Sir Walter. — French Revolu- 
tion, 194 ; Papal Supremacy, 389. 

Scott, Walter Quincy. — Sunday, 576. 

Scovel. S. F. — Sunday Laws, 587. 

Sears, Robert. — Dark Day, 133. 

Seaver, Dr. J. W. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 224. 

Second Advent Library." — Seven 
Churches, 529 ; Two Witnesses, 613. 

Secret History of the Court of Jus- 
tinian." — Papal Supremacy, 382. 

Secrets of Polar Travel (The)," 
Robert E. Peary. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 221. 

See of Rome in the Middle Ages 
(The)." Oswald J. Reichel. — Apos- 
tolic Christianity, 37 ; Papacy, 374, 
377. 

Segur, Mgr. — Sabbath, Change of, 
518. 

Selbie, W. B. — Faith, 171; Jesus 
Christ, 283. 

Selections from the Writings and 

Speeches of William Lloyd Garri- 
son." — Sunday Laws, 586. 



" Semitic Magic." R. C. Thompson. — 
Spiritualism, 569. 
Seneca. — Advent, First, 5. 
" Sequel to Letters to M. Gondon." 
Christopher Wordsworth. — Anti- 
christ, 29 ; Heretics. 239. 
" Sermons on Genesis," Martin Lu- 
ther. — Sabbath. 496. 
" Sessional Papers." — Eastern Ques- 
tion. 158. 159. 162. 163. 
" Seven Ages of the Church." Henry 
Cotterill. — Seven Churches. 524. 
526. 
"Shadow of the Bottle (The)." — 

Health and Temperance, 219. 
" Shall I Drink? " Joseph H. Crooker. 
— Health and Temperance, 216. 
Shearer, L. L. — Bible, 90-92. 
Sherman, H. C. — Health and Tem- 
perance, 231. 
" Short History of Christian Mis- 
sions." George Smith. — Increase of 
Knowledge. 254. 
" Short History of the English Peo- 
ple." J. R. Green. — Bible, 91. 
" Short History of Our Own Times 
(A)." Justin McCarthy. — Increase 
of Knowledge, 252. 
" Short View of the Harmony of the 
Four Evangelists," William Whis- 
ton. — Seventy Weeks, 559. 
" Signs of the Times ; or. The Over- 
throw of the Papal Tyranny in 
France (The)," J. Bicheno. — 
French Revolution, 189, 190 ; Increase 
of Knowledge, 245 ; Seven Trumpets, 
543. 
"Signs of the Times (The)." Alex- 
ander Keith. — French Revolution, 
194 ; Papal Supremacy, 389, 390 ; 
Seven Trumpets. 550. 
Simanca. — Heretics, 238. 
Simpson, Matthew. — Law of God, 

303. 
Sismondi, J. C. L. de. — Seven Trump- 
ets. 537, 540. 
" Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy 
(The)," George Rawlinson. — 
Greece, 210, 211, 212, 213. 
" Sketches of Church History," 
James Wharey. — Advent, First, 5. 6. 
" Sketches of the History of New 
Hampshire." John W. Whiton. — 
Dark Day, 133. 
Sloane, W. M. — Two Witnesses, 615. 
Smiles, Samuel. — Persecution, 407. 
Smith, George. — Babylon. 59, 65 ; In- 
crease of Knowledge, 254. 
Smith, Robertson. — Spiritualism, 569. 
Smith, S. B. — Order, 353. 
Smith, Uriah. — Nature of Man. 347, 
348, 351 ; Seven Seals, 534 ; Ten 
Kingdoms, 594. 597. 
Smith, William (Dictionary of the 
Bible). — Calendar. 106: Daniel. 
Book of. 126 ; Decalogue. 136 ; Easter, 
153 ; Jerusalem, 269 ; Jesus Christ. 
279 ; Law, 300, 301 ; Measures, 324 : 
Nature of Man, 350 ; Parable. 395 : 
Sabbath, 491. 498 ; Sacrifices. 519 : 
Showbread, 564; Sunday, 572. 573. 
578. 
Socrates. — Sabbath, Change of, 512. 
" Source Book for Medieval History 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



679 



(A)," Oliver J. Thatcher and Ed- 
gar H. McNeal. — Persecution. 403. 

Southern Medical Journal. — Health 
and Temperance, 222. 

Southern Practitioner and Review. — 
Health and Temperance, 230. 

Sozomen. — Sabbath, Change of, 511 ; 
Seven Trumpets, 538. 

Special, Reports : Religious Bodies, 
1906." — Advent, Second, 18, 23. 

Speech of Hon. Richmond P. Hob- 
son, in the House of Representa- 
tives, Feb. 2, 1911." — Health and 
Temperance, 216, 217. 

Spiritualism," William Edward Bie- 
derwolf. — Spiritualism, 571. 

Spiritualism," W. M'Donald. — Spirit- 
ualism, 570. 

Sprunt, James. — Jehovah, 268. 

Spurgeon, C. H. — Law of God, 302. 

Stanley, Arthur P. — Baptism, 77, 
78 ; Sunday, 572, 580. 

Statement of Belief." — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 26. 

Statutes at Large." — Sunday Laws, 
582. 

Steamship Conquest of the World," 
F. A. Talbot. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 250. 

Stearns, Samuel. — Dark Day, 134. 

Stewardship and Missions," Charles 
A. Cook. — Tithing. 599, 600. 

Steele, Wilbur Fletcher. — Sunday, 
575. 

Stilingfleet, Edward. — Mass, 319; 
Tradition, 604. 

Stillman, William. — Sabbath, 509. 

Stockbridge, Frank Parker. — Blue 
Laws, 100. 

Stone, John S. — Sabbath, 497. 

Story, Joseph. — Religious Liberty, 
449. 

Story of Greece," J. A. Harrison. — 
Greece, 203. 

Story of Turkey (The)," Stanley 
Lane-Poole. — Eastern Question, 165. 

Story of the Byzantine Empire 
(The)," C. W. C. Oman. — Seven 
Trumpets, 551, 553. 

Story of the Church of Egypt 
(The)," E. L. Butcher. — Eastern 
Question, 156. 

Story of the Heavens," Sir Robert 
Ball. — Falling Stars, 180. 

Stowe, C. E. — Bible, 93. 

Strabo. — Babylon, 64 ; Rome, 461. 

Struggle of the Nations," Sir Gas- 
ton Maspero. — Eastern Question, 154. 

Stuart, Moses. — Year-Day Principle, 
631. 

Studies in Church History," Henry 
C. Lea. — Papacy, 361; Pope, 412. 

Studies in Oriental Social Life," H. 
Clay Trumbull. — Bridegroom, 104 ; 
Marriage, 312 ; Passover, 399. 
1 Studies in the Book of Daniel," 
Robert D. Wilson. — Babylon. 63. 

Studies in the Four Gospels," Wil- 
liam G. Moorehead. — Jesus Christ, 
280. 

Suetonius. — Advent, First, 6 ; Rome, 
467, 469 ; Seventy Weeks, 557, 558. 

SUMMA THEOLOGICA," ST. THOMAS 

Aquinas. — Persecution, 401. 
Summary of Biblical Antiquities 



(A)," John W. Nevin. — Calendar. 
104, 105 ; Law, Ceremonial, 299. 

Sunday : Legal Aspects of the First 
Day of the Week," James T. Ring- 
gold. — Sunday Laws, 583. 

Sunday School Times. — Laws, 307. 

Sure Word of Prophecy (The)." M. 
H. Brown. — Ten Kingdoms, 595. 

Swedish Church after the Refor- 
mation (The)," Norlin. — Sabbath, 
508. 

Syllabus for Old Testament Study," 
John R. Sampey. — Types, 619. 

Symbolism," John Adam Moehler. — 
Church, 115 ; Revelation, 455 ; Tra- 
dition, 602, 606. 



Table Talk or Familiar Discourse 
of Martin Luther (The)." — Ad- 
vent, Second, 13. 

Tacitus. — Advent, First, 5. 6 ; Jeru- 
salem. 271 ; Persecution, 400 ; Rome, 
469 ; Seventy Weeks, 557, 558. 

Tadg al Tavarikh." Saadeddin. — 
Seven Trumpets, 550. 

Taine, H. A. — Eastern Question. 155. 

Talbot, F. A. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 250. 

Tallentyre, S. G. — Earthquake, 151. 

Tanner, Joseph. — Antichrist, 28, 30 ; 
Seventy Weeks, 555, 556, 559, 562. 

Taylor, Charles Keene. — Health and 
Temperance, 225. 

Taylor, D. T. — Advent, Second, 12, 
14 ; Increase of Knowledge, 247 ; 
Kingdom of God, 299 ; New Earth. 
352, 353 ; Prophecy, 426. 

Taylor, Jeremy. — Sunday, 577. 

Taylor, W. B.— Sabbath, 497. 

Temple, Its Ministry and Services 
(The ) ." Edersheim. — Atonement, 
42 ; Calendar, 109 ; Feast of Taber- 
nacles, 185 ; Passover, 396 ; Sabbath. 
501 ; Sanctuary, 521 ; Showbread, 
564 ; Unleavened Bread, 621 ; Whited 
Sepulchers. 628. 

Temporal Power of the Vicar of 
Jesus Christ (The)," Henry Ed- 
ward Manning. — Mass, 317; Pa- 
pacy, 369. 377 ; Pope, 413 ; Rome, 
461 ; Temporal Power of the Pope. 
591. 

Ten Commandments (The)," Henry 
Sloane Coffin. — Sunday. 572. 

Ten Commandments (The)," R. W. 
Dale. — Sunday, 577. 

Ten Commandments (The)." Canon 
Eyton. — Sunday, 577. 

Ten Commandments (The)," G. Camp- 
bell Morgan. — Law of God. 302. 
303 : Sabbath, 504. 

Ten Commandments and the Lord's 
Prayer (The)," Ferdinand S. 
Schenck. — Law. Ceremonial. 299: 
Law of God. 302. 

Tennent, J. E. — Missions. 333. 

Tenney, Samuel. — Dark Day. 133. 

Tertullian. — Babylon. 66; Baptism 
75. 76, 78 : Fathers. 182 : Religious 
Liberty. 446 ; Tradition, 606. 

Thatcher, Oliver J. — Persecution. 
403. 

The Ministry of the Spirit.'* A. J. 
Gordon. — Church, 116. 



680 



INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



(A)," 
114: 



and 



'■' Theology Explained and Defended," 
Timothy Dwight. — Sabbath, 504. 

' Theologia," Dens. — Purgatory, 436, 
437. 

' Theological Compend," Amos Bin- 
ney.— Sabbath, 493 ; Sunday, 577 ; 
• Sunday Laws, 583. 

'Theological Dictionary 
Charles Buck. — Christmas. 
Law of God, 305 ; Sunday, 573 
Therapeutic Gazette. — Health 

Temperance, 233. 
Thiers, M. — Eastern Question, 159. 

' Third Salisbury Administration 
1895-1900 (The)," H. Whates.— 
Eastern Question, 166. 

' Thirty Years of Foreign Policy,' 

Thomas MacKnight. — Eastern Ques 

tion, 165. 

Thomas, W. H. Griffith. — Bible, 85 

Thompson, R. W. — Temporal Power 

of the Pope, 590. 

' Three Things." H. L. Hastings. — 
Justification, 294. 

' Threefold Test of Modern Spirit- 
ualism (A)," William R. Gordon. — 
Spiritualism, 570. 
Timbs, John. — Increase of Knowledge, 

250, 251. 
Times, London. — Bible, 90 ; Eastern 

Question, 163 ; Falling Stars, 180. 
Times, Daily (Los Angeles). — Papacy. 

380. 
Times, New York. — Sunday Laws, 583. 

'Tithing." C. Vernon Fox. — Tithing. 
600. 
Tranquillus (see Suetonius). 

' Translation of the New Testa- 
ment," Rotherham. — Nature of 
Man, 350. 

' Treatise on Christian Doctrine 
(A)," John Milton. — Sunday, 578. 

' Treatise on the Chronology of the 
Holy Scriptures (A)," Henry 
Browne. — Seventy Weeks, 555 ; So- 
journ, 567. 

' Treatise on the Constitutional 
Limitations," Thomas M. Cooley. — 
Persecution, 401. 
Trench, R. C. — Jesus Christ, 286. 
Trevor, George. — Papal Supremacy, 
392. 

1 Triglott Evangelist's Interlinear 
Translation of the Bible." — Bi- 
ble, 95. 
Triumphus, Augustinus (Augustus 
de Ancona). — Pope, 411, 414; Tem- 
poral Power of the Pope, 590. 
True Blue Laws of Connecticut and 
New Haven, and the False Blue 
Laws (The)." — Blue Laws. 101, 102. 
103. 
True Christ and the False Christ 
(The)," J. Garnier. — Babylon, 69. 
True Voice (The). — Mass, 315. 

Trumbull, H. Clay. — Bridegroom, 
104 ; Marriage, 312 ; Passover, 399. 

Trumbull, J. Hammond. — Blue Laws. 
101-103. 

Tuberculosis : Exhibition and Con- 
ferences," William Osler. — Health 
and Temperance, 232. 

Tuberville, Henry. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 516. 

Turgot. — Sabbath, 506. 



" Turkey," Edson L. Clark. — Eastern 
Question, 156. 

" Turkey and the Balkan States." 
Esther Singleton. — Seven Trump- 
ets, 552. 

" Turkey in Europe." Sir Charles 
Eliot. — Seven Trumpets, 553. 
Turney, H. G., M. D. — Health and 

Temperance, 224. 
Twining, Alexander C. — Falling 
Stars, 178. 

"Two Babylons (The)," Alexander 
Hislop. — Babylon, 68, 70, 71 ; Mass. 
315 ; Popery, 417 ; Purgatory, 437 : 
Revelation, Book of, 457 ; Seven 
Churches, 526 ; Spiritualism, 571 ; 
Sun Worship, 588. 

" Two Essays on Daniel's Prophetic 
Number of Two Thousand and 
Three Hundred Days, and on the 
Christian's Duty to Inquire into 
the Church's Deliverance," Arch- 
ibald Mason. — Twenty-three Hun- 
dred Days, 610. 

14 Two Later Visions of Daniel (The)," 
T. R. Birks. — Seven Trumpets, 553. 
Tyson, James, M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 233. 

' Undesigned Coincidences in the Old 
and New Testaments," John J. 
Blunt. — Sabbath, 498. 

' Union with Rome," Chr. Words- 
worth. — Babylon, 66, 68, 71, 72 
Revelation, Book of, 458. 
United States Bulletin, Official. — War 
623. 

'Universal History (A)," Jacques B 
Bossuet. — Seventy Weeks, 554, 560 
Upham, Edward. — Seven Trumpets 
544. 

' Uric Acid in the Causation of Dis 
ease," Alex. Haig. — Health and 
Temperance, 220, 230. 

Vacaudard. E. — Religious Liberty. 
446. 

Van Oosterzee, J. J. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 15. 
' Vatican Decrees in Their Bearing 
on Civil Allegiance (The)," W. E. 
Gladstone. — Church and State, 119. 

Vaughan, Cardinal. — Mass, 318. 

Verne, Jules. — Increase of Knowl- 
edge, 248. 

Villemain, M. Abel Francois. — 
Pope, 413. 

Vine t, Alexander. — Religious Lib- 
erty, 453. 

Vitringa. — Seven Churches. 522. 
'Voice from Sinai (The)," F. W. Far- 
rar. — Sabbath, Change of, 511. 

Voice of the Church. — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 18. 

Voice of Truth (The). — Advent, Sec- 
ond, 22. 
; Volcanoes and Earthquakes," Samuel 
Kneeland. — Earthquakes, 150. 

Wace and Buchheim. — Babylon, 68. 
Wace, Henry. — Church, 115. 
Waffle, A. E. — Sabbath. 497, 498. 
Wallace, Alfred Russel. — Increase 

of Knowledge, 250 ; Spiritualism. 

568, 569. 






INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 



681 



Walsh, William S. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 513. 

Waedlaw, Ralph. — Religious Liberty, 
453 ; Sabbath, 493, 495. 

Washburn, George. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 167. 

Watchman and Examiner. — Increase 
of Knowledge, 253. 

Watson, Richaed. — Sabbath, 493. 

Watland, Francis. — Sabbath, 496, 
498. 

Webstee, Daniel. — Bible, 92. 

Webstee, F. S. — Faith, 172. 

Webstee, Hutton. — Sabbath, Change 
of, 513; Sunday, 580. 

Webstee, Noah. — Dark Day, 133, 134. 
' Weighed and Wanting," Dwight L. 
Moody. — Law of God, 302, 303, 304, 
306. 

Wesley, Chaeles. — Denominations, 
144. 

Wesley, John. — Advent, Second, 10, 
25 ; Baptism, 77 ; Denominations, 142, 
144 ; Health and Temperance, 220 ; 
Increase of Knowledge, 246 ; Jesus 
Christ, 288; Law of God, 304, 305; 
Seven Churches, 529. 

Westcott, B. F. — Antichrist, 28. 
' Westeen Europe in the Fifth Cen- 
tuey," E. A. Fbeeman. — Rome, 474. 

Western Watchman (The). — Heretics, 
243 ; Mass, 315 ; Persecution, 402. 

Westminstee Confession." — Anti- 
christ, 34. 

W estminster Review, London. — 
French Revolution, 195. 

Whaeey, Rev. James. — Advent, First, 
5. 

Wharton, Reab-Admieal. — Missions, 
334. 

What Shall I Eat?" F. X. Gou- 
eaud. — Health and Temperance, 231. 

What We Owe, and the Results of 
Paying It." — Tithing, 600. 

Whates, H. — Eastern Question, 166. 

When Raileoads Webe New," C. F. 
Caeteb. — Increase of Knowledge, 
251. 

Whiston, William. — Eastern Ques- 
tion, 166, 167 ; Jerusalem, 273 ; Je- 
sus Christ, 289 ; Seven Trumpets, 536, 
541 ; Seventy Weeks, 559 ; Two Wit- 
nesses, 613. 

White, Edwaed. — Justification, 291- 
294 ; Nature of Man, 344, 345. 

White, John Williams. — Sunday, 
576. 

White, R. L., M. D. — Health and 
Temperance, 222. 

Whiton, John W. — Dark Day, 133. 

Whittiee, John G. — Dark Day, 130, 
181. 

Why Is Chbistianity Tbue?" E. Y. 
Mullins. — Faith, 175. 

Wiesman, Caedinal. — Bible, 87. 

Wiley, H. W. — Health and Temper- 
ance, 218, 220, 228, 229. 

Will the Old Book Stand?" H. L. 
Hastings. — Bible, 79, 82, 93. 96, 97. 

Williams, Isaac. — Sunday, 577. 

Williams, Roger. — Religious Liberty, 
448 ; Sabbath, 508. 

Williams, Samuel. — Dark Day, 129. 



Willison, J. W. — Two Witnesses, 613. 
Williston, Seth. — Sabbath, 502. 
Wilson, Daniel. — Sabbath, 495. 
Wilson. Woodeow. — Bible, 92, 94. 
Wincklee, Hugo. — Babylon, 53, 65. 
' Wondebful Centuey (The)," Alfbed 
Russel Wallace. — Increase of 
Knowledge, 250. 
1 Wondebful Inventions," John Timbs. 

— Increase of Knowledge, 250, 251. 
Woodhouse, J. C. — Seven Seals, 530- 

533. 

Woedswoeth, Cheistophee. — Anti- 
christ, 29 ; Babylon, 66, 68, 71, 72 ; 
Bible, 85, 88 ; Heretics, 239 ; Infalli- 
bility, 259 ; Pope, 414 ; Revelation, 
Book of. 458 : Tradition, 606. 

Woeks, Peose," John Milton. — Ref- 
ormation, The, 444 ; Sunday, 578. 

Woeks, Verse and Peose, John Mil- 
ton." — Tradition, 604. 

Woeks of Jonathan Edwaeds (The)." 

— Law of God, 304. • 
Woeks of Laednee." — Seventy Weeks, 

557. 
Woeks of Luthee." — Baptism. 77. 
Woeks of Robeet Hall, A. M. (The)." 

— Religious Liberty, 448. 

Woeks of Tacitus (The)." — Ad- 
vent, First, 6 ; Jerusalem, 271 ; Seven 
Churches, 527 ; Seventy Weeks, 557, 
558. 

Woeks of Wesley." — Law of God, 
304. 

Woeks of William Chillingwoeth." 

— Protestants, 427. 

Woeks of the Hon. Robert Boyle 

(The)." — Bible, 93. 
World Almanac and Encyclopedia 

(The)." — Federation, 186: Health 

and Temperance, 217 ; Signs of the 

Times, 565. 
Woeld Suevey." — Missions, 339, 340, 

341, 342, 343. 
Wobld War (The)," A. G. Daniells. 

— War, 624. 

Weight, Chaeles H. H. — Antichrist. 
31 ; Babylon, 60, 62 ; Genesis, 202 ; 
Greece, 206 ; Increase of Knowledge, 
246 ; Rome, 460. 

Weight, G. Feedebick. — Bible, 97. 

Weitings of James Madison." — Re- 
ligious Liberty, 451. 

Wyatt, Haeold F. — Armageddon. 39. 

Wylie, J. A. — Antichrist, 27, 28 
Heretics, 240; Papacy, 361, 373 
Popery, 416 ; Protestantism, 428 
Reformation, The, 441 ; Seven Church- 
es, 528. 



Xenophon. — Babylon, 58, 61 ; Medo- 
Persia, 327. 

Young, Chaeles A. — Falling Stars. 

179. 
Youth's Instructor. — Health and 

Temperance, 221. 



Zedtwitz, Baroness von. — Church of 

Rome, 121. 
Zwingli. — Papacy, 376. 



GENERAL INDEX 



Abomination of desolation, 273, 317, 318. 

Abraham, 82, 599. 

Abyssinia, 507. 

Adam, last, 278. 

Adonis, 46. 

Adrian I, 589, 598. 

Adrian VI, 415. 

Advent Review, 23. 

Advent Shield, 19. 

Adventist Conference, 459. 

Adventists, First-day 23, 24. 

Adventists, Seventh-day, 23-25, 513, 600. 

^Egeadae, 205. 

Africa, 334. 

Agapetus, 370. 

Agreement of Five Powers, 160. 

Ahasuerus, 40, 330. 

Alani, 473. 

Alaric, 70, 471, 478, 537, 538. 

Albigenses, 405. 

Alcasar, 31. 

Alexander III, 239. 

Alexander IV, 264, 402. 

Alexander VI, 366, 374, 376. 

Alexander the Great, 5, 48, 49, 86, 203- 

208, 212, 427, 434, 435, 466. 
Allegory, 395. 
Allemanni, 472, 474, 594. 
Ameer Ali, 548. 

America, Philadelphian church in, 530. 
American Bible Society, 82. 
American Board of Commissioners for 

Foreign Missions, 336. 
American Catholic Quarterly Review, 

388. 
American Journal of Science and Arts, 

176. 
American Review of Revieics, 566, 626. 
Anabaptists, 189. 
Anabaptists, Confession of, 447. 
Angelo, Michael, 15. 
Angelus, 520. 
Anglo-Saxons, 474, 475. 
Anicetus, 153. 
Anshan, 325-327. 
Antichrist, 12, 65, 99, 307. 317, 363, 

376, 381, 384, 444, 473, 527, 529, 534, 

597, 611, 612. 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 127, 210, 213, 

215. 
Apostles' Creed, 10, 140, 141, 147. 
Appian of Alexandria, 204, 206, 212, 

466. 
Arabians, 546, 547. 
Arbela. Battle of, 206, 207, 331. 
Arch of Titus, 66. 
Areas untouched, 342. 
Arians, 41, 385, 477, 479, 486, 488, 490. 
Arianism, 444, 486, 488, 490. 
Arius, 37, 241. 
Armenians, 601. 
Armenianism, 141, 142. 
Artaxerxes, decree of, 554. 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, 39, 331. 



Artaxerxes, seventh year of, 331, 435, 

554. 
A " right conscience," 452. 
Ascension robes, 458. 
Assurbani-pal, 47. 
Assyria, 48, 324. 
Astyages, 48, 324, 325. 
Attila, 471, 477, 486, 535, 540, 590. 
Athanasian Creed, 11, 140, 141. 
Atonement, 443, 521. 
Atonement, day of, 555, 570. 
Augsburg Confession, 79, 115, 141. 
August 11, 1840, 162, 163. 
Augustine, 66, 120, 262. 
Augustus Caesar, 5. 
Auricular confession, 123. 
Ave Maria, 520. 
Avignon, 374, 376, 377. 
Azazel, 41, 43. 

Baal, 588. 

Baal-peor, 46, 571. 

Baal-zephon, 170. 

Babili, 60. 

Babilu, 65. 

Babylon, 207, 327, 426. 

" Babylon the Great," 408. 

Babylon, modern, 613. 

Babylonish captivity, 374. 

Bagdad, 549. 

Balaam, 526. 

Bamfield, Francis, 508. 

Baptism, 297, 429. 

Baptism, infant, 577, 605. 

Baptist, 136. 

"Bar," 315. 

Bavarians, 476. 

Basel, Saint, 86. 

Bastile, 196. 

Battle of the Pyramids, 154. 

Bel, 46. 

Belisarius, 370, 385. 387, 478, 480, 481. 

Belshazzar, 60-63, 608. 

Benedict IX, 371. 

Benedict XII, 608. 

Benedict XIII, 372. 

Benedict XV, 379. 

Berthier, General, 196, 392, 393. 

Bible, 428. 

" The Bible, the Bible only," 427. 

Bible Record, 430. 

Bible Burned, 614. 

Bible Societies, 84, 87, 255, 616. 

Bible translations, 76. 

Birs Nimrud, 49. 

Bishop of Rome, 30, 35, 68, 149, 367, 

368, 380. 
Blasphemy, 102, 103. 
Book of Mormon, 145. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, 391. 
Boniface VIII, 114, 257, 366. 373, 374, 

376, 402, 404, 608. 
Boniface IX, 372. 
Borgias, 374-376. 



682 



GENERAL INDEX 



683 



Boston Independent Chronicle, 132, 134. 
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 

227. 
Bottomless pit, 613, 614. 
" Bread of the Presence," 563. 
British and Foreign Bible Society, 82, 

616. 
Buddha, 571. 
Bulls of popes, 33, 114. 
Burgundians, 476, 594. 

Caesar, Julius, 462, 466. 

Callixtus III, 264, 374. 

Calvary, 318. 

Cannon, 550. 

Canon, 602. 

Canon, Hebrew, 97. 

Canon, Ptolmey's, 432, 435. 

Captivity, seventy years', 563. 

Carey, William, 254, 334. 

Cassander, 209. 

Catholic Citizen, 437. 

Catholic Mirror, 517. 

Catholic World, 258, 260. 

Cestius, 272, 273, 398. 

Chaldean language in Bible, 95. 

Chaldean Magi, 72. 

Chalmers, James, 338. 

Charlemagne, 486-488, 589, 590. 

Charles II, 508, 511, 582. 

Charles V, 265, 405; 

Charles IX, 321, 323, 366. 

Child marriage, 341. 

Children preaching, 19. 

Christian Statesman, 254, 587. 

Christianity, 284, 377. 

Church and state, 198, 377, 446, 470, 
581. 

Churchill, Winston, 168. 

Christian Science, 138. 

Chronicle (Protestant Episcopal), 587. 

Church of England, 140. 606. 

Church Missionary Revieiv, 39. 

Circumcision, 455, 503, 604. 

Civilta Catholica, 267. 

Clemens, Alexandrinus, 182. 

Clement of Alexandria, 113. 

Clement IV, 264, 402. 

Clement VII, 372. 

Clementine Letters, 366. 

Cleopatra, 461. 

Clovis, 474, 478. 

" Closed " shop, 111. 

Coligny, 320. 

Columbus, Christopher, 247. 

Concordat. 199, 393. 

Congregation of the Index, 200, 201. 

Congregational Church, 140. 

Congregationalist and Advance, 588. 

Conscience, rights of, 450. 

Constable, Henry, 352. 

Constantine, 35, 37, 116, 124, 241, 354, 
357, 410, 506. 

Constantine's law, 579-581. 

Constantinople, 157, 166, 380, 384, 542, 
550 552 

Constitution of the United States, 583. 

Constitution of the United States, Ar- 
ticle I, 449. 

Consulship abolished, 542. 

Contemporary Review, 39. 

Continent (Presbyterian), 587. 

Continual sacrifice, 316. 

Converted Catholic, 316. 

Copernican theory, 200. 

Corday, Charlotte, 197. 



' Corrector of Heretics," 383. 

Council of Carthage, 456. 

Council of Constance, 238, 239. 

Council of Florence, 299. 

Council of Laodicea, 511, 515. 

Council of Nice, 153, 154. 

Council of Nicaea, 515. 

Council of Sardica, 367. 

Council of Trent, 122, 170, 238. 294, 

314, 315, 323, 409, 436, 517, 519, 602, 

603, 607. 
Councils, 149. 
Covenant, new, 23. 
Crcesus, 324, 326, 327. 
Crosier, O. R. L., 22. 
Cross, 81, 288, 443. 
Crucifixion, 274, 469, 526. 
Cumberland Presbyterian, 568. 
Current History, 168, 256, 380, 623, 626 
Current Opinion, 111, 379. 
Cyrus, 53, 56-62, 325-329. 
Cyaxares, 40, 324. 

Daily Times (Los Angeles), 380. 

Daniel, 61, 190, 317, 363. 425, 453, 

460, 462, 554, 559, 608, 609. 
Damasus, 355. 
Darius Hystaspes, 329. 
Darius the Mede, 53. 
Dark Ages, 527. 
David, 7. 

Day of atonement, 185, 187. 
Day, divisions of, 104. 
Day, length of, 108. 
Day, " midnight to midnight," 105. 
Day, seventh, 107. 
Days, names of, 105. 
Decalogue, 186, 187, 300, 302, 306. 
Dent, Arthur, 612. 
"Dies solis," 572, 580. 
Diet, 427. 

Diet of Spires, 427, 440. 
Diocletian, 35. 
Disciples of Christ, 137. 
" Dividing the land," 195. 
Domitian, 456. 
Donatist, 403. 
Duke of Alva, 405. 

Earthquake, 271. 

Easter, 367. 

Edict of Milan, 368. 

Edict of Nantes, 245, 405, 406. 

Egypt, sojourn in, 566. 

El, 285. 

Elagabalus, 512. 

Elam, 325, 326. 

Electric telegraph, 252. 

English revolution, 406. 

Enoch, book of, 45. 

Epiphany, 114. 

Era of Nabonassar, 39. 

Erfurt, 438, 439. 

Esdraelon, 38. 

Essex Antiquarian, 136. 

Eugenius IV, 115. 

Everybody's Magazine, 39. 

Examiner, New York, 514. 

" Ex-Cathedra," 258. 

Ezra, 555. 

Fable, 395. 
Faith, 75, 301. 429. 
Famine, 270, 273. 
Fathers, 605. 



684 



GENERAL INDEX 



Feast of Tabernacles, 42, 186, 187, 215, 

395. 
Feast of Unleavened Bread, 395, 397. 
Feast of Weeks, 395. 
Federation of Catholic Societies. 186. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 265-267. 
Foot-washing, 605, 607. 
Forbidden lands, 340. 
" Forever." 351. 
Forgeries, 366, 367. 
Fortnightly Review, 39, 154. 
Four beasts of Daniel 7, 426. 
Fourth kingdom, 460. 
Fox sisters, 568. 

France, 159, 374, 379. 388. 611-613, 616. 
Franks, 476, 594, 596. 
French Revolution, 17, 245, 267, 277, 

384, 388, 389, 390. 
French Revolution, calendar of, 110. 
Fulton, Robert, 249. 

Galerius, 524. 

Gap, Synod of, 30, 31. 

Gehenna, 350, 351. 

Gelasius, 366,381. 

Gemera, 601. 

Genghis Khan, 549. 

Genseric, 471, 490, 535, 538, 539, 590. 

Gepidae, 477. 

Gnostics, 34. 

Goat, symbol of Greece, 205. 

Gobel, 191. 

Gobryas, 57, 60. 

God of Fortresses. 193. 

Golden candlestick, 66. 

Gomates (Smerdis), 72, 329. 

Good works, 428. 

Goths, 370, 385, 386, 477, 478, 481, 536. 

Granicus, battle of, 206. 

Great image, 426, 436. 

Greece, 86. 

Gregory I (the Great), 89, 91, 99, 317, 

318 
Gregory III, 486, 487. 
Gregory V, 370. 
Gregory VII, 243, 257. 356, 361, 362, 

368, 384, 412, 413, 486. 506, 543, 598. 
Gregory IX, 237, 242, 353, 409. 
Gregory XI, 373. 
Gregory XIII, 109, 110, 321-323. 
Gregory XVI, 84, 170, 201. 
Gregory Nazianzen, 470, 532. 
Gregorian calendar, 109. 
Guillotine, 615. 

Habakkuk, 293. 

Hades, 351. 

Hallel, 398. 

Handwriting on the wall, 62. 

Hanging gardens, 49, 51, 61. 

Hannibal, 464. 

" Head of all the churches," 383, 385. 

Hearst's Magazine, 565. 

Heathendom, 342. 

Heliocentric theory, 200. 

Hell, 351. 

Henry IV of Frace, 30. 

Henry IV of Germany, 413. 

Henry VIII, 237. 

Henry, Patrick, 91, 451. 

Herald, Boston, 627. 

" Here I stand, I can do no other," 440. 

Heresy, 101, 403. 

Heretics, 120, 267, 401. 408. 415. 

Heretics, keeping faith with, 322, 403. 



Herod, 6, 561. 

Heruli, 483, 484. 

Hezekiah, 268. 

Hilary of Poitiers. 446. 

Hildebrand, 373, 376. 

Hillel, 601. 

History, 234, 425. 

Homiletic Review, 430. 

Honorius, heresy of, 259. 

Horns as symbols, 326. 

Host, 315. 

Huguenots, 239, 320, 321, 323, 402, 405, 

406. 
Hungary, 486. 
Huns, 471, 485, 594. 
Huss, John, 238. 
Hydrotherapy, 232, 233. 
Hypatia, 356. 

Idolatry, 319, 373, 430, 553. 

I. H. S., 315. 

Illiteracy, 340. 

Images, 519, 553. 

Immortality, 344-346. 

Incarnation, 345, 412. 

Independent, The, 26, 168. 

Indulgences, 439. 

Infallibility, 115, 201, 309, 394, 449. 

Infant baptism, 77-79, 149. 

Inglis, Sir Robert, 252. 

Innocent III, 257, 264, 265. 361, 373, 

374, 403, 404, 590. 
Innocent IV, 264, 402. 
Innocent VIII, 266. 
Inquisition, 404, 617. 
Inscription on the cross, 81. 
Inspiration, 81. 
Interdict. 389. 
Iron Monarchy, The, 462. 
Isadorian Decretals, 367. 
Isaiah. 328. 
Italy, 379. 
Ivanovitch, M. R., 154. 

James, 294. 

James II, 406. 

Jerusalem, 18, 70, 215, 457. 

Jesuits, 600. 

Jesus Christ, union with, 115. 

Jews, 6, 18, 45, 66, 104, 105, 268-275, 
300, 306. 

Jews, national home of, 168. 

Jews, return to Jerusalem, 328. 

Jezebel, 527, 528. 

Joan of Arc, 378. 

Joan, Pope, 415. 

John II, 384. 

John XII, 371. 

John XXII, 520. 

John the Baptist, 556. 

Johnson, Richard M., 584. 

Joseph II. 407, 600. 

Josiah, King, 40. 

Journal of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation, 227, 233. 

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231, 
234. 

Judaism, 445. 

Judas Maccabeus, 289, 290. 

Judgment day, 135. 

Judson, Adoniram, 336. 

Julian, 355. 

Justification, 429, 445. 

Justinian, 190, 234, 242. 263, 370, 381, 
382, 385, 388, 478, 479, 480, 598. 

Justinian's Code, 383. 



GENERAL INDEX 



685 



Keeping faith with heretics, 239, 240. 
Kentucky's remonstrance, 585. 
Kept God's commandments, 405. 
"Kill them all," 404. 
King of the North, 213. 
King of the South, 213. 
Kingdom, 7. 
Kismet, 167. 
Koran, 547. 

Lateran Council, 123, 264, 239. 

Latimer, 12. 

Latria, 315, 316. 

Law abolished. 304. 

Law, end of, 303. 

Law, free from, 303. 

" Lay by him in store," 574. 

Leap year, 108, 109, 110. 

Leo I, 262, 358, 366, 403. 

Leo X, 439. 

Leo XII, 71, 84. 

Leo XIII, 83, 235, 241, 260, 410. 

Liberty of conscience, 447. 

Liberty of the press, 447. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 92, 219. 

Lisbon earthquake, 150, 151. 

Literary Digest, 39, 229, 252, 623. 

Liutprand, 487. 

" Living soul," 346. 

Livingstone, David, 332, 336, 337. 

Liverpool Albion, 249. 

Llorente, 268, 405. 

Locusts, 543, 545. 

Lombards, 368, 483, 486-488, 588, 589, 

598. 
London Missionary Society, 335, 336, 

338. 
London Times, 163, 180. 
Lord's day, 101, 511, 572, 577. 
Louis XIV, 366. 
Louis XVI, 196, 197. 
Loyola, 277, 278. 
Luther, Martin, 13, 32, 68, 77, 79, 141, 

171, 237, 278, 301, 319, 376, 430, 

431, 439, 440, 443, 444, 496, 528, 605. 
Lycanthropy, 56. 
Lysimachus, 209. 

Macedonian Empire, 331. 

Madonna, 358. 

Magus, Simon, 270. 

Mahomet, 544, 545, 549, 550. 

Man of sin, 30-32, 34, 307-311, 473. 

Manchester (England) Guardian, 180. 

Mandate over Palestine, 168. 

'•Man of sin," 426, 473. 

Mansfield, Lord, 452. 

Marathon, 329. 

Marcomanni, 488. 

Margaret, Queen, 506. 

Maria Theresa, 600. 

Marie Antoinette, 197. 

Mariolatry. 519. 

Martel, Charles, 486, 487. 

Mass 359 443 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 319, 390. 

Massacres, 408. 

Matthew 28 : 1, 509. 

Matthias of Janow, 33. 

Maundy-Thursday, 189. 

Mediator, 430. 

Mediator, one only, 445. 

Mediation, 419, 420, 428. 

Mediation of Pope, 411. 

Medical Magazine, 224. 

Medical Record, 228. 



Medical Times, 224. 

Megiddo, 38. 

Mehemet Ali, 156, 158, 160-165. 

Melanchthon, 79, 141, 444. 

Melchizedek, 281, 599. 

Mennonites, 189. 

Merodach, 46. 

Messiah, 138, 279, 280, 283. 

Messianic titles, 280. 

Methodist Societies, 143. 

Methodism and religious liberty, 448. 

Metropolitan Magazine, 569, 570. 

Middle Ages, 527. 

Midnight Cry, 20, 21, 24, 459. 

Militz, 33. 

Millennium, 11, 13, 14, 17, 19. 

Mishna, 41, 601. 

Missions, 254. 

Missionary Review of the World, 333. 

Missionary Society of 1793, 334. 

Moffat, Robert, 336. 

Mohammed, 544-546. 

Moniteur, 617. 

Monkery, 519, 532. 

Monothelism, 181. 

Month, beginning of, 109. 

Month, length of, 108. 

Months, Old Testament, 108. 

Moravian Brethren, 339. 

Moravians, 189. 

Morrison, Robert, 335. 

Mosaic law, 301. 

Moses, 7. 

Moses, Code of, 101. 

Morning Watch, 246. 

" Mother of abominations," 71. 

Mother of God, 520. 

" Mystery of iniquity," 69, 431. 

Nabonassar, era of, 432, 434, 435. 

Nabonidus, 58, 609. 

Nabopolassar, 40, 47, 48, 55. 

Nabulassar, 53. 

Napoleon, 154, 155, 156, 194-196, 199, 
267, 288, 364, 390, 391, 393. 

Napoleon, Louis, 394. 

Narses, 478, 381, 482. 

Nativity, 112. 

Nebuchadnezzar, 40, 47, 49, 51-56, 324, 
460. 

Nebuchadrezzar, 48, 54. 

Nehemiah, 555. 

Nero, 270, 398, 400, 402, 456. 

Netherlands, 402. 

New Hampshire Patriot and State Ga- 
zette, 111. 

New moons, 503, 504. 

New Rome, 536. 

New Style of calendar, 109, 110. 

New Theology, 16. 

New York Courier and Inquirer, 250. 

New York Herald, 251. 

New York Journal, 221. 

New York Journal of Commerce, 177. 

New York Medical Journal, 233, 234. 

New York Times, 583. 

Nicaea, Council of, 41. 

Nicanor, 289. 

Nicene Creed, 10, 141. 

Nicolas I, 367. 

Nicolas IV, 402. 

Night, divisions of, 104. 

Nimrod, 68. 

" Nineteenth Century and After," 39, 
167, 251, 334. 

Nineveh, 40, 290, 324. 



686 



GENERAL. INDEX 



" None but Christ," 429. 

Northivestern Lancet, 232. 

" Not to his [Alexander's! posterity," 

208. 
Note of Five Powers, 157. 

Oaths, 239. 

Odoacer, 472, 478, 484, 485. 541, 595 

Old Countryman, The, 178. 

" Old Red Dragon," 444. 

Old Testament, chronological order of 

books in, 98. 
Old Testament, divisions of, 98. 
"On this Rock," 420. 
" Open " shop, 111. 
Ordinances, handwriting of, 305. 
Origen, 76, 113, 182. 
Osiris, 314. 
Othman, 548. 
Otto IV, 590. 
Ottoman Empire, 156, 158, 159, 161, 

165-167. 
"Our Lord God the Pope," 411. 
Outlook, The, 458. 

Pagan festivals, 512. 

Paganism, 36, 124, 416, 437, 512. 

Paganism, fall of, 366. 

Paleologus, John V or VI, 551. 

Paleologus, John VI or VII, 551. 

Palestine, 213, 214. 

Pallium, 372. 

Palmerston, Viscount, 158, 159. 

Papacy, 37, 68, 308. 311. 

Papacy, noon of, 373. 

Papal supremacy, 532. 

Papal yoke, 532. 

Passover, 152, 153, 186, 187, 367, 503, 

611. 
Paul III, 263, 278. 
Paul IV, 263. 
Paul V, 170. 

Pelagius. 311, 382, 387, 388. 
Pella, 273. 
Pellagra, 234. 
Pentateuch, 98. 

Pentecost. 186. 187, 454, 620, 621. 
Pepin, 364, 486, 487. 
Pergamos, 72. 
Persecution, 524. 

Persecution, end of, 267, 406, 407. 
Peter of Aragon, 402. 
Pharaoh Hophra, 54. 
Philip of Macedonia. 464. 
Philip II of Spain, 402. 
Phocas, 384. 

Pilate, Pontius, 469. 558. 
Pilate's staircase, 439. 
Pilgrimage festivals, 187. 
Pilot cable, 256. 
Pipin, 588. 
Pius IV, 148. 263. 
Pius V, 263. 320, 321. 
Pius VI. 196, 391, 392, 407, 616. 
Pius VII. 87, 393. 
Pius VIII, 84. 
Pius IX, 84, 116, 201, 260, 394, 412, 

589. 
Pius X, 515. 
Plagues of Egypt. 168. 
Pliny, letter of, 448. 
Polygamy, 51. 
Pompey, 461, 466. 
Pontifex Maximus. 354-357. 360. 
Pope. 24. 29. 32, 70, 118, 201, 236, 309, 

311, 377, 412, 419, 527, 529, 589. 



Popery, 308, 360. 

Popular Science Monthly, 228, 229 

Portland Evening Advertiser, 179. 

Practitioner, 232. 

Presbyterian Church, 300. 

Presbyterianism. 141. 

Presbytery of Hanover, 449. 

Priest, 313, 314, 522. 

Priest, another Christ, 418. 

Priest. " creator of his Creator," 419. 

Priesthood, 7, 147. 

Priesthood, Roman, 417. 

Priest-King, 308. 

Priests called gods, 417. 

Priests, mediators, 419. 

Primacy, 384, 409, 421. 

Primacy of Peter, 236. 

Printing press, 255. 

Private judgment, 260. 

Prohibition Amendment, 217. 

Prophecy, 444. 

Protest of Princes, 89, 440, 441, 452. 

Protestant Magazine, 429. 

Protestants, 90, 120, 121, 236, 237, 239, 

242, 296, 321, 407, 408, 440, 441, 605, 

607. 
Protestants, religion of, 90. 
Protestantism, 319. 321, 413, 428, 528. 
Preston, Rachel, 24. 
Psychological clinic, 225. 
Ptolemy, 209, 210. 
Ptolemies, 210-214. 
Puritans. 100. 113. 
Pydna, 464. 465. 
Pydna, battle of, 436. 

Quadi, 489. 

Quakers, 102, 

Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 223. 

Quarterly Journal of Prophecy, 567. 

Queen Alexandra, 39. 

Quirinus, census of, 468. 

Rabsaris, 53. 

Railways, 251. 

Raiser of taxes, 467. 

Ram, Hebrew word for, 325. 

Rarotonga, 337. 

Rationalism, 428. 

Ravenna, 471, 480, 487, 488. 

Ravenna, Exarchate of, 482, 588, 590, 

598. 
Real presence, 315, 316. 
Reason, worship of, 191, 197. 
Reformers, 295. 
Reformation, 70, 295. 296. 317, 376, 377, 

405. 431. 528. 533. 
Reformation defined. 443. 
Religion abolished, 390. 
Religions, principal, 342. 
Resurrection, 12. 
Review and Herald, 20. 
Rifat Bey, 163, 164. 
" Robbers of the world," 465. 
Robespierre. 192, 197. 198. 
Robes, ascension. 458. 
Robinson. John. 528. 
Roman Canon Law, 411. 
Roman Catholics, union with, 586. 587. 
Roman enrolment. 468. 
Roman Pontiff. 309, 310. 
Romanism, 360. 363. 
Rome, 66. 69. 386, 394. 
Rome. Church of, 32. 
" Rome's challenge," 516. 



GENERAL INDEX 



687 



Rule of faith, 89, 144, 146, 147, 428, 

430. 490, 605, 606. 
Russell, Lord John, 552. 
Russellism, 144. 

Sabbath, 23. 105, 106, 191, 606. 

Sabbath, Babylonian, 107. 

Sabbath, change of, 77, 148. 

Sabbath, commencement of, 501. 

Sabbath, " sunset to sunset," 102, 104. 

Sabbath and Christ. 504. 

Sacraments, 148, 296, 430, 443. 

Sacred College, 111. 

Sacrifice, 313, 314. 561. 

Safe conducts, 238, 240. 

St. Augustine, 403. 

Salt, 125. 

Salvation. 98. 

Samaritans, 399. 

Sanctuary, heavenly, 22, 420. 

Saracens, 543-547. 

Satan, 45, 46. 

Saturday Evening Post, 564. 

Saturnalia, 112. 

Saxons, 489. 

Scapegoat. 46. 

Schism. 311, 372. 

Schmalkald Articles, 141. 

" Science and Health," 138, 139. 

" Scourge of God," 541. 

Seleucus Nicator, 49. 209. 

Selucidse, 210, 211, 215. 

Senate extinguished, 543. 

Sennacherib, 268. 

Septuagint, 5, 75, 211. 

Sermon on the Mount, 304. 

Seven churches, 457. 

Seventh month, 185. 

Seventy weeks. 608. 609, 610, 629. 

" Shadow of the things to come," 503, 

521. 
Shammai, 601. 
Sheol, 350. 
Shinar, 47. 
Showbread, 66. 
Silence in heaven, 534. 
Silverius, 297, 370, 387. 
Simony, 372. 
Sin, 458. 

Sistine Chapel, 322, 391. 
Sixtus IV. 265, 266. 
Sixtus VIII, 263. 
Smerdis (Gomates), 72, 329. 
Son of man, 280 
Sopherim, 601. 
Sorcery. 266. 

Southern Practitioner and Review, 230. 
Spalatin, 440. 
Spanish Inquisition, 402. 
Spires, Diet of, 89. 
Spirit of prophecy, 423. 
" Spirits in prison." 349. 
States-General. 196. 453. 
Steamships, 249, 250. 
Stephen II, 486. 589. 598. 
Stephen, martyrdom of, 562. 
Strikes, 564. 
Suevi. 489. 
Sun dial, 104. 
Sun. symbol of, 314. 
Sun worship, 512, 513. 
Sunday, 509. 510. 511. 513. 
Sunday Mails, House Report on, 584. 
Sunday Mails. Senate Report on, 584. 
Sunday School Times, 307. 
Supremacy, papa), 362. 



Sylvester II, 371. 
Symmachus, 355, 381. 
Syndicalism, 565. 

Tabernacle, 619. 

Tablets, 58. 

Tamid, 397. 

Tanganyika, Lake, 338. 

Talmud, 41, 276, 398, 601. 

Telephony, 253. 

Temple, 274, 275. 

Temple, destruction of, 269. 

Temporal power, 311. 

" Ten days," 524. 

Ten horns, 593. 

Ten persecutions, 400, 401. 

Testament, 125. 

Tetzel, 439. 

Theocracy, 301, 453. 

Theodoric, 356, 381, 447, 473, 477, 479, 

480. 
Theodosius, 356-358. 471. 
Theodosius, Code of, 354, 582. 
Theosophists, 571. 
Therapeutic Gazette, 233. 
Thermopylae, 329. 
Theudus, 270. 
" The third day," 454. 
Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, 516. 
Thirty-Nine Articles (Article VII). 90, 

140-142. 
Thomas de Torquemada, 266. 
Thomas's Massachusetts Spy, 132. 
Three chapters, 297. 
Three and a half years, 615. 
Tiara, 608. 

Tiberius, 469, 527, 557, 558. 
Titles abolished, 618. 
Titus, 272, 275, 276. 
Toleration, 407, 446, 452, 533. 
Totila, 478, 482. 
Tradition, 148. 

Transubstantiation, 416, 419. 
Traske, John, 508. 
Treaty of Adrianople, 156. 
Treaty of 1841, 165. 
Treaty of London, 156. 
Treaty of Ryswick, 406. 
Treaty of Tolentino, 390. 391. 
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 157. 
Trinity, 102. 
Troas. meeting at, 573. 
True One, 286. 
True Voice, 315. 
Tuberculosis, 232. 
Turks, 529, 548. 549. 552. 
Twelve hundred and sixty years, 310, 

384. 392, 393. 614. 
Twenty-three hundred days, 22, 23, 455. 
Two evenings, 397. 
Types, 281. 

Ulfilas, 477. 
Ultramontanism, 201. 
"Universal Bishop," 99, 384. 
Ur of the Chaldees, 82. 
Urban II. 257. 
Urban VI, 372. 
Urban VIII, 111. 



Vandals, 386, 480, 539. 
Vatican, 36, 70, 378-380. 
Vatican Council, 116. 201, 258. 412. 
Vaudois (Waldenses) 29. 



688 



GENERAL. INDEX 



Vicar of Christ, 28, 364, 369, 381, 409, 

591. 
Victor, 153, 367. 
Victor Emmanuel, 394. 
Victory, altar of, 355-357. 
Victorinus, 66. 

Vigilius, 297, 370, 382, 387. 
Virgin Mary, 36, 429. 
Voice of Truth, 22. 
Voltaire, 407. 

Wafer, 314. 

Waldenses, 31. 

Washington, George, 450. 

Washington Post, 626. 

Watchman and Examiner, 253. 

Week, 106. 

Week, Babylonian, 107. 

Week, Egyptian, 107. 

Week at Rome, 107. 

Western Watchman, 243, 402. 

Westminster Confession, 33, 88, 94, 146. 



Westminster Review, 195. 
Wheat, analysis of, 230. 
White, Mrs. E. G., 25. 
William of Orange, 406. 
Williams, John, 337. 
Wireless telephone, 255. 
Witigis, 386. 
Wittenberg, 33. 
Wizards. 266. 
Wolff, 18. 

Women, status of, 341. 
World Almanac, 186, 565. 
Worship of saints, 520. 
Wycliffe, 33. 

Xerxes, 49, 50, 325, 329, 330. 
" Ye shall not surely die," 569. 

Zachary, 588. 
Zambesi, 338. 
Zinzendorf, Count, 338. 
Zurich, Articles of, 441. 






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